Extended virulence genotype of pathogenic Escherichia coli isolates carrying the afa-8 operon: evidence of similarities between isolates from humans and animals with extraintestinal infections

Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli of the phylogroups A and C in dairy calves with meningitis and septicemia

Escherichia coli is an important cause of septicemia (SEPEC) and neonatal meningitis (NMEC) in dairy calves. However, the diversity of virulence profiles, phylogroups, antimicrobial resistance patterns, carriage of integron structures, and fluoroquinolone (FQ) resistance mechanisms have not been fully investigated. Also, there is a paucity of knowledge about the virulence profiles and frequency of potential SEPEC in feces from calves with or without diarrhea. This study aimed to characterize the virulence potential, phylogroups, antimicrobial susceptibility, integron content, and FQ-resistance mechanisms in Escherichia coli isolated from calves with meningitis and septicemia. Additionally, the virulence genes (VGs) and profiles of E. coli isolated from diarrheic and non-diarrheic calves were compared between them and together with NMEC and SEPEC in order to identify shared profiles. Tissue and fluid samples from eight dairy calves with septicemia, four of which had concurrent meningitis, were processed for bacteriology and histopathology. Typing of VGs was assessed in 166 isolates from diverse samples of each calf. Selected isolates were evaluated for antimicrobial susceptibility by the disk diffusion test. Phylogroups, integron gene cassettes cartography, and FQ-resistance determinants were analyzed by PCR, sequencing, and bioinformatic tools. Furthermore, 109 fecal samples and 700 fecal isolates from dairy calves with or without diarrhea were evaluated to detect 19 VGs by uniplex PCR. Highly diverse VG profiles were characterized among NMEC and SEPEC isolates, but iucD was the predominant virulence marker. Histologic lesions in all calves supported their pathogenicity. Selected isolates mainly belonged to phylogroups A and C and showed multidrug resistance. Classic (dfrA17 and arr3-dfrA27) and complex (dfrA17-aadA5::ISCR1::bla_CTX-M-2) class 1 integrons were identified. Target-site mutations in GyrA (S83L and D87N) and ParC (S80I) encoding genes were associated with FQ resistance. The VGs detected more frequently in fecal samples included f17G (50%), papC (30%), iucD (20%), clpG (19%), eae (16%), and afaE-8 (13%). Fecal isolates displaying the profiles of f17 or potential SEPEC were found in 25% of calves with and without diarrhea. The frequency of E. coli VGs and profiles did not differ between both groups (p > 0.05) and were identical or similar to those found in NMEC and SEPEC. Overall, multidrug-resistant E. coli isolates with diverse VG profiles and belonging to phylogroups A and C can be implicated in natural cases of meningitis and septicemia. Their resistance phenotypes can be partially explained by class 1 integron gene cassettes and target-site mutations in gyrA and parC. These results highlight the value of antimicrobial resistance surveillance in pathogenic bacteria isolated from food-producing animals. Besides, calves frequently shed potential SEPEC in their feces as commensals ("Trojan horse"). Thus, these bacteria may be disseminated in the farm environment, causing septicemia and meningitis under predisposing factors.

A One Health Perspective for Defining and Deciphering Escherichia coli Pathogenic Potential in Multiple Hosts

E. coli is one of the most common species of bacteria colonizing humans and animals. The singularity of E. coli 's genus and species underestimates its multifaceted nature, which is represented by different strains, each with different combinations of distinct virulence factors. In fact, several E. coli pathotypes, or hybrid strains, may be associated with both subclinical infection and a range of clinical conditions, including enteric, urinary, and systemic infections. E. coli may also express DNA-damaging toxins that could impact cancer development. This review summarizes the different E. coli pathotypes in the context of their history, hosts, clinical signs, epidemiology, and control. The pathotypic characterization of E. coli in the context of disease in different animals, including humans, provides comparative and One Health perspectives that will guide future clinical and research investigations of E. coli infections.

Pathogenicity Factors of Genomic Islands in Intestinal and Extraintestinal Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli is a versatile bacterial species that includes both harmless commensal strains and pathogenic strains found in the gastrointestinal tract in humans and warm-blooded animals. The growing amount of DNA sequence information generated in the era of "genomics" has helped to increase our understanding of the factors and mechanisms involved in the diversification of this bacterial species. The pathogenic side of E. coli that is afforded through horizontal transfers of genes encoding virulence factors enables this bacterium to become a highly diverse and adapted pathogen that is responsible for intestinal or extraintestinal diseases in humans and animals. Many of the accessory genes acquired by horizontal transfers form syntenic blocks and are recognized as genomic islands (GIs). These genomic regions contribute to the rapid evolution, diversification and adaptation of E. coli variants because they are frequently subject to rearrangements, excision and transfer, as well as to further acquisition of additional DNA. Here, we review a subgroup of GIs from E. coli termed pathogenicity islands (PAIs), a concept defined in the late 1980s by Jörg Hacker and colleagues in Werner Goebel's group at the University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. As with other GIs, the PAIs comprise large genomic regions that differ from the rest of the genome by their G + C content, by their typical insertion within transfer RNA genes, and by their harboring of direct repeats (at their ends), integrase determinants, or other mobility loci. The hallmark of PAIs is their contribution to the emergence of virulent bacteria and to the development of intestinal and extraintestinal diseases. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the structure and functional features of PAIs, on PAI-encoded E. coli pathogenicity factors and on the role of PAIs in host-pathogen interactions.

Effect of kpsM on the virulence of porcine extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli

In recent years, extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) has been found to pose a great threat to human and animal health, but its pathogenic mechanism is not fully understood yet. Capsular polysaccharide, an essential virulence factor in these bacteria, can damage the host immune system, and kpsM is a member of the gene cluster responsible for capsular polysaccharide synthesis. In this study, whole sequence alignment of the virulent strain PCN033 and the attenuated strain PCN061 revealed that kpsM exists in PCN033 but not in PCN061. To determine its function and biological characteristics, we deleted kpsM from PCN033 by homologous recombination. The results of adhesion assays, phagocytosis assays and serum bactericidal assays together with the results of colonization assays in mice indicate that the deletion of kpsM decreases the virulence of porcine ExPEC. Our findings about the biological characteristics of kpsM help to elucidate the complex pathogenic mechanism of ExPEC.

Polyphosphate Kinase Mediates Antibiotic Tolerance in Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli PCN033

Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) causes a variety of acute infections in its hosts, and multidrug-resistant strains present significant challenges to public health and animal husbandry. Therefore, it is necessary to explore new drug targets to control E. coli epidemics. Previous studies have reported that ppk mutants of Burkholderia pseudomallei and Mycobacterium tuberculosis are more susceptible than the wild types (WTs) to stress. Therefore, we investigated the stress response to antibiotics mediated by polyphosphate kinase (PPK) in ExPEC strain PCN033. We observed that planktonic cells of a ppk knockout strain (Δppk) were more susceptible to antibiotics than was WT. However, biofilm-grown Δppk cells showed similar susceptibility to that of the WT and were more tolerant than the planktonic cells. During the planktonic lifestyle, the expression of genes involved in antibiotic tolerance (including resistance-conferring genes, and antibiotic influx, and efflux genes) did not change in the Δppk mutant without antibiotic treatment. However, the resistance-conferring gene bla and efflux genes were upregulated more in the WT than in the Δppk mutant by treatment with tazobactam. After treatment with gentamycin, the efflux genes and influx genes were upregulated and downregulated, respectively, more in the WT than in the Δppk mutant. The expression of genes involved in biofilm regulation also changed after treatment with tazobactam or gentamycin, and which is consistent with the results of the biofilm formation. Together, these observations indicate that PPK is important for the antibiotic stress response during the planktonic growth of ExPEC and might be a potential drug target in bacteria.

Genome analysis and in vivo virulence of porcine extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli strain PCN033

Background

Strains of extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) can invade and colonize extraintestinal sites and cause a wide range of infections. Genomic analysis of ExPEC has mainly focused on isolates of human and avian origins, with porcine ExPEC isolates yet to be sequenced. To better understand the genomic attributes underlying the pathogenicity of porcine ExPEC, we isolated two E. coli strains PCN033 and PCN061 from pigs, assessed their in vivo virulence, and completed and compared their genomes.

Results

Animal experiments demonstrated that strain PCN033, but not PCN061, was pathogenic in a pig model. The chromosome of PCN033 was 384 kb larger than that of PCN061. Among the PCN033-specific sequences, genes encoding adhesins, unique lipopolysaccharide, unique capsular polysaccharide, iron acquisition and transport systems, and metabolism were identified. Additionally, a large plasmid PCN033p3 harboring many typical ExPEC virulence factors was identified in PCN033. Based on the genetic variation between PCN033 and PCN061, corresponding phenotypic differences in flagellum-dependent swarming motility and metabolism were verified. Furthermore, the comparative genomic analyses showed that the PCN033 genome shared many similarities with genomic sequences of human ExPEC strains. Additionally, comparison of PCN033 genome with other nine characteristic E. coli genomes revealed 425 PCN033-special coding sequences. Genes of this subset included those encoding type I restriction-modification (R-M) system, type VI secretion system (T6SS) and membrane-associated proteins.

Conclusions

The genetic and phenotypic differences between PCN033 and PCN061 could partially explain their differences in virulence, and also provide insight towards the molecular mechanisms of porcine ExPEC infections. Additionally, the similarities between the genomes of PCN033 and human ExPEC strains suggest that some connections between porcine and human ExPEC strains exist. The first completed genomic sequence for porcine ExPEC and the genomic differences identified by comparative analyses provide a baseline understanding of porcine ExPEC genetics and lay the foundation for their further study.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1890-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Genomic Comparison of Translocating and Non-Translocating Escherichia coli

Translocation of E. coli across the gut epithelium can result in fatal sepsis in post-surgical patients. In vitro and in vivo experiments have identified the existence of a novel pathotype of translocating E. coli (TEC) that employs an unknown mechanism for translocating across epithelial cells to the mesenteric lymph nodes and the blood stream in both humans and animal models. In this study the genomes of four TEC strains isolated from the mesenteric lymph nodes of a fatal case of hospitalised patient (HMLN-1), blood of pigs after experimental shock (PC-1) and after non-lethal haemorrhage in rats (KIC-1 and KIC-2) were sequenced in order to identify the genes associated with their adhesion and/or translocation. To facilitate the comparison, the genomes of a non-adhering, non-translocating E. coli (46–4) and adhering but non-translocating E. coli (73–89) were also sequenced and compared. Whole genome comparison revealed that three (HMLN-1, PC-1 and KIC-2) of the four TEC strains carried a genomic island that encodes a Type 6 Secretion System that may contribute to adhesion of the bacteria to gut epithelial cells. The human TEC strain HMLN-1 also carried the invasion ibeA gene, which was absent in the animal TEC strains and is likely to be associated with host-specific translocation. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the four TEC strains were distributed amongst three distinct E. coli phylogroups, which was supported by the presence of phylogroup specific fimbriae gene clusters. The genomic comparison has identified potential genes that can be targeted with knock-out experiments to further characterise the mechanisms of E. coli translocation.

Detection of pap, sfa, afa, foc, and fim Adhesin-Encoding Operons in Uropathogenic Escherichia coli Isolates Collected From Patients With Urinary Tract Infection

Background:

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) with its virulence factors is the most prevalent cause of urinary tract infection (UTI).

Objectives;

This study aimed to determine the occurrence of fim, pap, sfa, and afa genes among 100 UPEC isolates collected from patients diagnosed with UTI.

Materials and Methods

A total of 100 UPEC isolates were obtained from urine samples of patients with UTI. The prevalence of 5 virulence genes encoding type 1 fimbriae (fimH), pili associated with pyelonephritis (pap), S and F1C fimbriae (sfa and foc) and afimbrial adhesins (afa) were determined through PCR method. We also investigated the phylogenetic background of all isolates. In addition, the distribution of adhesin-encoding operons between the phylogroups was assessed.

Results:

The prevalence of genes encoding for fimbrial adhesive systems was 95% for fim, 57% for pap, 16% for foc, and 81% for sfa. The operons encoding for afa afimbrial adhesins were identified in 12% of isolates. The various combinations of detected genes were designated as virulence patterns. The fim gene, which occurred in strains from all phylogenetic groups (A, B1, B2, and D) was evaluated and no significant differences were found among these groups. Conversely, significant differences were observed in relation to pap, afa, foc, and sfa operons.

Conclusions:

These results indicate that the PCR method is a powerful genotypic assay for the detection of adhesin-encoding operons. Thus, this assay can be recommended for clinical use to detect virulent urinary E. coli strains, as well as epidemiological studies.

Pathogenesis of human diffusely adhering Escherichia coli expressing Afa/Dr adhesins (Afa/Dr DAEC): current insights and future challenges

The pathogenicity and clinical pertinence of diffusely adhering Escherichia coli expressing the Afa/Dr adhesins (Afa/Dr DAEC) in urinary tract infections (UTIs) and pregnancy complications are well established. In contrast, the implication of intestinal Afa/Dr DAEC in diarrhea is still under debate. These strains are age dependently involved in diarrhea in children, are apparently not involved in diarrhea in adults, and can also be asymptomatic intestinal microbiota strains in children and adult. This comprehensive review analyzes the epidemiology and diagnosis and highlights recent progress which has improved the understanding of Afa/Dr DAEC pathogenesis. Here, I summarize the roles of Afa/Dr DAEC virulence factors, including Afa/Dr adhesins, flagella, Sat toxin, and pks island products, in the development of specific mechanisms of pathogenicity. In intestinal epithelial polarized cells, the Afa/Dr adhesins trigger cell membrane receptor clustering and activation of the linked cell signaling pathways, promote structural and functional cell lesions and injuries in intestinal barrier, induce proinflammatory responses, create angiogenesis, instigate epithelial-mesenchymal transition-like events, and lead to pks-dependent DNA damage. UTI-associated Afa/Dr DAEC strains, following adhesin-membrane receptor cell interactions and activation of associated lipid raft-dependent cell signaling pathways, internalize in a microtubule-dependent manner within urinary tract epithelial cells, develop a particular intracellular lifestyle, and trigger a toxin-dependent cell detachment. In response to Afa/Dr DAEC infection, the host epithelial cells generate antibacterial defense responses. Finally, I discuss a hypothetical role of intestinal Afa/Dr DAEC strains that can act as "silent pathogens" with the capacity to emerge as "pathobionts" for the development of inflammatory bowel disease and intestinal carcinogenesis.

Correlation between the genomic o454-nlpD region polymorphisms, virulence gene equipment and phylogenetic group of extraintestinal Escherichia coli (ExPEC) enables pathotyping irrespective of host, disease and source of isolation

BACKGROUND

The mutS-rpoS intergenic region in E. coli displays a mosaic structure which revealed pathotype specific patterns. To assess the importance of this region as a surrogate marker for the identification of highly virulent extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) strains we aimed to: (i) characterize the genetic diversity of the mutS gene and the o454-nlpD genomic region among 510 E. coli strains from animals and humans; (ii) delineate associations between the polymorphism of this region and features such as phylogenetic background of E. coli, pathotype, host species, clinical condition, serogroup and virulence associated genes (VAG)s; and (iii) identify the most important VAGs for classification of the o454-nlpD region.

METHODS

Size variation in the o454-nlpD region was investigated by PCR amplification and sequencing. Phylogenetic relationships were assessed by Ecor- and Multilocus sequence- typing (MLST), and a comparative analysis between mutS gene phylogenetic tree obtained with RAxML and the MLST grouping method was performed. Correlation between o454-nlpD patterns and the features described above were analysed. In addition, the importance of 47 PCR-amplified ExPEC-related VAGs for classification of o454-nlpD patterns was investigated by means of Random Forest algorithm.

RESULTS

Four main structures (patterns I-IV) of the o454-nlpD region among ExPEC and commensal E. coli strains were identified. Statistical analysis showed a positive and exclusive association between pattern III and the ExPEC strains. A strong association between pattern III and either the Ecor group B2 or the sequence type complexes known to represent the phylogenetic background of highly virulent ExPEC strains (such as STC95, STC73 and STC131) was found as well. RF analyses determined five genes (csgA, malX, chuA, sit, and vat) to be suitable to predict pattern III strains.

CONCLUSION

The significant association between pattern III and group B2 strains suggested the o454-nlpD region to be of great value in identifying highly virulent strains among the mixed population of E. coli promising to be the basis of a future typing tool for ExPEC and their gut reservoir. Furthermore, top-ranked VAGs for classification and prediction of pattern III were identified. These data are most valuable for defining ExPEC pathotype in future in vivo assays.

Characterization of Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from retail poultry meats from Alberta, Canada

Extraintestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) have the potential to spread through fecal waste resulting in the contamination of both farm workers and retail poultry meat in the processing plants or environment. The objective of this study was to characterize ExPEC from retail poultry meats purchased from Alberta, Canada and to compare them with 12 human ExPEC representatives from major ExPEC lineages. Fifty-four virulence genes were screened by a set of multiplex PCRs in 700 E. coli from retail poultry meat samples. ExPEC was defined as the detection of at least two of the following virulence genes: papA/papC, sfa, kpsMT II and iutA. Genetic relationships between isolates were determined using pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Fifty-nine (8.4%) of the 700 poultry meat isolates were identified as ExPEC and were equally distributed among the phylogenetic groups A, B1, B2 and D. Isolates of phylogenetic group A possessed up to 12 virulence genes compared to 24 and 18 genes in phylogenetic groups B2 and D, respectively. E. coli identified as ExPEC and recovered from poultry harbored as many virulence genes as those of human isolates. In addition to the iutA gene, siderophore-related iroN and fyuA were detected in combination with other virulence genes including those genes encoding for adhesion, protectin and toxin while the fimH, ompT, traT, uidA and vat were commonly detected in poultry ExPEC. The hemF, iss and cvaC genes were found in 40% of poultry ExPEC. All human ExPEC isolates harbored concnf (cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 altering cytoskeleton and causing necrosis) and hlyD (hemolysin transport) genes which were not found in poultry ExPEC. PFGE analysis showed that a few poultry ExPEC isolates clustered with human ExPEC isolates at 55-70% similarity level. Comparing ExPEC isolated from retail poultry meats provides insight into their virulence potential and suggests that poultry associated ExPEC may be important for retail meat safety. Investigations into the ability of our poultry ExPEC to cause human infections are warranted.

Persistence and prevalence of pathogenic and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli in municipal wastewater treatment plant receiving slaughterhouse wastewater

We compared the prevalence of pathogenic and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) - producing Escherichia coli in effluents of a municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) receiving wastewater from a slaughterhouse. A total of 1248 isolates were screened for the presence of virulence genes associated with enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) (stx1, stx2, and eae) and extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) (sfa/focDE, kpsMT K1, hlyA, papEF, afa/draBC, clbN, f17A and cnf). The prevalence of atypical enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) was 0.7%, 0.2% and 0.5% in city wastewater, slaughterhouse wastewater and in the treated effluent, respectively. One stx1a and stx2b-positive E. coli isolate was detected in city wastewater. The prevalence of ExPEC was significantly higher in city wastewater (8.4%), compared to slaughterhouse wastewater (1.2%). Treatment in the WWTP did not significantly impact the prevalence of ExPEC in the outlet effluent (5.0%) compared to city wastewater. Moreover, the most potentially pathogenic ExPEC were isolated from city wastewater and from the treated effluent. ESBL-producing E. coli was also mainly detected in city wastewater (1.7%), compared to slaughterhouse wastewater (0.2%), and treated effluent (0.2%). One ESBL-producing E. coli, isolated from city wastewater, was eae-β1 positive. These results showed that pathogenic and/or ESBL-producing E. coli were mainly detected in human wastewater, and at a lesser extend in animal wastewater. Treatment failed to eliminate these strains which were discharged into the river, and then these strains could be transmitted to animals and humans via the environment.

Serotypes, virulence factors, and antimicrobial susceptibilities of vaginal and fecal isolates of Escherichia coli from giant pandas

Although Escherichia coli typically colonizes the intestinal tract and vagina of giant pandas, it has caused enteric and systemic disease in giant pandas and greatly impacts the health and survival of this endangered species. In order to understand the distribution and characteristics of E. coli from giant pandas, 67 fecal and 30 vaginal E. coli isolates from 21 giant pandas were characterized for O serogroups, phylogenetic groups, antimicrobial susceptibilities, and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) profiles. In addition, these isolates were tested for the presence of extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) and diarrheagenic E. coli (DEC) by multiplex PCR detection of specific virulence genes. The most prevalent serogroups for all E. coli isolates were O88, O18, O167, O4, and O158. ExPEC isolates were detected mostly in vaginal samples, and DEC isolates were detected only in fecal samples. Phylogenetic group B1 predominated in fecal isolates, while groups B2 and D were frequently detected in vaginal isolates. Resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole was most frequently observed, followed by resistance to nalidixic acid and tetracycline. All except five isolates were typeable by using XbaI and were categorized into 74 PFGE patterns. Our findings indicate that panda E. coli isolates exhibited antimicrobial resistance, and potentially pathogenic E. coli isolates were present in giant pandas. In addition, these E. coli isolates were genetically diverse. This study may provide helpful information for developing strategies in the future to control E. coli infections of giant pandas.

The AfaR small RNA controls expression of the AfaD-VIII invasin in pathogenic Escherichia coli strains

Pathogenic Escherichia coli strains carrying the afa-8 gene cluster are frequently associated with extra-intestinal infections in humans and animals. The afa-8 A to E genes determine the formation of an afimbrial adhesive sheath consisting of the AfaD-VIII invasin and the AfaE-VIII adhesin at the bacterial cell surface. This structure is thought to be required for host colonization. We characterized a new gene encoding the small RNA AfaR, which is transcribed in cis from the complementary strand of the 3' untranslated region of the afaD messenger RNA, within the afaD-afaE intercistronic region. AfaR is a trans-acting Hfq-dependent antisense small RNA that binds the 5' untranslated region of the afaD messenger RNA, initiating several ribonuclease E-dependent cleavages, thereby downregulating production of the AfaD-VIII invasin. AfaR transcription is dependent on σ(E), a member of the stress response family of extracytoplasmic alternative sigma factors. We found that the AfaR-dependent regulatory pathway was controlled by temperature, allowing the production of the AfaD-VIII invasin at temperatures above 37 °C. Our findings suggest that the entry of afa-8-positive pathogenic E. coli strains into epithelial cells is tightly regulated by the AfaR small RNA.

Virulence profiles of bacteremic extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli: association with epidemiological and clinical features

There is scarce data about the importance of phylogroups and virulence factors (VF) in bloodstream infections (BSI) caused by extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli (ESBLEC). A prospective multicenter Spanish cohort including 191 cases of BSI due to ESBLEC was studied. Phylogroups and 25 VF genes were investigated by PCR. ESBLEC were classified into clusters according to their virulence profiles. The association of phylogropus, VF, and clusters with epidemiological features were studied using multivariate analysis. Overall, 57.6%, 26.7%, and 15.7% of isolates belonged to A/B1, D and B2 phylogroups, respectively. By multivariate analysis (adjusted OR [95% CI]), virulence cluster C2 was independently associated with urinary tract source (5.05 [0.96–25.48]); cluster C4 with sources other than urinary of biliary tract (2.89 [1.05–7.93]), and cluster C5 with BSI in non-predisposed patients (2.80 [0.99–7.93]). Isolates producing CTX-M-9 group ESBLs and from phylogroup D predominated among cluster C2 and C5, while CTX-M-1 group of ESBL and phylogroup B2 predominantes among C4 isolates. These results suggest that host factors and previous antimicrobial use were more important than phylogroup or specific VF in the occurrence of BSI due to ESBLEC. However, some associations between virulence clusters and some specific epidemiological features were found.

Clonal analysis and virulent traits of pathogenic extraintestinal Escherichia coli isolates from swine in China

BACKGROUND

Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) can cause a variety of infections outside the gastrointestinal tract in humans and animals. Infections due to swine ExPECs have been occurring with increasing frequency in China. These ExPECs may now be considered a new food-borne pathogen that causes cross-infections between humans and pigs. Knowledge of the clonal structure and virulence genes is needed as a framework to improve the understanding of phylogenetic traits of porcine ExPECs.

RESULTS

Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) data showed that the isolates investigated in this study could be placed into four main clonal complexes, designated as CC10, CC1687, CC88 and CC58. Strains within CC10 were classified as phylogroup A, and these accounted for most of our porcine ExPEC isolates. Isolates in the CC1687 clonal complex, formed by new sequence types (STs), was classified as phylogroup D, with CC88 isolates considered as B2 and CC58 isolates as B1. Porcine ExPECs in these four clonal complexes demonstrated significantly different virulence gene patterns. A few porcine ExPECs were indentified in phylogroup B2, the phylogroup in which human ExPECs mainly exist. However some STs in the four clonal groups of porcine ExPECs were reported to cause extraintestinal infections in human, based on data in the MLST database.

CONCLUSION

Porcine ExPECs have different virulence gene patterns for different clonal complexes. However, these strains are mostly fell in phylogenentic phylogroup A, B1 and D, which is different from human ExPECs that concentrate in phylogroup B2. Our findings provide a better understanding relating to the clonal structure of ExPECs in diseased pigs and indicate a need to re-evaluate their contribution to human ExPEC diseases.

Escherichia coli isolates from extraintestinal organs of livestock animals harbour diverse virulence genes and belong to multiple genetic lineages

Escherichia coli, the most common cause of bacteraemia in humans in the UK, can also cause serious diseases in animals. However the population structure, virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes of those from extraintestinal organs of livestock animals are poorly characterised. The aims of this study were to investigate the diversity of these isolates from livestock animals and to understand if there was any correlation between the virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes and the genetic backbone of the bacteria and if these isolates were similar to those isolated from humans. Here 39 E. coli isolates from liver (n=31), spleen (n=5) and blood (n=3) of cattle (n=34), sheep (n=3), chicken (n=1) and pig (n=1) were assigned to 19 serogroups with O8 being the most common (n=7), followed by O101, O20 (both n=3) and O153 (n=2). They belong to 29 multi-locus sequence types, 20 clonal complexes with ST23 (n=7), ST10 (n=6), ST117 and ST155 (both n=3) being most common and were distributed among phylogenetic group A (n=16), B1 (n=12), B2 (n=2) and D (n=9). The pattern of a subset of putative virulence genes was different in almost all isolates. No correlation between serogroups, animal hosts, MLST types, virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes was identified. The distributions of clonal complexes and virulence genes were similar to other extraintestinal or commensal E. coli from humans and other animals, suggesting a zoonotic potential. The diverse and various combinations of virulence genes implied that the infections were caused by different mechanisms and infection control will be challenging.

Role of the vpe carbohydrate permease in Escherichia coli urovirulence and fitness in vivo

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) strains are a leading cause of infections in humans, but the mechanisms governing host colonization by this bacterium remain poorly understood. Previous studies have identified numerous gene clusters encoding proteins involved in sugar transport, in pathogen-specific islands. We investigated the role in fitness and virulence of the vpe operon encoding an EII complex of the phosphotransferase (PTS) system, which is found more frequently in human strains from infected urine and blood (45%) than in E. coli isolated from healthy humans (15%). We studied the role of this locus in vivo, using the UPEC E. coli strain AL511, mutants, and complemented derivatives in two experimental mouse models of infection. Mutant strains displayed attenuated virulence in a mouse model of sepsis. A role in kidney colonization was also demonstrated by coinfection experiments in a mouse model of pyelonephritis. Electron microscopy examinations showed that the vpeBC mutant produced much smaller amounts of a capsule-like surface material than the wild type, particularly when growing in human urine. Complementation of the vpeBC mutation led to an increase in the amount of exopolysaccharide, resistance to serum killing, and virulence. It was therefore clear that the loss of vpe genes was responsible for all the observed phenotypes. We also demonstrated the involvement of the vpe locus in gut colonization in the streptomycin-treated mouse model of intestinal colonization. These findings confirm that carbohydrate transport and metabolism underlie the ability of UPEC strains to colonize the host intestine and to infect various host sites.

Associations between multidrug resistance, plasmid content, and virulence potential among extraintestinal pathogenic and commensal Escherichia coli from humans and poultry

The emergence of plasmid-mediated multidrug resistance (MDR) among enteric bacteria presents a serious challenge to the treatment of bacterial infections in humans and animals. Recent studies suggest that avian Escherichia coli commonly possess the ability to resist multiple antimicrobial agents, and might serve as reservoirs of MDR for human extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) and commensal E. coli populations. We determined antimicrobial susceptibility profiles for 2202 human and avian E. coli isolates, then sought for associations among resistance profile, plasmid content, virulence factor profile, and phylogenetic group. Avian-source isolates harbored greater proportions of MDR than their human counterparts, and avian ExPEC had higher proportions of MDR than did avian commensal E. coli. MDR was significantly associated with possession of the IncA/C, IncP1-α, IncF, and IncI1 plasmid types. Overall, inferred virulence potential did not correlate with drug susceptibility phenotype. However, certain virulence genes were positively associated with MDR, including ireA, ibeA, fyuA, cvaC, iss, iutA, iha, and afa. According to the total dataset, isolates segregated significantly according to host species and clinical status, thus suggesting that avian and human ExPEC and commensal E. coli represent four distinct populations with limited overlap. These findings suggest that in extraintestinal E. coli, MDR is most commonly associated with plasmids, and that these plasmids are frequently found among avian-source E. coli from poultry production systems.

Animal and human pathogenic Escherichia coli strains share common genetic backgrounds

Escherichia coli is a versatile species encompassing both commensals of the digestive tracts of many vertebrates, including humans, and pathogenic strains causing various intra- and extraintestinal infections. Despite extensive gene flow between strains, the E. coli species has a globally clonal population structure, consisting of distinct phylogenetic groups. Little is known about the relationships between phylogenetic groups and host specificity. We therefore used multilocus sequence typing (MLST) to investigate phylogenetic relationships and evaluated the virulence gene content of 35 E. coli strains representative of the diverse diseases encountered in domestic animals. We compared these strains with a panel of 101 human pathogenic and 98 non-human and human commensal strains representative of the phylogenetic and pathovar diversity of this species. A global factorial analysis of correspondence indicated that extraintestinal infections were caused mostly by phylogenetic group B2 strains, whereas intraintestinal infections were caused mostly by phylogenetic group A/B1/E strains, with strains responsible from extraintestinal or intraintestinal infections having specific virulence factors. It was not possible to distinguish between strains of human and animal origin. A detailed phylogenetic analysis of the MLST data showed that numerous pathogenic animal and human strains are very closely related, and had a number of virulence genes in common. However, a set of specific adhesins was identified in animal non-B2 group strains of all pathotypes. In conclusion, human and animal pathogenic strains share common genetic backgrounds, but non-B2 strains of different origins seem to have different sets of adhesins that could be involved in host specificity.

Genomic analysis of the PAI ICL3 locus in pathogenic LEE-negative Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli and Citrobacter rodentium

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) causes a spectrum of human illnesses such as haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic-uraemic syndrome. Although the locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE) seems to confer enhanced virulence, LEE-negative STEC strains are also associated with severe human disease, suggesting that other unknown factors enhance the virulence potential of STEC strains. A novel hybrid pathogenicity island, termed PAI I(CL3), has been previously characterized in the LEE-negative O113 : H21 STEC strain CL3. Screening for the presence of PAI I(CL3) elements in 469 strains of E. coli, including attaching and effacing (A/E) pathogens [enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC)], non-A/E pathogens [LEE-negative STEC, extra-intestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) and enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC)] and commensal E. coli isolates, showed that PAI I(CL3) is unique to LEE-negative STEC strains linked to disease, providing a new marker for these strains. We also showed that a PAI I(CL3)-equivalent gene cluster is present in the genome of Citrobacter rodentium, on a 53 kb genomic island inserted into the pheV tRNA locus. While the C. rodentium PAI I(CL3) shows high similarities at the nucleotide level and in organization with the E. coli PAI I(CL3), the genetic context of the integration differs completely. In addition, blast searches revealed that other E. coli pathotypes (O157 : H7 EHEC, ExPEC, EPEC and EAEC) possess incomplete PAI I(CL3) elements that contain only the genes located at the extremities of the island. Six of the 16 sequenced E. coli genomes showed deleted PAI I(CL3) gene clusters which are carried on mobile genetic elements inserted into pheV, selC or serW tRNA loci, which is compatible with the idea that the PAI I(CL3) gene cluster entered E. coli and C. rodentium at multiple times through independent events. The phylogenetic distribution of the PAI I(CL3) variants suggests that a B1 genetic background is necessary for the maintenance of the full complement of PAI I(CL3) genes in E. coli.

Host species-specific translocation of Escherichia coli

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the rate of translocation of Escherichia coli strains in different experimental/animal models. Four proficient translocating E. coli strains isolated from mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) and/or the blood of rats (strains KIC-1 and KIC-2), from a fatal case of pancreatitis (HMLN-1) and from pigs (PC-1 isolated in this study) were tested for their ability to translocate across two host species and the Caco-2 cell line as a model of the human gut epithelium. HMLN-1 was found in the MLNs of all 15 pigs tested. This strain, however, did not translocate in any rats and only colonised the caecum of four rats in small numbers. HMLN-1 and PC-1 were the dominant translocating strains in Caco-2 cells compared to KIC-1 and KIC-2, which were found to translocate at a lower rate in pigs and in Caco-2 cells. The rate of translocation of PC-1 in rats was also very low compared to KIC-1 and KIC-2. We suggest that, in studies aiming to investigate the mechanism of translocation of E. coli strains isolated from humans, rats may not be an appropriate animal model and that the Caco-2 cells or pigs are more suitable in vitro and in vivo models, respectively.

Role of deoxyribose catabolism in colonization of the murine intestine by pathogenic Escherichia coli strains

We previously suggested that the ability to metabolize deoxyribose, a phenotype encoded by the deoK operon, is associated with the pathogenic potential of Escherichia coli strains. Carbohydrate metabolism is thought to provide the nutritional support required for E. coli to colonize the intestine. We therefore investigated the role of deoxyribose catabolism in the colonization of the gut, which acts as a reservoir, by pathogenic E. coli strains. Molecular and biochemical characterization of 1,221 E. coli clones from various collections showed this biochemical trait to be common in the E. coli species (33.6%). However, multivariate analysis evidenced a higher prevalence of sugar-metabolizing E. coli clones in the stools of patients from countries in which intestinal diseases are endemic. Diarrhea processes frequently involve the destruction of intestinal epithelia, so it is plausible that such clones may be positively selected for in intestines containing abundant DNA, and consequently deoxyribose. Statistical analysis also indicated that symptomatic clinical disorders and the presence of virulence factors specific to extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli were significantly associated with an increased risk of biological samples and clones testing positive for deoxyribose. Using the streptomycin-treated-mouse model of intestinal colonization, we demonstrated the involvement of the deoK operon in gut colonization by two pathogenic isolates (one enteroaggregative and one uropathogenic strain). These results, indicating that deoxyribose availability promotes pathogenic E. coli growth during host colonization, suggest that the acquisition of this trait may be an evolutionary step enabling these pathogens to colonize and persist in the mammalian intestine.

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli AL511 requires flagellum to enter renal collecting duct cells

Escherichia coli is the leading cause of urinary tract infections, but the mechanisms governing renal colonization by this bacterium remain poorly understood. We investigated the ability of 13 E. coli strains isolated from the urine of patients with pyelonephritis and cystitis and normal stools to invade collecting duct cells, which constitute the first epithelium encountered by bacteria ascending from the bladder. The AL511 clinical isolate adhered to mouse collecting duct mpkCCD(cl4) cells, used as a model of renal cell invasion, and was able to enter and persist within these cells. Previous studies have shown that bacterial flagella play an important role in host urinary tract colonization, but the role of flagella in the interaction of E. coli with renal epithelial cells remains unclear. An analysis of the ability of E. coli AL511 mutants to invade renal cells showed that flagellin played a key role in bacterial entry. Both flagellum filament assembly and the motor proteins MotA and MotB appeared to be required for E. coli AL511 uptake into collecting duct cells. These findings indicate that pyelonephritis-associated E. coli strains may invade renal collecting duct cells and that flagellin may act as an invasin in this process.

Characteristics and virulence genes of Escherichia coli isolated from septicemic calves in southeast of Iran

Virulence factors are associated with the capacity of E. coli strains to cause intestinal and extraintestinal infections. Thirty one E. coli isolates were obtained from heart blood or internal organs of septicemic calves. The O serogroups of isolates were determined. PCR assays were performed to determine the phylogenetic groups and presence of specific virulence genes. Fourteen (45.16%) isolates belonged to seven O serogroups (O8, O15, O20, O45, O78, O101 and O103) and 17 (54.83%) isolates were O-nontypeable. E. coli isolates fall into three phylogenetic groups included 15 isolates belonged to B1, 9 to A and 7 to D phylogenetic groups. Nineteen (61.29%) isolates exhibited at least one of the virulence genes. F17 family (5 isolates f17b, 3 isolates f17c, 1 isolate f17a) genes and aerobactin encoding gene of iucD (5 isolates) were the two most prevalent virulence genes. Three isolates were positive for cnf2 and cdtIII genes in combination and they were O-nontypeable. AfaE-VIII, CS31A gene (clpG) and hemolysin encoding gene (hly) were detected in 3, 4 and 3 isolates respectively. None of the isolates contained the ipaH sequences and the genes encoding fimbria (F5, F41, S, P), AfaI adesin, toxins (LT-I, ST-I, SLT-I, SLT-II, CNF1 and CDT-IV) and intimin.

Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli

Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) possesses virulence traits that allow it to invade, colonize, and induce disease in bodily sites outside of the gastrointestinal tract. Human diseases caused by ExPEC include urinary tract infections, neonatal meningitis, sepsis, pneumonia, surgical site infections, as well as infections in other extraintestinal locations. ExPEC-induced diseases represent a large burden in terms of medical costs and productivity losses. In addition to human illnesses, ExPEC strains also cause extraintestinal infections in domestic animals and pets. A commonality of virulence factors has been demonstrated between human and animal ExPEC, suggesting that the organisms are zoonotic pathogens. ExPEC strains have been isolated from food products, in particular from raw meats and poultry, indicating that these organisms potentially represent a new class of foodborne pathogens. This review discusses various aspects of ExPEC, including its presence in food products, in animals used for food or as companion pets; the diseases ExPEC can cause; and the virulence factors and virulence mechanisms that cause disease.

The fallacies of hope: will we discover new antibiotics to combat pathogenic bacteria in time?

While newly developed technologies have revolutionized the classical approaches to combating infectious diseases, the difficulties associated with developing novel antimicrobials mean that these technologies have not yet been used to introduce new compounds into the market. The new technologies, including genomics and structural biology, open up exciting possibilities for the discovery of antibiotics. However, a substantial effort to pursue research, and moreover to incorporate the results into the production chain, is required in order to bring new antimicrobials to the final user. In the current scenario of emerging diseases and the rapid spread of antibiotic resistance, an active policy to support these requirements is vital. Otherwise, many valuable programmes may never be fully developed for lack of "interest" and funds (private and public). Will we react in time to avoid potential disaster?

Renal collecting duct epithelial cells react to pyelonephritis-associated Escherichia coli by activating distinct TLR4-dependent and -independent inflammatory pathways

TLR4 plays a central role in resistance to pyelonephritis caused by uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC). It has been suggested that renal tubule epithelial cells expressing TLRs may play a key role in inflammatory disorders and in initiating host defenses. In this study we used an experimental mouse model of ascending urinary tract infection to show that UPEC isolates preferentially adhered to the apical surface of medullary collecting duct (MCD) intercalated cells. UPEC-infected C3H/HeJ (Lps(d)) mice carrying an inactivating mutation of tlr4 failed to clear renal bacteria and exhibited a dramatic slump in proinflammatory mediators as compared with infected wild-type C3H/HeOuJ (Lps(n)) mice. However, the level of expression of the leukocyte chemoattractants MIP-2 and TNF-alpha still remained greater in UPEC-infected than in naive C3H/HeJ (Lps(d)) mice. Using primary cultures of microdissected Lps(n) MCDs that expressed TLR4 and its accessory molecules MD2, MyD88, and CD14, we also show that UPECs stimulated both a TLR4-mediated, MyD88-dependent, TIR domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN-beta-independent pathway and a TLR4-independent pathway, leading to bipolarized secretion of MIP-2. Stimulation by UPECs of the TLR4-mediated pathway in Lps(n) MCDs leads to the activation of NF-kappaB, and MAPK p38, ERK1/2, and JNK. In addition, UPECs stimulated TLR4-independent signaling by activating a TNF receptor-associated factor 2-apoptosis signal-regulatory kinase 1-JNK pathway. These findings demonstrate that epithelial collecting duct cells are actively involved in the initiation of an immune response via several distinct signaling pathways and suggest that intercalated cells play an active role in the recognition of UPECs colonizing the kidneys.

Host specificity of septicemic Escherichia coli: human and avian pathogens

Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) strains are the cause of a diverse spectrum of invasive human and animal infections, often leading to septicemia. ExPEC strains contain virulence factors that enable them to survive in the host blood and tissues. Most of these virulence factors are distributed in ExPEC strains in a host-independent fashion. Genomic analyses of these strains provide evidence for numerous recombinational events and horizontal gene transfer, as well as for a high diversity of virulence factors. In studies of human and avian septicemic strains of serotypes O2 and O78 it appears that there is a positive correlation between virulence, invasiveness and clonal origin. Yet, it is clear that clonal division in these strains, as well as distribution of virulence factors, is independent of the host and closely related clones reside in different hosts. Although the possibility exists that ExPEC strains do have a certain degree of host specificity, which is not obvious from genomic studies, it is clear that the similarity of virulence factors presents a significant zoonotic risk.

Association of virulence genotype with phylogenetic background in comparison to different seropathotypes of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli isolates

The distribution of virulent factors (VFs) in 287 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) strains that were classified according to Karmali et al. into five seropathotypes (M. A. Karmali, M. Mascarenhas, S. Shen, K. Ziebell, S. Johnson, R. Reid-Smith, J. Isaac-Renton, C. Clark, K. Rahn, and J. B. Kaper, J. Clin. Microbiol. 41:4930-4940, 2003) was investigated. The associations of VFs with phylogenetic background were assessed among the strains in comparison with the different seropathotypes. The phylogenetic analysis showed that STEC strains segregated mainly in phylogenetic group B1 (70%) and revealed the substantial prevalence (19%) of STEC belonging to phylogenetic group A (designated STEC-A). The presence of virulent clonal groups in seropathotypes that are associated with disease and their absence from seropathotypes that are not associated with disease support the concept of seropathotype classification. Although certain VFs (eae, stx(2-EDL933), stx(2-vha), and stx(2-vhb)) were concentrated in seropathotypes associated with disease, others (astA, HPI, stx(1c), and stx(2-NV206)) were concentrated in seropathotypes that are not associated with disease. Taken together with the observation that the STEC-A group was exclusively composed of strains lacking eae recovered from seropathotypes that are not associated with disease, the "atypical" virulence pattern suggests that STEC-A strains comprise a distinct category of STEC strains. A practical benefit of our phylogenetic analysis of STEC strains is that phylogenetic group A status appears to be highly predictive of "nonvirulent" seropathotypes.

Pathogenesis of Afa/Dr diffusely adhering Escherichia coli

Over the last few years, dramatic increases in our knowledge about diffusely adhering Escherichia coli (DAEC) pathogenesis have taken place. The typical class of DAEC includes E. coli strains harboring AfaE-I, AfaE-II, AfaE-III, AfaE-V, Dr, Dr-II, F1845, and NFA-I adhesins (Afa/Dr DAEC); these strains (i) have an identical genetic organization and (ii) allow binding to human decay-accelerating factor (DAF) (Afa/Dr(DAF) subclass) or carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) (Afa/Dr(CEA) subclass). The atypical class of DAEC includes two subclasses of strains; the atypical subclass 1 includes E. coli strains that express AfaE-VII, AfaE-VIII, AAF-I, AAF-II, and AAF-III adhesins, which (i) have an identical genetic organization and (ii) do not bind to human DAF, and the atypical subclass 2 includes E. coli strains that harbor Afa/Dr adhesins or others adhesins promoting diffuse adhesion, together with pathogenicity islands such as the LEE pathogenicity island (DA-EPEC). In this review, the focus is on Afa/Dr DAEC strains that have been found to be associated with urinary tract infections and with enteric infection. The review aims to provide a broad overview and update of the virulence aspects of these intriguing pathogens. Epidemiological studies, diagnostic techniques, characteristic molecular features of Afa/Dr operons, and the respective role of Afa/Dr adhesins and invasins in pathogenesis are described. Following the recognition of membrane-bound receptors, including type IV collagen, DAF, CEACAM1, CEA, and CEACAM6, by Afa/Dr adhesins, activation of signal transduction pathways leads to structural and functional injuries at brush border and junctional domains and to proinflammatory responses in polarized intestinal cells. In addition, uropathogenic Afa/Dr DAEC strains, following recognition of beta(1) integrin as a receptor, enter epithelial cells by a zipper-like, raft- and microtubule-dependent mechanism. Finally, the presence of other, unknown virulence factors and the way that an Afa/Dr DAEC strain emerges from the human intestinal microbiota as a "silent pathogen" are discussed.

Efficacy of an Escherichia coli J-5 mutant strain bacterin in the protection of calves from endotoxin disease caused by subcutaneous challenge with endotoxins from Escherichia coli

The purpose of this trial was to examine the potential of a new Escherichia (E) coli J-5 mutant strain bacterin to reduce the severity of clinical disease caused by subcutaneous challenge with endotoxins of Gram-negative bacteria in calves. Day-old to 3-day old calves (n = 40 per study phase) were randomly assigned to either of two treatment groups, i.e. a vaccinated or a placebo group. Calves in the vaccinated group received an inactivated bacterin containing a J-5 mutant strain of E. coli via subcutaneous route at 2-4 days of age and at 14 days thereafter. The placebo contained only adjuvant and saline in lieu of the antigen. Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) originating from E. coli were administered subcutaneously 3 weeks after the booster dose. The LPS challenge dosages were 1 and 8 microg/kg in study phases I and II, respectively. Various clinical, physiological, hematological, and serological parameters were measured at specific time intervals after challenge. The data were mostly analysed using peak changes from baseline recorded during the observation period. By the time of challenge the titers in vaccinated calves had increased significantly more than in the unvaccinated controls. Disease severity following subcutaneous challenge was dose dependent. In phase I, placebo calves were only mildly challenged whereas in phase II placebo calves showed a moderate challenge. After a mild challenge, there was little evidence of protection due to vaccination as only attitude was significantly improved in the vaccinates. In contrast, after a moderate challenge rectal temperature, hematocrit, blood glucose concentrations, and leukocyte changes were significantly better in the vaccinated group. In conclusion, the results of this study show that following a subcutaneous endotoxin challenge that induces a moderate clinical response, calves that were previously vaccinated with the E. coli J-5 bacterin were better protected than those in the placebo group.

Molecular characteristics of Escherichia coli serogroup O78 strains isolated from diarrheal cases in bovines urge further investigations on their zoonotic potential

We investigated the virulence properties and clonal relationship of 21 Escherichia coli strains of serogroup O78 isolated from diarrhoeic cattle and calves. Isolates were screened for 18 genes representing virulence features of different Escherichia coli pathotypes. None of the strains harboured enterotoxin-genes estIa/Ib, eltIa/Ib, or Shiga toxin (stx) genes, genes involved in adhesion (eae, f5, f41) hemolysin gene hlyA or invasion gene ipaC. With a high prevalence we detected enterotoxin astA (61.9%), genes involved in iron acquisition, like fyuA, irp (each 57.1%) and iucD (81.0%), and the operon sequence of Colicin V plasmids (38.1%). Some strains possessed toxin genes cdt-IIIB and cnf1/2 (both 14.3%), the invasion gene tia (23.8%), and the serine protease encoding gene espP (23.8%). Moreover, we could show that E. coli O78 strains under investigation were able to adhere to and invade MDBK-cells with varying efficiencies. The results indicate that the closely related O78 strains, constituting two major PFGE-clusters, harbor various virulence features for bovine intestinal disease but cannot be grouped into one of the common E. coli intestinal pathogenic or other pathotypes according to their virulence gene pattern. Nevertheless, the ability to adhere, invade or harbor toxin genes lets us suggest that O78 strains isolated from diarrheal cases in bovines urges further investigations on the zoonotic potential of these strains.

Human diffusely adhering Escherichia coli expressing Afa/Dr adhesins that use human CD55 (decay-accelerating factor) as a receptor does not bind the rodent and pig analogues of CD55

Afa/Dr diffusely adhering Escherichia coli (DAEC) bacteria that are responsible for recurrent urinary tract and gastrointestinal infections recognized as a receptor the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein decay-accelerating factor (DAF; CD55) at the brush border of cultured human intestinal cells. Results show that Afa/Dr DAEC C1845 bacteria were poorly associated with the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract of infected mice. We conducted experiments with Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells stably transfected with mouse (GPI or transmembrane forms), pig, or human CD55 or mouse Crry cDNAs or transfected with empty vector pDR2EF1 alpha. Recombinant E. coli AAEC185 bacteria expressing Dr or F1845 adhesins bound strongly to CHO cells expressing human CD55 but not to the CHO cells expressing mouse (transmembrane and GPI anchored), rat, or pig CD55 or mouse Crry. Positive clustering of CD55 around Dr-positive bacteria was observed in human CD55-expressing CHO cells but not around the rarely adhering Dr-positive bacteria randomly distributed at the cell surface of CHO cells expressing mouse, rat, or pig CD55.

Occurrence of the Yersinia high-pathogenicity island and iron uptake systems in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae

The ability to acquire iron is crucial to bacteria during an infection. Thirty-four strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated from clinical specimens were examined for the use of various strategies to obtain iron. The isolates employed several iron uptake mechanisms, including production of enterobactin (100%) and aerobactin (50%). Few isolates (18%) produced yersiniabactin, a siderophore encoded by the Yersinia high-pathogenicity island (HPI) despite genetic diversity of the HPI. Majority of the isolates used human transferrin (74%), lactoferrin (97%), hemoglobin (74%), and hemoglobin-haptoglobin complex (56%) as a sole source of iron. Multiple iron uptake systems may be of benefit to the bacteria during infection.

The Yersinia high-pathogenicity island and iron-uptake systems in clinical isolates of Escherichia coli

The ability to acquire iron is crucial for bacteria during an infection. The capacity of 35 strains of Escherichia coli, isolated from clinical specimens, to use various strategies to obtain iron was analysed. The isolates employed several iron-uptake mechanisms, including production of enterobactin (86 %) and aerobactin (71 %). The majority of the isolates also excreted yersiniabactin, which is encoded by the Yersinia high-pathogenicity island (HPI). However, PCR analysis of the Yersinia HPI revealed diversity in its genetic organization. Use of human transferrin (91 %), lactoferrin (94 %), haemoglobin (80 %) and haemoglobin-haptoglobin complex (63 %) as the sole source of iron was common among E. coli isolates. Multiple iron-uptake systems may be of benefit to bacteria during an infection.