Dimerization of the papillomavirus E2 protein is required for efficient mitotic chromosome association and Brd4 binding

Like Brothers in Arms: How Hormonal Stimuli and Changes in the Metabolism Signaling Cooperate, Leading HPV Infection to Drive the Onset of Cervical Cancer

Despite all precautionary actions and the possibility of using vaccinations to counteract infections caused by human papillomaviruses (HPVs), HPV-related cancers still account for approximately 5% of all carcinomas. Worldwide, many women are still excluded from adequate health care due to their social position and origin. Therefore, immense efforts in research and therapy are still required to counteract the challenges that this disease entails. The special thing about an HPV infection is that it is not only able to trick the immune system in a sophisticated way, but also, through genetic integration into the host genome, to use all the resources available to the host cells to complete the replication cycle of the virus without activating the alarm mechanisms of immune recognition and elimination. The mechanisms utilized by the virus are the metabolic, immune, and hormonal signaling pathways that it manipulates. Since the virus is dependent on replication enzymes of the host cells, it also intervenes in the cell cycle of the differentiating keratinocytes and shifts their terminal differentiation to the uppermost layers of the squamocolumnar transformation zone (TZ) of the cervix. The individual signaling pathways are closely related and equally important not only for the successful replication of the virus but also for the onset of cervical cancer. We will therefore analyze the effects of HPV infection on metabolic signaling, as well as changes in hormonal and immune signaling in the tumor and its microenvironment to understand how each level of signaling interacts to promote tumorigenesis of cervical cancer.

Human Cytomegalovirus Genomes Survive Mitosis via the IE19 Chromatin-Tethering Domain

The genomes of DNA tumor viruses regain nuclear localization after nuclear envelope breakdown during mitosis through the action of a viral protein with a chromatin-tethering domain (CTD). Here, we report that the human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) genome is maintained during mitosis by the CTD of the viral IE19 protein. Deletion of the IE19 CTD or disruption of the IE19 splice acceptor site reduced viral genome maintenance and progeny virion formation during infection of dividing fibroblasts, both of which were rescued by IE19 ectopic expression. The discovery of a viral genome maintenance factor during productive infection provides new insight into the mode of HCMV infection implicated in birth defects, organ transplant failure, and cancer.IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is the leading infectious cause of birth defects, represents a serious complication for immunocompromised HIV/AIDS and organ transplant patients, and contributes to both immunosenescence and cardiovascular diseases. HCMV is also implicated in cancers such as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) and infects ex vivo-cultured GBM tumor cells. In dividing tumor cells, the genomes of DNA tumor viruses regain nuclear localization after nuclear envelope breakdown during mitosis. This mitotic survival is mediated by a viral protein with a chromatin-tethering domain (CTD). Here, we report that the HCMV genome is maintained in dividing fibroblasts by the CTD of the viral IE19 protein. The discovery of a viral genome maintenance factor during productive infection could help explain viral genome dynamics within HCMV-positive tumors as well as during latency.

The Relationship between Estrogen-Related Signaling and Human Papillomavirus Positive Cancers

High risk-human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are known carcinogens. Numerous reports have linked the steroid hormone estrogen, and the expression of estrogen receptors (ERs), to HPV-related cancers, although the exact nature of the interactions remains to be fully elucidated. Here we will focus on estrogen signaling and describe both pro and potentially anti-cancer effects of this hormone in HPV-positive cancers. This review will summarize: (1) cell culture-related evidence, (2) animal model evidence, and (3) clinical evidence demonstrating an interaction between estrogen and HPV-positive cancers. This comprehensive review provides insights into the potential relationship between estrogen and HPV. We suggest that estrogen may provide a potential therapeutic for HPV-related cancers, however additional studies are necessary.

Hitchhiking of Viral Genomes on Cellular Chromosomes

Persistent viral infections require a host cell reservoir that maintains functional copies of the viral genome. To this end, several DNA viruses maintain their genomes as extrachromosomal DNA minichromosomes in actively dividing cells. These viruses typically encode a viral protein that binds specifically to viral DNA genomes and tethers them to host mitotic chromosomes, thus enabling the viral genomes to hitchhike or piggyback into daughter cells. Viruses that use this tethering mechanism include papillomaviruses and the gammaherpesviruses Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. This review describes the advantages and consequences of persistent extrachromosomal viral genome replication.

The SMC5/6 Complex Interacts with the Papillomavirus E2 Protein and Influences Maintenance of Viral Episomal DNA

The papillomavirus E2 protein executes numerous essential functions related to viral transcription, replication of viral DNA, and viral genome maintenance. Because E2 lacks enzymatic activity, many of these functions are mediated by interactions with host cellular proteins. Unbiased proteomics approaches have successfully identified a number of E2-host protein interactions. We have extended such studies and have identified and validated the cellular proteins structural maintenance of chromosome 5 (SMC5) and SMC6 as interactors of the viral E2 protein. These two proteins make up the core components of the SMC5/6 complex. The SMC5/6 complex is a member of the conserved structural maintenance of chromosomes (SMC) family of proteins, which are essential for genome maintenance. We have examined the role of SMC5/6 in various E2 functions. Our data suggest that SMC6 is not required for E2-mediated transcriptional activation, E1/E2-mediated transient replication, or differentiation-dependent amplification of viral DNA. Our data, however, suggest a role for SMC5/6 in viral genome maintenance.IMPORTANCE The high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are the etiological cause of cervical cancer and the most common sexually transmitted infection. While the majority of infections may be asymptomatic or cause only benign lesions, persistent infection with the oncogenic high-risk HPV types may lead to serious diseases, such as cervical cancer, anogenital carcinoma, or head and neck oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma. The identification of virus-host protein interactions provides insights into the mechanisms of viral DNA persistence, viral genome replication, and cellular transformation. Elucidating the mechanism of early events in the virus replication cycle as well as of integration of viral DNA into host chromatin may present novel antiviral strategies and targets for counteracting persistent infection. The E2 protein is an important viral regulatory protein whose functions are mediated through interactions with host cell proteins. Here we explore the interaction of E2 with SMC5/6 and the functional consequences.

DNA Damage Reduces the Quality, but Not the Quantity of Human Papillomavirus 16 E1 and E2 DNA Replication

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are causative agents in almost all cervical carcinomas. HPVs are also causative agents in head and neck cancer, the cases of which are increasing rapidly. Viral replication activates the DNA damage response (DDR) pathway; associated proteins are recruited to replication foci, and this pathway may serve to allow for viral genome amplification. Likewise, HPV genome double-strand breaks (DSBs) could be produced during replication and could lead to linearization and viral integration. Many studies have shown that viral integration into the host genome results in unregulated expression of the viral oncogenes, E6 and E7, promoting HPV-induced carcinogenesis. Previously, we have demonstrated that DNA-damaging agents, such as etoposide, or knocking down viral replication partner proteins, such as topoisomerase II β binding protein I (TopBP1), does not reduce the level of DNA replication. Here, we investigated whether these treatments alter the quality of DNA replication by HPV16 E1 and E2. We confirm that knockdown of TopBP1 or treatment with etoposide does not reduce total levels of E1/E2-mediated DNA replication; however, the quality of replication is significantly reduced. The results demonstrate that E1 and E2 continue to replicate under genomically-stressed conditions and that this replication is mutagenic. This mutagenesis would promote the formation of substrates for integration of the viral genome into that of the host, a hallmark of cervical cancer.

Failure to interact with Brd4 alters the ability of HPV16 E2 to regulate host genome expression and cellular movement

The E2 protein of the carcinogen human papillomavirus 16 (HPV16) regulates replication and transcription of the viral genome in association with viral and cellular proteins. Our previous work demonstrated that E2 can regulate transcription from the host genome. E2 can activate transcription from adjacent promoters when located upstream using E2 DNA binding sequences and this activation is dependent upon the cellular protein Brd4; this report demonstrates that a Brd4 binding E2 mutant alters host genome expression differently from wild type E2. Of particular note is that highly down regulated genes are mostly not affected by failure to interact with Brd4 suggesting that the E2-Brd4 interaction is more responsible for the transcriptional activation of host genes rather than repression. Therefore failure to interact efficiently with Brd4, or altered levels of Brd4, would alter the ability of E2 to regulate the host genome and could contribute to determining the outcome of infection.

Evidence supporting a role for TopBP1 and Brd4 in the initiation but not continuation of human papillomavirus 16 E1/E2-mediated DNA replication

To replicate the double-stranded human papillomavirus 16 (HPV16) DNA genome, viral proteins E1 and E2 associate with the viral origin of replication, and E2 can also regulate transcription from adjacent promoters. E2 interacts with host proteins in order to regulate both transcription and replication; TopBP1 and Brd4 are cellular proteins that interact with HPV16 E2. Previous work with E2 mutants demonstrated the Brd4 requirement for the transactivation properties of E2, while TopBP1 is required for DNA replication induced by E2 from the viral origin of replication in association with E1. More-recent studies have also implicated Brd4 in the regulation of DNA replication by E2 and E1. Here, we demonstrate that both TopBP1 and Brd4 are present at the viral origin of replication and that interaction with E2 is required for optimal initiation of DNA replication. Both cellular proteins are present in E1-E2-containing nuclear foci, and the viral origin of replication is required for the efficient formation of these foci. Short hairpin RNA (shRNA) against either TopBP1 or Brd4 destroys the E1-E2 nuclear bodies but has no effect on E1-E2-mediated levels of DNA replication. An E2 mutation in the context of the complete HPV16 genome that compromises Brd4 interaction fails to efficiently establish episomes in primary human keratinocytes. Overall, the results suggest that interactions between TopBP1 and E2 and between Brd4 and E2 are required to correctly initiate DNA replication but are not required for continuing DNA replication, which may be mediated by alternative processes such as rolling circle amplification and/or homologous recombination.

IMPORTANCE

Human papillomavirus 16 (HPV16) is causative in many human cancers, including cervical and head and neck cancers, and is responsible for the annual deaths of hundreds of thousands of people worldwide. The current vaccine will save lives in future generations, but antivirals targeting HPV16 are required for the alleviation of disease burden on the current, and future, generations. Targeting viral DNA replication that is mediated by two viral proteins, E1 and E2, in association with cellular proteins such as TopBP1 and Brd4 would have therapeutic benefits. This report suggests a role for these cellular proteins in the initiation of viral DNA replication by HPV16 E1-E2 but not for continuing replication. This is important if viral replication is to be effectively targeted; we need to understand the viral and cellular proteins required at each phase of viral DNA replication so that it can be effectively disrupted.

Papillomavirus genomes associate with BRD4 to replicate at fragile sites in the host genome

It has long been recognized that oncogenic viruses often integrate close to common fragile sites. The papillomavirus E2 protein, in complex with BRD4, tethers the viral genome to host chromatin to ensure persistent replication. Here, we map these targets to a number of large regions of the human genome and name them Persistent E2 and BRD4-Broad Localized Enrichments of Chromatin or PEB-BLOCs. PEB-BLOCs frequently contain deletions, have increased rates of asynchronous DNA replication, and are associated with many known common fragile sites. Cell specific fragile sites were mapped in human C-33 cervical cells by FANCD2 ChIP-chip, confirming the association with PEB-BLOCs. HPV-infected cells amplify viral DNA in nuclear replication foci and we show that these form adjacent to PEB-BLOCs. We propose that HPV replication, which hijacks host DNA damage responses, occurs adjacent to highly susceptible fragile sites, greatly increasing the chances of integration here, as is found in HPV-associated cancers.

Papillomavirus cause persistent, but mostly self-limiting, infections of the host epithelium. However, a subset of oncogenic papillomaviruses is the causative agent of certain human cancers. In persistent infection the viral genomes are tethered to host chromosomes to maintain and partition the extrachromosomal viral genomes to daughter cells. However, in cancers viral DNA is often found integrated close to common fragile sites, regions prone to breakage, amplification and deletion. We show that the viral E2 and cellular BRD4 proteins are associated with fragile regions of the human genome and nucleate viral replication foci at these sites. This is a resourceful strategy for a virus that uses the host DNA damage response to amplify viral DNA. However, the outcome may be increased accidental integration of viral DNA, which in the case of the oncogenic viruses can promote carcinogenesis.

Analysis of the papillomavirus E2 and bromodomain protein Brd4 interaction using bimolecular fluorescence complementation

The human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines effectively protect against new infections of up to four HPV subtypes. However, these vaccines are not protective against many other clinically relevant HPV subtypes and are ineffective at treating established HPV infections. There is therefore a significant need for antiviral treatments for persistent HPV infections. A promising anti-HPV drug target is the interaction between the HPV E2 protein and cellular bromodomain-containing protein 4 (Brd4) since this protein complex mediates several processes important for the viral life cycle including viral genome maintenance, replication, and transcription. Using bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) technology, we demonstrate the E2 and Brd4 interaction on both interphase chromatin and mitotic chromosomes throughout mitosis. The E2-Brd4 BiFC was significantly diminished by mutating the Brd4 binding sites in E2 or by a dominant negative inhibitor of the E2-Brd4 interaction, demonstrating the potential of BiFC for identifying inhibitors of this important virus-host interaction. Importantly, when Brd4 was released from chromatin using the bromodomain inhibitor JQ1(+), the E2-Brd4 interacting complex relocated into foci that no longer associate with mitotic chromosomes, pointing to JQ1(+) as a promising antiviral inhibitor of HPV genome maintenance during HPV persistent infection.

Current understanding of the role of the Brd4 protein in the papillomavirus lifecycle

The Brd4 protein is an epigenetic reader that is central to regulation of cellular transcription and mitotic bookmarking. The transcription and replication proteins of many viruses interact with Brd4. We describe the multiple roles of Brd4 in the papillomavirus lifecycle.

Recruitment of Brd4 to the human papillomavirus type 16 DNA replication complex is essential for replication of viral DNA

Replication of the human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA genome relies on viral factors E1 and E2 and the cellular replication machinery. Bromodomain-containing protein 4 (Brd4) interacts with viral E2 protein to mediate papillomavirus (PV) genome maintenance and viral transcription. However, the functional role of Brd4 in the HPV life cycle remains to be clearly defined. In this study, we provide the first look into the E2-Brd4 interaction in the presence of other important viral factors, such as the HPV16 E1 protein and the viral genome. We show that Brd4 is recruited to actively replicating HPV16 origin foci together with HPV16 E1, E2, and a number of the cellular replication factors: replication protein A70 (RPA70), replication factor C1 (RFC1), and DNA polymerase δ. Mutagenesis disrupting the E2-Brd4 interaction abolishes the formation of the HPV16 replication complex and impairs HPV16 DNA replication in cells. Brd4 was further demonstrated to be necessary for HPV16 viral DNA replication using a cell-free replication system in which depletion of Brd4 by small interfering RNA (siRNA) silencing leads to impaired HPV16 viral DNA replication and recombinant Brd4 protein is able to rescue viral DNA replication. In addition, releasing endogenous Brd4 from cellular chromatin by using the bromodomain inhibitor JQ1(+) enhances HPV16 DNA replication, demonstrating that the role of Brd4 in HPV DNA replication could be uncoupled from its function in chromatin-associated transcriptional regulation and cell cycle control. Our study reveals a new role for Brd4 in HPV genome replication, providing novel insights into understanding the life cycle of this oncogenic DNA virus.

Hitchhiking on host chromatin: how papillomaviruses persist

Persistent viruses need mechanisms to protect their genomes from cellular defenses and to ensure that they are efficiently propagated to daughter host cells. One mechanism by which papillomaviruses achieve this is through the association of viral genomes with host chromatin, mediated by the viral E2 tethering protein. Association of viral DNA with regions of active host chromatin ensures that the virus remains transcriptionally active and is not relegated to repressed heterochromatin. In addition, viral genomes are tethered to specific regions of host mitotic chromosomes to efficiently partition their DNA to daughter cells. Vegetative viral DNA replication also initiates at specific regions of host chromatin, where the viral E1 and E2 proteins initiate a DNA damage response that recruits cellular DNA damage and repair proteins to viral replication foci for efficient viral DNA synthesis. Thus, these small viruses have capitalized on interactions with chromatin to efficiently target their genomes to beneficial regions of the host nucleus. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Chromatin in time and space.

A point mutation in the DNA-binding domain of HPV-2 E2 protein increases its DNA-binding capacity and reverses its transcriptional regulatory activity on the viral early promoter

Background

The human papillomavirus (HPV) E2 protein is a multifunctional DNA-binding protein. The transcriptional activity of HPV E2 is mediated by binding to its specific binding sites in the upstream regulatory region of the HPV genomes. Previously we reported a HPV-2 variant from a verrucae vulgaris patient with huge extensive clustered cutaneous, which have five point mutations in its E2 ORF, L118S, S235P, Y287H, S293R and A338V. Under the control of HPV-2 LCR, co-expression of the mutated HPV E2 induced an increased activity on the viral early promoter. In the present study, a series of mammalian expression plasmids encoding E2 proteins with one to five amino acid (aa) substitutions for these mutations were constructed and transfected into HeLa, C33A and SiHa cells.

Results

CAT expression assays indicated that the enhanced promoter activity was due to the co-expressions of the E2 constructs containing A338V mutation within the DNA-binding domain. Western blots analysis demonstrated that the transiently transfected E2 expressing plasmids, regardless of prototype or the A338V mutant, were continuously expressed in the cells. To study the effect of E2 mutations on its DNA-binding activity, a serial of recombinant E2 proteins with various lengths were expressed and purified. Electrophoresis mobility shift assays (EMSA) showed that the binding affinity of E2 protein with A338V mutation to both an artificial probe with two E2 binding sites or HPV-2 and HPV-16 promoter-proximal LCR sequences were significantly stronger than that of the HPV-2 prototype E2. Furthermore, co-expression of the construct containing A338V mutant exhibited increased activities on heterologous HPV-16 early promoter P97 than that of prototype E2.

Conclusions

These results suggest that the mutation from Ala to Val at aa 338 is critical for E2 DNA-binding and its transcriptional regulation.

In vivo analysis of the cell cycle dependent association of the bovine papillomavirus E2 protein and ChlR1

It has been shown that the genomes of episomally maintained DNA viruses are tethered to host cell chromosomes during cell division, facilitating maintenance in dividing cells. The papillomavirus E2 protein serves this mechanism of viral genome persistence by simultaneously associating with chromatin and the viral genome during mitosis. Several host cell proteins are reported to be necessary for the association of E2 with chromatin including the cohesion establishment factor ChlR1. Here we use fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) technology to confirm the interaction between BPV-1 E2 and ChlR1. Furthermore, we use synchronised live cells to study the temporal nature of this dynamic protein interaction and show that ChlR1 and E2 interact during specific phases of the cell cycle. These data provide evidence that the association of E2 with ChlR1 contributes to a loading mechanism during DNA replication rather than direct tethering during mitotic division.

Tumor suppressor or oncogene? A critical role of the human papillomavirus (HPV) E2 protein in cervical cancer progression

The papillomavirus (PV) E2 proteins have been shown to exert many functions in the viral cycle including pivotal roles in transcriptional regulation and in viral DNA replication. Besides these historical roles, which rely on their aptitude to bind to specific DNA sequences, E2 has also been shown to modulate the host cells through direct protein interactions mainly through its amino terminal transactivation domain. We will describe here some of these new functions of E2 and their potential implication in the HPV-induced carcinogenesis. More particularly we will focus on E2-mediated modulation of the host cell cycle and consequences to cell transformation. In all, the HPV E2 proteins exhibit complex functions independent of transcription that can modulate the host cells in concert with the viral vegetative cycle and which could be involved in early carcinogenesis.

Human papillomavirus E2 protein with single activation domain initiates HPV18 genome replication, but is not sufficient for long-term maintenance of virus genome

The papillomavirus life cycle is regulated by a family of proteins encoded by the E2 open reading frame; E2 proteins regulate viral gene expression, DNA replication and genome maintenance. We have previously shown that the bovine papillomavirus (BPV1) full-length E2 protein forms heterodimers with repressor forms of E2, and these E2 heterodimers serve as activators of transcription and replication during the viral life cycle. In the present study, using the single-chain E2 heterodimer as a model, we show that human papillomavirus (HPV) 11 and 18 E2 heterodimers with single activation domain are able to initiate replication of URR-containing plasmid in transient assay. Single-chain E2 heterodimer in the context of HPV18 genome initiates genome replication, but is not sufficient for long-term replication of HPV18 genome. We also show that HPV18 genome has a capacity to encode truncated E2 repressor E8/E2 which acts as a negative regulator of HPV18 genome replication.

Interaction of the betapapillomavirus E2 tethering protein with mitotic chromosomes

During persistent papillomavirus infection, the viral E2 protein tethers the viral genome to the host cell chromosomes, ensuring maintenance and segregation of the viral genome during cell division. However, E2 proteins from different papillomaviruses interact with distinct chromosomal regions and targets. The tethering mechanism has been best characterized for bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV1), where the E2 protein tethers the viral genome to mitotic chromosomes in complex with the cellular bromodomain protein, Brd4. In contrast, the betapapillomavirus human papillomavirus type 8 (HPV8) E2 protein binds to the repeated ribosomal DNA genes that are found on the short arm of human acrocentric chromosomes. In this study, we show that a short 16-amino-acid peptide from the hinge region and the C-terminal DNA binding domain of HPV8 E2 are necessary and sufficient for interaction with mitotic chromosomes. This 16-amino-acid region contains an RXXS motif that is highly conserved among betapapillomaviruses, and both arginine 250 and serine 253 residues within this motif are required for mitotic chromosome binding. The HPV8 E2 proteins are highly phosphorylated, and serine 253 is a site of phosphorylation. The HPV8 E2 chromosome binding sequence also has sequence similarity with chromosome binding regions in the gammaherpesvirus EBNA and LANA tethering proteins.

Papillomavirus interaction with cellular chromatin

High-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is the primary risk factor for cervical cancer. HPVs establish persistent infection by maintaining their genomes as extrachromosomal elements (episomes) that replicate along with host DNA in infected cells. The productive life cycle of HPV is intimately tied to the differentiation program of host squamous epithelium. This review examines the involvement of host chromatin in multiple aspects of the papillomavirus life cycle and the malignant progression of infected host cells. Papillomavirus utilizes host mitotic chromosomes as vehicles for transmitting its genetic materials across the cell cycle. By hitchhiking on host mitotic chromosomes, the virus ensures accurate segregation of the replicated viral episomes to the daughter cells during host cell division. This strategy allows persistent maintenance of the viral episome in the infected cells. In the meantime, the virus subverts the host chromatin-remodeling factors to promote viral transcription and efficient propagation of viral genomes. By associating with the host chromatin, papillomavirus redirects the normal cellular control of chromatin to create a cellular environment conducive to both its own survival and malignant progression of host cells. Comprehensive understanding of HPV-host chromatin interaction will offer new insights into the HPV life cycle as well as chromatin regulation. This virus-host interaction will also provide a paradigm for investigating other episomal DNA tumor viruses that share a similar mechanism for interacting with host chromatin.

Bovine papillomavirus type 1 E2 protein heterodimer is functional in papillomavirus DNA replication in vivo

Papillomaviruses are small DNA viruses that induce epithelial lesions in their host. The viral life cycle is regulated by the family of proteins encoded by the E2 open reading frame. In addition to the full-length E2 protein, the BPV-1 genome encodes two truncated E2 proteins, E2C and E8/E2, which maintain the DNA-binding-dimerization domains, but lack the activation domain. Heterodimers formed between the full-length E2 and truncated E2 proteins serve as activators of E2-dependent transcription and papillomavirus DNA replication. We show that the single activation domain of E2 is sufficient for interaction with viral helicase E1 and for initiation of DNA replication from different papillomavirus origins. Single-chain E2 heterodimer is able to activate papillomavirus DNA replication in the context of entire BPV genome in the absence of other E2 proteins. These data suggest that E2 heterodimers with single activation domain are functional in initiation of papillomavirus replication in vivo.

Replication and partitioning of papillomavirus genomes

Papillomaviruses establish persistent infection in the dividing, basal epithelial cells of the host. The viral genome is maintained as a circular, double-stranded DNA, extrachromosomal element within these cells. Viral genome amplification occurs only when the epithelial cells differentiate and viral particles are shed in squames that are sloughed from the surface of the epithelium. There are three modes of replication in the papillomavirus life cycle. Upon entry, in the establishment phase, the viral genome is amplified to a low copy number. In the second maintenance phase, the genome replicates in dividing cells at a constant copy number, in synchrony with the cellular DNA. And finally, in the vegetative or productive phase, the viral DNA is amplified to a high copy number in differentiated cells and is destined to be packaged in viral capsids. This review discusses the cis elements and protein factors required for each stage of papillomavirus replication.

The human papillomavirus type 8 E2 tethering protein targets the ribosomal DNA loci of host mitotic chromosomes

For many papillomaviruses, the viral protein E2 tethers the viral genome to the host mitotic chromosomes to ensure persistent, long-term maintenance of the genome during cell division. Our previous studies of E2 proteins from different genera of papillomaviruses have shown that they bind to different regions of the host chromosomes during mitosis. For example, bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV-1) E2 binds to all chromosomes as small speckles in complex with the cellular protein Brd4. In contrast, the human papillomavirus type 8 (HPV-8) E2 protein binds as large speckles at the pericentromeric regions of chromosomes. Here we show that these speckles do not contain Brd4, and unlike that of BPV-1, the N-terminal Brd4-interacting domain of HPV-8 E2 is not required for chromosome binding. In contrast to BPV-1 E2, the HPV-8 E2 protein targets the short arms of acrocentric mitotic chromosomes. Furthermore, the E2 protein interacts with the repeated ribosomal DNA genes found in this location and colocalizes with UBF, the RNA polymerase I transcription factor. Therefore, HPV-8 E2 genome tethering occurs by a Brd4-independent mechanism through a novel interaction with specific regions of mitotic chromosomes. Thus, a wide range of viruses have adopted the strategy of linking their genomes to host chromosomes, but individual viruses use different chromosomal targets. Characterization of these targets will enable the development of antiviral therapies to eliminate the viral genomes from infected cells.