SAMHD1 Inhibits Multiple Enteroviruses by Interfering with the Interaction between VP1 and VP2 Proteins

Emerging Therapeutics in the Fight Against EV-D68: A Review of Current Strategies

Enterovirus-D68 (EV-D68) was first identified in 1962 in pediatric patients with acute respiratory conditions in California, USA (US). From the 1970s to 2005, EV-D68 was underestimated due to limited data and serotyping methods. In 2014, the United States experienced outbreaks of acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) in children EV-D68 positive. WIN-like compounds (pleconaril, pocapavir, and vapendavir) bind to the virus capsid and have been tested against various enteroviruses (EVs) in clinical trials. However, these compounds encountered issues with resistance and adverse effects, which impeded their approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Presently, the medical field lacks FDA-approved antiviral treatments or vaccines for EV-D68. Ongoing research efforts are dedicated to identifying viable therapeutics to address EV-D68 infections. This review explores the current advancements in antiviral therapies and potential therapeutics to mitigate the significant impact of EV-D68 infection control.

Unveiling the Connection: Viral Infections and Genes in dNTP Metabolism

Deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs) are crucial for the replication and maintenance of genomic information within cells. The balance of the dNTP pool involves several cellular enzymes, including dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), ribonucleotide reductase (RNR), and SAM and HD domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1), among others. DHFR is vital for the de novo synthesis of purines and deoxythymidine monophosphate, which are necessary for DNA synthesis. SAMHD1, a ubiquitously expressed deoxynucleotide triphosphohydrolase, converts dNTPs into deoxynucleosides and inorganic triphosphates. This process counteracts the de novo dNTP synthesis primarily carried out by RNR and cellular deoxynucleoside kinases, which are most active during the S phase of the cell cycle. The intracellular levels of dNTPs can influence various viral infections. This review provides a concise summary of the interactions between different viruses and the genes involved in dNTP metabolism.

Impaired influenza A virus replication by the host restriction factor SAMHD1 which inhibited by PA-mediated dephosphorylation of the host transcription factor IRF3

BACKGROUND

Influenza A virus (IAV) can cause severe and life-threatening illness in humans and animals. Therefore, it is important to search for host antiviral proteins and elucidate their antiviral mechanisms for the development of potential treatments. As a part of human innate immunity, host restriction factors can inhibit the replication of viruses, among which SAM and HD domain containing deoxynucleoside triphosphate triphosphohydrolase 1 (SAMHD1) can restrict the replication of viruses, such as HIV and enterovirus EV71. Viruses also developed countermeasures in the arms race with their hosts. There are few reports about whether SAMHD1 has a restriction effect on IAV.

METHODS

To investigate the impact of IAV infection on SAMHD1 expression in A549 cells, we infected A549 cells with a varying multiplicity of infection (MOI) of IAV and collected cell samples at different time points for WB and RT-qPCR analysis to detect viral protein and SAMHD1 levels. The virus replication level in the cell culture supernatant was determined using TCID50 assay. Luciferase assay was used to reveal that H5N1 virus polymerase acidic protein (PA) affected the activity of the SAMHD1 promoter. To assess the antiviral capacity of SAMHD1, we generated a knockdown and overexpressed cell line for detecting H5N1 replication.

RESULTS

In this study, we observed that SAMHD1 can restrict the intracellular replication of H5N1 and that the H5N1 viral protein PA can downregulate the expression of SAMHD1 by affecting SAMHD1 transcriptional promoter activity. We also found that SAMHD1's ability to restrict H5N1 is related to phosphorylation at 592-tyrosine.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, we found that SAMHD1 may affect the replication of IAVs as a host restriction factor and be countered by PA. Furthermore, SAMHD1 may be a potential target for developing antiviral drugs.

The host antiviral protein SAMHD1 suppresses NF-κB activation by interacting with the IKK complex during inflammatory responses and viral infection

Sterile alpha motif and histidine-aspartate (HD) domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) inhibits HIV-1 replication in nondividing cells by reducing the intracellular dNTP pool. SAMHD1 also suppresses NF-κB activation induced by inflammatory stimuli and viral infections. Specifically, SAMHD1-mediated reduction of NF-κB inhibitory protein (IκBα) phosphorylation is important for the suppression of NF-κB activation. However, while the inhibitors of NF-κB kinase subunit alpha and beta (IKKα and IKKβ) regulate IκBα phosphorylation, the mechanism by which SAMHD1 regulates phosphorylation of IκBα remains unclear. Here, we report that SAMHD1 suppresses phosphorylation of IKKα/β/γ via interaction with IKKα and IKKβ, thus inhibiting subsequent phosphorylation of IκBα in monocytic THP-1 cells and differentiated nondividing THP-1 cells. We show that knockout of SAMHD1 enhanced phosphorylation of IKKα, IKKβ, and IKKγ in THP-1 cells treated with the NF-κB activator lipopolysaccharide or infected with Sendai virus and SAMHD1 reconstitution inhibited phosphorylation of IKKα/β/γ in Sendai virus-infected THP-1 cells. We demonstrate that endogenous SAMHD1 interacted with IKKα and IKKβ in THP-1 cells and recombinant SAMHD1 bound to purified IKKα or IKKβ directly in vitro. Mapping of these protein interactions showed that the HD domain of SAMHD1 interacts with both IKKα and IKKβ and that the kinase domain of IKKα and the ubiquitin-like domain of IKKβ are required for their interactions with SAMHD1, respectively. Moreover, we found that SAMHD1 disrupts the interaction between upstream kinase TAK1 and IKKα or IKKβ. Our findings identify a new regulatory mechanism by which SAMHD1 inhibits phosphorylation of IκBα and NF-κB activation.

Vemurafenib Inhibits Enterovirus A71 Genome Replication and Virus Assembly

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) infection is a major cause of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), which may be occasionally associated with severe neurological complications. There is currently a lack of treatment options for EV-A71 infection. The Raf-MEK-ERK signaling pathway, in addition to its critical importance in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and survival, has been shown to be essential for virus replication. In this study, we investigated the anti-EV-A71 activity of vemurafenib, a clinically approved B-Raf inhibitor used in the treatment of late-stage melanoma. Vemurafenib exhibits potent anti-EV-A71 effect in cytopathic effect inhibition and viral load reduction assays, with half maximal effective concentration (EC50) at nanomolar concentrations. Mechanistically, vemurafenib interrupts both EV-A71 genome replication and assembly. These findings expand the list of potential antiviral candidates of anti-EV-A71 therapeutics.

Host Restrictive Factors Are the Emerging Storm Troopers Against Enterovirus: A Mini-Review

Enterovirus infection continues to be a global health problem. The lack of specific drugs and broad-spectrum vaccines means an urgent need to develop effective strategies against enteroviruses. Host restrictive factors are a class of intrinsic host antiviral factors that have been broadly defined and investigated during HIV infections and have great significance for drug development and treatment design. In recent years, the essential role of host restrictive factors in regulating enteroviral infections has been gradually recognized and investigated. An increasing number of studies have shown that host-restrictive factors regulate multiple steps in the life cycle of enteroviruses. This mini-review discusses the restrictive factors against enteroviruses, their antiviral mechanism, and the arms race between them and enteroviruses. We also summarise the pathways that enteroviruses use to impair host antiviral signals. This mini-review characterizes the essential role of host restriction factors in enterovirus infections, which provides ideas and potential targets for antiviral drug design by regulating host restrictive factors. It also reveals potential future research on the interplay between host restrictive factors and enteroviruses.