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Kobayashi R, Hashida N. Overview of Cytomegalovirus Ocular Diseases: Retinitis, Corneal Endotheliitis, and Iridocyclitis. Viruses 2024; 16:1110. [PMID: 39066272 PMCID: PMC11281654 DOI: 10.3390/v16071110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is a significant clinical concern in newborns, immunocompromised patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and patients undergoing immunosuppressive therapy or chemotherapy. CMV infection affects many organs, such as the lungs, digestive organs, the central nerve system, and eyes. In addition, CMV infection sometimes occurs in immunocompetent individuals. CMV ocular diseases includes retinitis, corneal endotheliitis, and iridocyclitis. CMV retinitis often develops in infected newborns and immunocompromised patients. CMV corneal endotheliitis and iridocyclitis sometimes develop in immunocompetent individuals. Systemic infections and CMV ocular diseases often require systemic treatment in addition to topical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Noriyasu Hashida
- Department of Ophthalmology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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2
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Chittum JE, Thompson A, Desai UR. Glycosaminoglycan microarrays for studying glycosaminoglycan-protein systems. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 335:122106. [PMID: 38616080 PMCID: PMC11032185 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
More than 3000 proteins are now known to bind to glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Yet, GAG-protein systems are rather poorly understood in terms of selectivity of recognition, molecular mechanism of action, and translational promise. High-throughput screening (HTS) technologies are critically needed for studying GAG biology and developing GAG-based therapeutics. Microarrays, developed within the past two decades, have now improved to the point of being the preferred tool in the HTS of biomolecules. GAG microarrays, in which GAG sequences are immobilized on slides, while similar to other microarrays, have their own sets of challenges and considerations. GAG microarrays are rapidly becoming the first choice in studying GAG-protein systems. Here, we review different modalities and applications of GAG microarrays presented to date. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of this technology, explain covalent and non-covalent immobilization strategies using different chemically reactive groups, and present various assay formats for qualitative and quantitative interpretations, including selectivity screening, binding affinity studies, competitive binding studies etc. We also highlight recent advances in implementing this technology, cataloging of data, and project its future promise. Overall, the technology of GAG microarray exhibits enormous potential of evolving into more than a mere screening tool for studying GAG - protein systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Chittum
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States of America; Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23219, United States of America
| | - Ally Thompson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States of America; Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23219, United States of America
| | - Umesh R Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, United States of America; Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23219, United States of America.
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3
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Sharma P, Dwivedi R, Ray P, Shukla J, Pomin VH, Tandon R. Inhibition of Cytomegalovirus by Pentacta pygmaea Fucosylated Chondroitin Sulfate Depends on Its Molecular Weight. Viruses 2023; 15:v15040859. [PMID: 37112839 PMCID: PMC10142442 DOI: 10.3390/v15040859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Many viruses attach to host cells by first interacting with cell surface proteoglycans containing heparan sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycan chains and then by engaging with specific receptor, resulting in virus entry. In this project, HS–virus interactions were targeted by a new fucosylated chondroitin sulfate from the sea cucumber Pentacta pygmaea (PpFucCS) in order to block human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) entry into cells. Human foreskin fibroblasts were infected with HCMV in the presence of PpFucCS and its low molecular weight (LMW) fractions and the virus yield at five days post-infection was assessed. The virus attachment and entry into the cells were visualized by labeling the purified virus particles with a self-quenching fluorophore octadecyl rhodamine B (R18). The native PpFucCS exhibited potent inhibitory activity against HCMV specifically blocking virus entry into the cell and the inhibitory activities of the LMW PpFucCS derivatives were proportional to their chain lengths. PpFucCS and the derived oligosaccharides did not exhibit any significant cytotoxicity; moreover, they protected the infected cells from virus-induced lytic cell death. In conclusion, PpFucCS inhibits the entry of HCMV into cells and the high MW of this carbohydrate is a key structural element to achieve the maximal anti-viral effect. This new marine sulfated glycan can be developed into a potential prophylactic and therapeutic antiviral agent against HCMV infection.
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4
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Smith MM, Melrose J. Pentosan Polysulfate Affords Pleotropic Protection to Multiple Cells and Tissues. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:437. [PMID: 36986536 PMCID: PMC10132487 DOI: 10.3390/ph16030437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Pentosan polysulfate (PPS), a small semi-synthetic highly sulfated heparan sulfate (HS)-like molecule, shares many of the interactive properties of HS. The aim of this review was to outline the potential of PPS as an interventional therapeutic protective agent in physiological processes affecting pathological tissues. PPS is a multifunctional molecule with diverse therapeutic actions against many disease processes. PPS has been used for decades in the treatment of interstitial cystitis and painful bowel disease, it has tissue-protective properties as a protease inhibitor in cartilage, tendon and IVD, and it has been used as a cell-directive component in bioscaffolds in tissue engineering applications. PPS regulates complement activation, coagulation, fibrinolysis and thrombocytopenia, and it promotes the synthesis of hyaluronan. Nerve growth factor production in osteocytes is inhibited by PPS, reducing bone pain in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis (OA/RA). PPS also removes fatty compounds from lipid-engorged subchondral blood vessels in OA/RA cartilage, reducing joint pain. PPS regulates cytokine and inflammatory mediator production and is also an anti-tumor agent that promotes the proliferation and differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells and the development of progenitor cell lineages that have proven to be useful in strategies designed to effect repair of the degenerate intervertebral disc (IVD) and OA cartilage. PPS stimulates proteoglycan synthesis by chondrocytes in the presence or absence of interleukin (IL)-1, and stimulates hyaluronan production by synoviocytes. PPS is thus a multifunctional tissue-protective molecule of potential therapeutic application for a diverse range of disease processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret M. Smith
- Raymond Purves Laboratory, Institute of Bone and Joint Research, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Faculty of Health and Science, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia;
| | - James Melrose
- Raymond Purves Laboratory, Institute of Bone and Joint Research, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Faculty of Health and Science, University of Sydney at Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia;
- Graduate Schools of Biomedical Engineering, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- Sydney Medical School, Northern Campus, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia
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Elste J, Chan A, Patil C, Tripathi V, Shadrack DM, Jaishankar D, Hawkey A, Mungerson MS, Shukla D, Tiwari V. Archaic connectivity between the sulfated heparan sulfate and the herpesviruses - An evolutionary potential for cross-species interactions. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2023; 21:1030-1040. [PMID: 36733705 PMCID: PMC9880898 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2023.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The structural diversity of metazoic heparan sulfate (HS) composed of unique sulfated domains is remarkably preserved among various vertebrates and invertebrate species. Interestingly the sulfated moieties of HS have been known as the key determinants generating extraordinary ligand binding sites in the HS chain to regulate multiple biological functions and homeostasis. One such ligand for 3-O sulfation in the HS chain is a glycoprotein D (gD) from an ancient herpesvirus, herpes simplex virus (HSV). This interaction between gD and 3-O sulfated HS leads to virus-cell fusion to promote HSV entry. It is quite astonishing that HSV-1, which infects two-thirds of the world population, is also capable of causing severe diseases in primates and non-primates including primitive zebrafish. Supporting evidence that HSV may cross the species barrier comes from the fact that an enzymatic modification in HS encoded by 3-O sulfotransferase-3 (3-OST-3) from a vertebrate zoonotic species enhances HSV-1 infectivity. The latter phenomenon suggests the possible role of sulfated-HS as an entry receptor during reverse zoonosis, especially during an event when humans encounter domesticated animals in proximity. In this mini-review, we explore the possibility that structural diversity in HS may have played a substantial role in species-specific adaptability for herpesviruses in general including their potential role in promoting cross-species transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Elste
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine and College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Angelica Chan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine and College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Chandrashekhar Patil
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Vinisha Tripathi
- Mountain Vista High School, 10585 Mountain Vista Ridge, Highlands Ranch, CO 80126, USA
| | - Daniel M. Shadrack
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, St John's University of Tanzania, Dodoma, Tanzania
| | - Dinesh Jaishankar
- Department of Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Andrew Hawkey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Michelle Swanson Mungerson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine and College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine and College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA,Corresponding author.
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6
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Chang K, Majmudar H, Tandon R, Volin MV, Tiwari V. Induction of Filopodia During Cytomegalovirus Entry Into Human Iris Stromal Cells. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:834927. [PMID: 35450284 PMCID: PMC9018114 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.834927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Many viruses exploit thin projections of filopodia for cell entry and cell-to-cell spread. Using primary cultures of human iris stromal (HIS) cells derived from human eye donors, we report a significant increase in filopodia formation during human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection. Using confocal microscopy, we observed a large number of virions being frequently associated along the filopodia prior to cell infection. Depolymerization of actin filaments resulted in a significant inhibition of HCMV entry into HIS cell. Our results further revealed that the transient expression of HCMV envelope glycoprotein B (gB) triggers the induction of the filopodial system. Since gB is known to bind the diverse chains of heparan sulfate (HS), a comparative study was performed to evaluate the gB-mediated filopodial induction in cells expressing either wild-type HS and/or 3-O sulfated HS (3-OS HS). We found that cells co-expressing HCMV gB together with the 3-O sulfotranseferase-3 (3-OST-3) enzyme had a much higher and robust filopodia induction compared to cells co-expressing gB with wild-type HS. The above results were further verified by pre-treating HIS cells with anti-3-OS HS (G2) peptide and/or heparinase-I before challenging with HCMV infection, which resulted in a significant loss in the filopodial counts as well as decreased viral infectivity. Taken together, our findings highlight that HCMV entry into HIS cells actively modulates the actin cytoskeleton via coordinated actions possibly between gB and the 3-OS HS receptor to influence viral infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Chang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, and Chicago College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Hardik Majmudar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, and Chicago College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Ritesh Tandon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, United States
| | - Michael V Volin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, and Chicago College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, and Chicago College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
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7
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Mitra D, Hasan MH, Bates JT, Bierdeman MA, Ederer DR, Parmar RC, Fassero LA, Liang Q, Qiu H, Tiwari V, Zhang F, Linhardt RJ, Sharp JS, Wang L, Tandon R. The degree of polymerization and sulfation patterns in heparan sulfate are critical determinants of cytomegalovirus entry into host cells. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009803. [PMID: 34352038 PMCID: PMC8384199 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Several enveloped viruses, including herpesviruses attach to host cells by initially interacting with cell surface heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans followed by specific coreceptor engagement which culminates in virus-host membrane fusion and virus entry. Interfering with HS-herpesvirus interactions has long been known to result in significant reduction in virus infectivity indicating that HS play important roles in initiating virus entry. In this study, we provide a series of evidence to prove that specific sulfations as well as the degree of polymerization (dp) of HS govern human cytomegalovirus (CMV) binding and infection. First, purified CMV extracellular virions preferentially bind to sulfated longer chain HS on a glycoarray compared to a variety of unsulfated glycosaminoglycans including unsulfated shorter chain HS. Second, the fraction of glycosaminoglycans (GAG) displaying higher dp and sulfation has a larger impact on CMV titers compared to other fractions. Third, cell lines deficient in specific glucosaminyl sulfotransferases produce significantly reduced CMV titers compared to wild-type cells and virus entry is compromised in these mutant cells. Finally, purified glycoprotein B shows strong binding to heparin, and desulfated heparin analogs compete poorly with heparin for gB binding. Taken together, these results highlight the significance of HS chain length and sulfation patterns in CMV attachment and infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanwita Mitra
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Mohammad H. Hasan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - John T. Bates
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Michael A. Bierdeman
- Department of Medicine, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Dallas R. Ederer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Rinkuben C. Parmar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Lauren A. Fassero
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Quntao Liang
- Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi, United States of America
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, University of Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Hong Qiu
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Fuming Zhang
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, United States of America
| | - Robert J. Linhardt
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, United States of America
| | - Joshua S. Sharp
- Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Lianchun Wang
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
| | - Ritesh Tandon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, United States of America
- Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi, United States of America
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8
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Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Viral Infection and Treatment: A Special Focus on SARS-CoV-2. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22126574. [PMID: 34207476 PMCID: PMC8235362 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) encompass a group of glycoproteins composed of unbranched negatively charged heparan sulfate (HS) chains covalently attached to a core protein. The complex HSPG biosynthetic machinery generates an extraordinary structural variety of HS chains that enable them to bind a plethora of ligands, including growth factors, morphogens, cytokines, chemokines, enzymes, matrix proteins, and bacterial and viral pathogens. These interactions translate into key regulatory activity of HSPGs on a wide range of cellular processes such as receptor activation and signaling, cytoskeleton assembly, extracellular matrix remodeling, endocytosis, cell-cell crosstalk, and others. Due to their ubiquitous expression within tissues and their large functional repertoire, HSPGs are involved in many physiopathological processes; thus, they have emerged as valuable targets for the therapy of many human diseases. Among their functions, HSPGs assist many viruses in invading host cells at various steps of their life cycle. Viruses utilize HSPGs for the attachment to the host cell, internalization, intracellular trafficking, egress, and spread. Recently, HSPG involvement in the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection has been established. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying HSPG/SARS-CoV-2 interaction and downstream effects, and we provide an overview of the HSPG-based therapeutic strategies that could be used to combat such a fearsome virus.
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Egorova A, Bogner E, Novoselova E, Zorn KM, Ekins S, Makarov V. Dispirotripiperazine-core compounds, their biological activity with a focus on broad antiviral property, and perspectives in drug design (mini-review). Eur J Med Chem 2020; 211:113014. [PMID: 33218683 PMCID: PMC7658596 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.113014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites and have evolved to enter the host cell. To gain access they come into contact with the host cell through an initial adhesion, and some viruses from different genus may use heparan sulfate proteoglycans for it. The successful inhibition of this early event of the infection by synthetic molecules has always been an attractive target for medicinal chemists. Numerous reports have yielded insights into the function of compounds based on the dispirotripiperazine scaffold. Analysis suggests that this is a structural requirement for inhibiting the interactions between viruses and cell-surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans, thus preventing virus entry and replication. This review summarizes our current knowledge about the early history of development, synthesis, structure-activity relationships and antiviral evaluation of dispirotripiperazine-based compounds and where they are going in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Egorova
- Research Center of Biotechnology RAS, Leninsky Prospekt 33-2, 119071, Moscow, Russia
| | - Elke Bogner
- Institute of Virology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charité Campus Mitte, Chariteplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
| | - Elena Novoselova
- Research Center of Biotechnology RAS, Leninsky Prospekt 33-2, 119071, Moscow, Russia
| | - Kimberley M Zorn
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab, 3510, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Sean Ekins
- Collaborations Pharmaceuticals Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab, 3510, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Vadim Makarov
- Research Center of Biotechnology RAS, Leninsky Prospekt 33-2, 119071, Moscow, Russia.
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Tiwari V, Beer JC, Sankaranarayanan NV, Swanson-Mungerson M, Desai UR. Discovering small-molecule therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2. Drug Discov Today 2020; 25:1535-1544. [PMID: 32574699 PMCID: PMC7305878 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2020.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has rapidly become a global health pandemic. The lack of effective treatments, coupled with its etiology, has resulted in more than 400,000 deaths at the time of writing. The SARS-CoV-2 genome is highly homologous to that of SARS-CoV, the causative agent behind the 2003 SARS outbreak. Based on prior reports, clinicians have pursued the off-label use of several antiviral drugs, while the scientific community has responded by seeking agents against traditional targets, especially viral proteases. However, several avenues remain unexplored, including disrupting E and M protein oligomerization, outcompeting host glycan-virus interactions, interfering with the heparan sulfate proteoglycans-virus interaction, and others. In this review, we highlight some of these opportunities while summarizing the drugs currently in use against coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19).
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University Downers Grove, IL 6051, USA; Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA.
| | - Jacob C Beer
- Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Nehru Viji Sankaranarayanan
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 2321, USA
| | - Michelle Swanson-Mungerson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University Downers Grove, IL 6051, USA; Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Umesh R Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA; Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 2321, USA.
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11
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Seng C, Sharthiya H, Tiwari V, Fornaro M. Involvement of heparan sulfate during mouse cytomegalovirus infection in murine-derived immortalized neuronal cell line. Future Virol 2020. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2019-0161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus infection cause of severe developmental disorders of the CNS. Aim: In this study, we utilized a differentiated mouse-derived hippocampal cell line (dHT22) to understand mouse CMV (MCMV) infection. Results: The expression of immediate early genes ( IE) 1 and 3 confirmed the time-dependent susceptibility of dHT22 cells to MCMV infection. MCMV infection alters the cellular distribution of heparan sulfate (HS). In addition, pretreatment with heparinase significantly reduces virus infectivity. Conclusion: The compartmentalization of HS in MCMV infected cells suggests multiple roles of HS in virus life cycle ranging from viral entry to viral transport and cellular remodeling. An enzymatic heparinase assay confirmed that HS is critical for viral entry and trafficking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanmoly Seng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Graduate Studies & Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Harsh Sharthiya
- Department of Anatomy, College of Graduate Studies & Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies & Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Michele Fornaro
- Department of Anatomy, College of Graduate Studies & Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
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12
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Elste J, Kaltenbach D, Patel VR, Nguyen MT, Sharthiya H, Tandon R, Mehta SK, Volin MV, Fornaro M, Tiwari V, Desai UR. Inhibition of Human Cytomegalovirus Entry into Host Cells Through a Pleiotropic Small Molecule. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21051676. [PMID: 32121406 PMCID: PMC7084493 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infections are wide-spread among the general population with manifestations ranging from asymptomatic to severe developmental disabilities in newborns and life-threatening illnesses in individuals with a compromised immune system. Nearly all current drugs suffer from one or more limitations, which emphasizes the critical need to develop new approaches and new molecules. We reasoned that a ‘poly-pharmacy’ approach relying on simultaneous binding to multiple receptors involved in HCMV entry into host cells could pave the way to a more effective therapeutic outcome. This work presents the study of a synthetic, small molecule displaying pleiotropicity of interactions as a competitive antagonist of viral or cell surface receptors including heparan sulfate proteoglycans and heparan sulfate-binding proteins, which play important roles in HCMV entry and spread. Sulfated pentagalloylglucoside (SPGG), a functional mimetic of heparan sulfate, inhibits HCMV entry into human foreskin fibroblasts and neuroepithelioma cells with high potency. At the same time, SPGG exhibits no toxicity at levels as high as 50-fold more than its inhibition potency. Interestingly, cell-ELISA assays showed downregulation in HCMV immediate-early gene 1 and 2 (IE 1&2) expression in presence of SPGG further supporting inhibition of viral entry. Finally, HCMV foci were observed to decrease significantly in the presence of SPGG suggesting impact on viral spread too. Overall, this work offers the first evidence that pleiotropicity, such as demonstrated by SPGG, may offer a new poly-therapeutic approach toward effective inhibition of HCMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Elste
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies and Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA; (J.E.); (V.R.P.); (M.T.N.); (M.V.V.)
| | - Dominik Kaltenbach
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA;
| | - Vraj R. Patel
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies and Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA; (J.E.); (V.R.P.); (M.T.N.); (M.V.V.)
| | - Max T. Nguyen
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies and Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA; (J.E.); (V.R.P.); (M.T.N.); (M.V.V.)
| | - Harsh Sharthiya
- Department of Anatomy, College of Graduate Studies and Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA; (H.S.); (M.F.)
| | - Ritesh Tandon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 North State Street, Jackson, MS 39216, USA;
| | | | - Michael V. Volin
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies and Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA; (J.E.); (V.R.P.); (M.T.N.); (M.V.V.)
| | - Michele Fornaro
- Department of Anatomy, College of Graduate Studies and Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA; (H.S.); (M.F.)
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies and Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA; (J.E.); (V.R.P.); (M.T.N.); (M.V.V.)
- Correspondence: (V.T.); (U.R.D.)
| | - Umesh R. Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
- Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23219, USA
- Correspondence: (V.T.); (U.R.D.)
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13
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Mouse Cytomegalovirus Differentially Exploits Cell Surface Glycosaminoglycans in a Cell Type-Dependent and MCK-2-Independent Manner. Viruses 2019; 12:v12010031. [PMID: 31892128 PMCID: PMC7019585 DOI: 10.3390/v12010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many viruses initiate interaction with target cells by binding to cell surface glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Heparan sulfate (HS) appears to be particularly important in fibroblasts, epithelial cells and endothelial cells, where it represents the dominant GAG. How GAGs influence viral infectivity in HS-poor target cells such as macrophages has not been clearly defined. Here, we show that mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) targets HS in susceptible fibroblasts and cultured salivary gland acinar cells (SGACs), but not in macrophage cell lines and primary bone marrow-derived macrophages, where chondroitin sulfate was the dominant virus-binding GAG. MCK-2, an MCMV-encoded GAG-binding chemokine that promotes infection of macrophages as part of a gH/gL/MCK-2 entry complex, was dispensable for MCMV attachment to the cell surface and for direct infection of SGACs. Thus, MCMV tropism for target cells is markedly influenced by differential GAG expression, suggesting that the specificity of anti-GAG peptides now under development as HCMV therapeutics may need to be broadened for effective application as anti-viral agents.
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14
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Taouai M, Porkolab V, Chakroun K, Cheneau C, Luczkowiak J, Abidi R, Lesur D, Cragg PJ, Halary F, Delgado R, Fieschi F, Benazza M. Unprecedented Thiacalixarene Fucoclusters as Strong Inhibitors of Ebola cis-Cell Infection and HCMV-gB Glycoprotein/DC-SIGN C-type Lectin Interaction. Bioconjug Chem 2019; 30:1114-1126. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marwa Taouai
- Laboratoire de Glycochimie des Antimicrobiens et des Agroressources (LG2A-UMR7378-CNRS), Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 10 Rue Baudelocque, 80039, Amiens, France
- Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Laboratoire d’Application de la Chimie aux Ressources et Substances Naturelles et à l’Environnement (LACReSNE) Unité “Interactions Moléculaires Spécifiques”, Université de Carthage, Zarzouna-Bizerte, TN 7021, Tunisia
| | - Vanessa Porkolab
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, Institut de Biologie Structurale, 38044 Grenoble, France
| | - Khouloud Chakroun
- Laboratoire de Glycochimie des Antimicrobiens et des Agroressources (LG2A-UMR7378-CNRS), Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 10 Rue Baudelocque, 80039, Amiens, France
- Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Laboratoire d’Application de la Chimie aux Ressources et Substances Naturelles et à l’Environnement (LACReSNE) Unité “Interactions Moléculaires Spécifiques”, Université de Carthage, Zarzouna-Bizerte, TN 7021, Tunisia
| | - Coraline Cheneau
- Centre de Recherche
en Transplantation et Immunologie (CRTI), UMR 1064, Inserm, Université de Nantes, 44093 Nantes, France
| | - Joanna Luczkowiak
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid 28041, Spain
| | - Rym Abidi
- Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Laboratoire d’Application de la Chimie aux Ressources et Substances Naturelles et à l’Environnement (LACReSNE) Unité “Interactions Moléculaires Spécifiques”, Université de Carthage, Zarzouna-Bizerte, TN 7021, Tunisia
| | - David Lesur
- Laboratoire de Glycochimie des Antimicrobiens et des Agroressources (LG2A-UMR7378-CNRS), Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 10 Rue Baudelocque, 80039, Amiens, France
| | - Peter J. Cragg
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Science, University of Brighton, Brighton BN2 4GJ, United Kingdom
| | - Franck Halary
- Centre de Recherche
en Transplantation et Immunologie (CRTI), UMR 1064, Inserm, Université de Nantes, 44093 Nantes, France
- Institut de Transplantation Urologie Néphrologie (ITUN), CHU Nantes, 44093 Nantes, France
| | - Rafael Delgado
- Laboratorio de Microbiología Molecular, Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid 28041, Spain
| | - Franck Fieschi
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, Institut de Biologie Structurale, 38044 Grenoble, France
| | - Mohammed Benazza
- Laboratoire de Glycochimie des Antimicrobiens et des Agroressources (LG2A-UMR7378-CNRS), Université de Picardie Jules Verne, 10 Rue Baudelocque, 80039, Amiens, France
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15
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Anticytomegalovirus Peptides Point to New Insights for CMV Entry Mechanisms and the Limitations of In Vitro Screenings. mSphere 2019; 4:4/1/e00586-18. [PMID: 30760613 PMCID: PMC6374593 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00586-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In the absence of an effective vaccine to prevent HCMV infections, alternative interventions must be developed. Prevention of viral entry into susceptible cells is an attractive alternative strategy. Here we report that heparan sulfate-binding peptides effectively inhibit entry into fibroblasts of in vitro-derived CMVs and partially inhibit in vivo-derived CMVs. This includes the inhibition of urine-derived HCMV (uCMV), which is highly resistant to antibody neutralization. While these antiviral peptides are highly effective at inhibiting cell-free virus, they do not inhibit MCMV cell-to-cell spread. This underscores the need to understand the mechanism of cell-to-cell spread and differences between in vivo-derived versus in vitro-derived CMV entry to effectively prevent CMV’s spread. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a ubiquitous betaherpesvirus that can cause severe disease following in utero exposure, during primary infection, or latent virus reactivation in immunocompromised populations. These complications lead to a 1- to 2-billion-dollar economic burden, making vaccine development and/or alternative treatments a high priority. Current treatments for HCMV include nucleoside analogues such as ganciclovir (GCV), foscarnet, and cidofovir. Recently, letermovir, a terminase complex inhibitor, was approved for prophylaxis after stem cell transplantation. These treatments have unwanted side effects, and HCMV is becoming resistant to them. Therefore, we sought to develop an alternative treatment that targets a different stage in viral infection. Currently, small antiviral peptides are being investigated as anti-influenza and anti-HIV treatments. We have developed heparan sulfate-binding peptides as tools for preventing CMV infections. These peptides are highly effective at stopping infection of fibroblasts with in vitro-derived HCMV and murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV). However, they do not prevent MCMV infection in vivo. Interestingly, these peptides inhibit infectivity of in vivo-derived CMVs, albeit not as well as tissue culture-grown CMVs. We further demonstrate that this class of heparan sulfate-binding peptides is incapable of inhibiting MCMV cell-to-cell spread, which is independent of heparan sulfate usage. These data indicate that inhibition of CMV infection can be achieved using synthetic polybasic peptides, but cell-to-cell spread and in vivo-grown CMVs require further investigation to design appropriate anti-CMV peptides. IMPORTANCE In the absence of an effective vaccine to prevent HCMV infections, alternative interventions must be developed. Prevention of viral entry into susceptible cells is an attractive alternative strategy. Here we report that heparan sulfate-binding peptides effectively inhibit entry into fibroblasts of in vitro-derived CMVs and partially inhibit in vivo-derived CMVs. This includes the inhibition of urine-derived HCMV (uCMV), which is highly resistant to antibody neutralization. While these antiviral peptides are highly effective at inhibiting cell-free virus, they do not inhibit MCMV cell-to-cell spread. This underscores the need to understand the mechanism of cell-to-cell spread and differences between in vivo-derived versus in vitro-derived CMV entry to effectively prevent CMV’s spread.
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16
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Kaltenbach DD, Jaishankar D, Hao M, Beer JC, Volin MV, Desai UR, Tiwari V. Sulfotransferase and Heparanase: Remodeling Engines in Promoting Virus Infection and Disease Development. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1315. [PMID: 30555321 PMCID: PMC6282075 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
An extraordinary binding site generated in heparan sulfate (HS) structures, during its biosynthesis, provides a unique opportunity to interact with multiple protein ligands including viral proteins, and therefore adds tremendous value to this master molecule. An example of such a moiety is the sulfation at the C3 position of glucosamine residues in HS chain via 3-O sulfotransferase (3-OST) enzymes, which generates a unique virus-cell fusion receptor during herpes simplex virus (HSV) entry and spread. Emerging evidence now suggests that the unique patterns in HS sulfation assist multiple viruses in invading host cells at various steps of their life cycles. In addition, sulfated-HS structures are known to assist in invading host defense mechanisms and initiating multiple inflammatory processes; a critical event in the disease development. All these processes are detrimental for the host and therefore raise the question of how HS-sulfation is regulated. Epigenetic modulations have been shown to be implicated in these reactions during HSV infection as well as in HS modifying enzyme sulfotransferases, and therefore pose a critical component in answering it. Interestingly, heparanase (HPSE) activity is shown to be upregulated during virus infection and multiple other diseases assisting in virus replication to promote cell and tissue damage. These phenomena suggest that sulfotransferases and HPSE serve as key players in extracellular matrix remodeling and possibly generating unique signatures in a given disease. Therefore, identifying the epigenetic regulation of OST genes, and HPSE resulting in altered yet specific sulfation patterns in HS chain during virus infection, will be a significant a step toward developing potential diagnostic markers and designing novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik D Kaltenbach
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Dinesh Jaishankar
- Department of Ophthalmology & Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Meng Hao
- Chicago College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Jacob C Beer
- Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Michael V Volin
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
| | - Umesh R Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology, Drug Discovery and Development, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Vaibhav Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, United States
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17
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The D-form of a novel heparan binding peptide decreases cytomegalovirus infection in vivo and in vitro. Antiviral Res 2016; 135:15-23. [PMID: 27678155 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection in utero can lead to congenital sensory neural hearing loss and mental retardation. Reactivation or primary infection can increase the morbidity and mortality in immune suppressed transplant recipients and AIDS patients. The current standard of care for HCMV disease is nucleoside analogs, which can be nephrotoxic. In addition resistance to current treatments is becoming increasingly common. In an effort to develop novel CMV treatments, we tested the effectiveness of the D-form of a novel heparan sulfate binding peptide, p5RD, at reducing infection of ganciclovir (GCV) resistant HCMVs in vitro and MCMV in vivo. HCMV infection was reduced by greater than 90% when cells were pretreated with p5RD. Because p5RD acts by a mechanism unrelated to those used by current antivirals, it was effective at reducing GCV resistant HCMVs by 85%. We show that p5RD is resistant to common proteases and serum inactivation, which likely contributed to its ability to significantly reduced infection of peritoneal exudate cells and viral loads in the spleen and the lungs in vivo. The ability of p5RD to reduce HCMV infectivity in vitro including GCV resistant HCMVs and MCMV infection in vivo suggests that this peptide could be a novel anti-CMV therapeutic.
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18
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Barras A, Pagneux Q, Sane F, Wang Q, Boukherroub R, Hober D, Szunerits S. High Efficiency of Functional Carbon Nanodots as Entry Inhibitors of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:9004-13. [PMID: 27015417 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b01681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Nanostructures have been lately identified as an efficient therapeutic strategy to modulate viral attachment and entry. The high concentrations of ligands present on nanostructures can considerably enhance affinities toward biological receptors. We demonstrate here the potential of carbon nanodots (C-dots) surface-functionalized with boronic acid or amine functions to interfere with the entry of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). C-dots formed from 4-aminophenylboronic acid hydrochloride (4-AB/C-dots) using a modified hydrothermal carbonization are shown to prevent HSV-1 infection in the nanograms per milliliter concentration range (EC50 = 80 and 145 ng mL(-1) on Vero and A549 cells, respectively), whereas the corresponding C-dots formed from phenylboronic acid (B/C-dots) have no effects even at high concentrations. Some of the presented results also suggest that C-dots are specifically acting on the early stage of virus entry through an interaction with the virus and probably the cells at the same time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Barras
- Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics, and Nanotechnology (IEMN, UMR CNRS 8520), Université Lille 1 , Cité Scientifique, Avenue Poincaré, BP60069, 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Quentin Pagneux
- Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics, and Nanotechnology (IEMN, UMR CNRS 8520), Université Lille 1 , Cité Scientifique, Avenue Poincaré, BP60069, 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Famara Sane
- Laboratoire de Virologie EA3610, Université Lille 2 et CHU Lille, Batiment P Boulanger Hôpital A Calmette CHRU de Lille , Boulevard du Professeur Jules Leclerc, 59037 Lille, France
| | - Qi Wang
- Key Laboratory for Liquid-Solid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University , Jinan 250061, P. R. China
| | - Rabah Boukherroub
- Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics, and Nanotechnology (IEMN, UMR CNRS 8520), Université Lille 1 , Cité Scientifique, Avenue Poincaré, BP60069, 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Didier Hober
- Laboratoire de Virologie EA3610, Université Lille 2 et CHU Lille, Batiment P Boulanger Hôpital A Calmette CHRU de Lille , Boulevard du Professeur Jules Leclerc, 59037 Lille, France
| | - Sabine Szunerits
- Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics, and Nanotechnology (IEMN, UMR CNRS 8520), Université Lille 1 , Cité Scientifique, Avenue Poincaré, BP60069, 59652 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
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