The myxoma virus m-t5 ankyrin repeat host range protein is a novel adaptor that coordinately links the cellular signaling pathways mediated by Akt and Skp1 in virus-infected cells

The study on the mechanism of miR-29a in SPPV infection

The members of the miR-29 family play an important role in the process of viral infection. The sheep pox epidemic has hindered the development of the livestock industry worldwide. The aim of this study was to analyze the action mechanism of miR-29a during sheep pox virus (SPPV) infection. We found that during viral infection, miR-29a showed a trend of increasing, then decreasing, and then again increasing. It was determined that AKT3 was a target gene of miR-29a, and miR-29a might be involved in the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. SPPV was able to inhibit cell proliferation and promote apoptosis, and miR-29a reversed the inhibition of cell proliferation by SPPV and the promotion of apoptosis. This study provides an experimental basis and theoretical foundation for the pathogenic mechanism of SPPV infection, as well as contributing to the proposal of new strategies for the development of anti-sheep-poxvirus drugs.

Unique ankyrin repeat proteins in the genome of poxviruses-Boon or Wane, a critical review

Ankyrin repeat is a 33-amino acid motif commonly observed in eukaryotes and, to a lesser extent, in prokaryotes and archaea and rarely in viruses. This motif plays a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes like the cell cycle, transcription, cell signaling, and inflammatory responses through interactions between proteins. Poxviruses exhibit a distinctive feature of containing multiple ankyrin repeat proteins within their genomes. All the genera of poxviruses possess these proteins except molluscipox virus, crocodylidpox virus, and red squirrel poxvirus. An intriguing characteristic has generated notable interest in studying the functions of these proteins within poxvirus biology. Within poxviruses, ankyrin repeat proteins exhibit a distinct configuration, featuring ankyrin repeats in the N-terminal region and a cellular F-box homolog in the C-terminal region, which enables interactions with the cellular Skp, Cullin, F-box containing ubiquitin ligase complex. Through the examination of experimental evidences and discussions from current literature, this review elucidates the organization and role of ankyrin repeat proteins in poxviruses. Various research studies have highlighted the significant importance of these proteins in poxviral pathogenesis and, acting as factors that enhance virulence. Consequently, they represent viable targets for developing genetically altered viruses with decreased virulence, thus displaying potential as candidates for vaccines and antiviral therapeutic development contributing to safer and more effective strategies against poxviral infections.

Induction of tumor cell autosis by myxoma virus-infected CAR-T and TCR-T cells to overcome primary and acquired resistance

Cytotoxicity of tumor-specific T cells requires tumor cell-to-T cell contact-dependent induction of classic tumor cell apoptosis and pyroptosis. However, this may not trigger sufficient primary responses of solid tumors to adoptive cell therapy or prevent tumor antigen escape-mediated acquired resistance. Here we test myxoma virus (MYXV)-infected tumor-specific T (TMYXV) cells expressing chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) or T cell receptor (TCR), which systemically deliver MYXV into solid tumors to overcome primary resistance. In addition to T cell-induced apoptosis and pyroptosis, tumor eradication by CAR/TCR-TMYXV cells is also attributed to tumor cell autosis induction, a special type of cell death. Mechanistically, T cell-derived interferon γ (IFNγ)-protein kinase B (AKT) signaling synergizes with MYXV-induced M-T5-SKP-1-VPS34 signaling to trigger robust tumor cell autosis. CAR/TCR-TMYXV-elicited autosis functions as a type of potent bystander killing to restrain antigen escape. We uncover an unexpected synergy between T cells and MYXV to bolster solid tumor cell autosis that reinforces tumor clearance.

Poxviral ANKR/F-box Proteins: Substrate Adapters for Ubiquitylation and More

Poxviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses that infect insects and a variety of vertebrate species. The large genomes of poxviruses contain numerous genes that allow these viruses to successfully establish infection, including those that help evade the host immune response and prevent cell death. Ankyrin-repeat (ANKR)/F-box proteins are almost exclusively found in poxviruses, and they function as substrate adapters for Skp1-Cullin-1-F-box protein (SCF) multi-subunit E3 ubiquitin (Ub)-ligases. In this regard, they use their C-terminal F-box domain to bind Skp1, Cullin-1, and Roc1 to recruit cellular E2 enzymes to facilitate the ubiquitylation, and subsequent proteasomal degradation, of proteins bound to their N-terminal ANKRs. However, these proteins do not just function as substrate adapters as they also have Ub-independent activities. In this review, we examine both Ub-dependent and -independent activities of ANKR/F-box proteins and discuss how poxviruses use these proteins to counteract the host innate immune response, uncoat their genome, replicate, block cell death, and influence transcription. Finally, we consider important outstanding questions that need to be answered in order to better understand the function of this versatile protein family.

A Novel Imaging Approach for Single-Cell Real-Time Analysis of Oncolytic Virus Replication and Efficacy in Cancer Cells

Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are novel cancer gene therapies that are moving toward the forefront of modern medicines. However, their full therapeutic potential is hindered by the lack of convenient and reliable strategies to visualize and quantify OV growth kinetics and therapeutic efficacy in live cells. In this study, we present an innovative imaging approach for single-cell real-time analysis of OV replication and efficacy in cancer cells. We selected SG33 as a prototypic new OV that derives from wild-type Myxoma virus (MYXV). Lausanne Toulouse 1 (T1) was used as control. We equipped SG33 and T1 genomes with the ANCHOR system and infected a panel of cell lines. The ANCHOR system is composed of a fusion protein (OR-GFP) that specifically binds to a short nonrepetitive DNA target sequence (ANCH) and spreads onto neighboring sequences by protein oligomerization. Its accumulation on the tagged viral DNA results in the creation of fluorescent foci. We found that (1) SG33 and T1-ANCHOR DNA can be readily detected and quantified by live imaging, (2) both OVs generate perinuclear replication foci after infection clustering into horse-shoe shape replication centers, and (3) SG33 replicates to higher levels as compared with T1. Lastly, as a translational proof of concept, we benchmarked SG33 replication and oncolytic efficacy in primary cancer cells derived from pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDAC) both at the population and at the single-cell levels. In vivo, SG33 significantly replicates in experimental tumors to inhibit tumor growth. Collectively, we provide herein for the first time a novel strategy to quantify each step of OV infection in live cells and in real time by tracking viral DNA and provide first evidence of theranostic strategies for PDAC patients. Thus, this approach has the potential to rationalize the use of OVs for the benefit of patients with incurable diseases.

Emerging translation strategies during virus-host interaction

Translation control is crucial during virus-host interaction. On one hand, viruses completely rely on the protein synthesis machinery of host cells to propagate and have evolved various mechanisms to redirect the host's ribosomes toward their viral mRNAs. On the other hand, the host rewires its translation program in an attempt to contain and suppress the virus early on during infection; the antiviral program includes specific control on protein synthesis to translate several antiviral mRNAs involved in quenching the infection. As the infection progresses, host translation is in turn inhibited in order to limit viral propagation. We have learnt of very diverse strategies that both parties utilize to gain or retain control over the protein synthesis machinery. Yet novel strategies continue to be discovered, attesting for the importance of mRNA translation in virus-host interaction. This review focuses on recently described translation strategies employed by both hosts and viruses. These discoveries provide additional pieces in the understanding of the complex virus-host translation landscape. This article is categorized under: Translation > Translation Mechanisms Translation > Translation Regulation.

From Gene to Protein-How Bacterial Virulence Factors Manipulate Host Gene Expression During Infection

Bacteria evolved many strategies to survive and persist within host cells. Secretion of bacterial effectors enables bacteria not only to enter the host cell but also to manipulate host gene expression to circumvent clearance by the host immune response. Some effectors were also shown to evade the nucleus to manipulate epigenetic processes as well as transcription and mRNA procession and are therefore classified as nucleomodulins. Others were shown to interfere downstream with gene expression at the level of mRNA stability, favoring either mRNA stabilization or mRNA degradation, translation or protein stability, including mechanisms of protein activation and degradation. Finally, manipulation of innate immune signaling and nutrient supply creates a replicative niche that enables bacterial intracellular persistence and survival. In this review, we want to highlight the divergent strategies applied by intracellular bacteria to evade host immune responses through subversion of host gene expression via bacterial effectors. Since these virulence proteins mimic host cell enzymes or own novel enzymatic functions, characterizing their properties could help to understand the complex interactions between host and pathogen during infections. Additionally, these insights could propose potential targets for medical therapy.

Vaccinia Virus as a Master of Host Shutoff Induction: Targeting Processes of the Central Dogma and Beyond

The synthesis of host cell proteins is adversely inhibited in many virus infections, whereas viral proteins are efficiently synthesized. This phenomenon leads to the accumulation of viral proteins concurrently with a profound decline in global host protein synthesis, a phenomenon often termed “host shutoff”. To induce host shutoff, a virus may target various steps of gene expression, as well as pre- and post-gene expression processes. During infection, vaccinia virus (VACV), the prototype poxvirus, targets all major processes of the central dogma of genetics, as well as pre-transcription and post-translation steps to hinder host cell protein production. In this article, we review the strategies used by VACV to induce host shutoff in the context of strategies employed by other viruses. We elaborate on how VACV induces host shutoff by targeting host cell DNA synthesis, RNA production and processing, mRNA translation, and protein degradation. We emphasize the topics on VACV’s approaches toward modulating mRNA processing, stability, and translation during infection. Finally, we propose avenues for future investigations, which will facilitate our understanding of poxvirus biology, as well as fundamental cellular gene expression and regulation mechanisms.

Bacterial Factors Targeting the Nucleus: The Growing Family of Nucleomodulins

Pathogenic bacteria secrete a variety of proteins that manipulate host cell function by targeting components of the plasma membrane, cytosol, or organelles. In the last decade, several studies identified bacterial factors acting within the nucleus on gene expression or other nuclear processes, which has led to the emergence of a new family of effectors called “nucleomodulins”. In human and animal pathogens, Listeria monocytogenes for Gram-positive bacteria and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Chlamydia trachomatis, Legionella pneumophila, Shigella flexneri, and Escherichia coli for Gram-negative bacteria, have led to pioneering discoveries. In this review, we present these paradigms and detail various mechanisms and core elements (e.g., DNA, histones, epigenetic regulators, transcription or splicing factors, signaling proteins) targeted by nucleomodulins. We particularly focus on nucleomodulins interacting with epifactors, such as LntA of Listeria and ankyrin repeat- or tandem repeat-containing effectors of Rickettsiales, and nucleomodulins from various bacterial species acting as post-translational modification enzymes. The study of bacterial nucleomodulins not only generates important knowledge about the control of host responses by microbes but also creates new tools to decipher the dynamic regulations that occur in the nucleus. This research also has potential applications in the field of biotechnology. Finally, this raises questions about the epigenetic effects of infectious diseases.

Translational control during poxvirus infection

Poxviruses are an unusual family of large double-stranded (ds) DNA viruses that exhibit an incredible degree of self-sufficiency and complexity in their replication and immune evasion strategies. Indeed, amongst their approximately 200 open reading frames (ORFs), poxviruses encode approximately 100 immunomodulatory proteins to counter host responses along with complete DNA synthesis, transcription, mRNA processing and cytoplasmic redox systems that enable them to replicate exclusively in the cytoplasm of infected cells. However, like all other viruses poxviruses do not encode ribosomes and therefore remain completely dependent on gaining access to the host translational machinery in order to synthesize viral proteins. Early studies of these intriguing viruses helped discover the mRNA cap and polyadenylated (polyA) tail that we now know to be present on most eukaryotic messages and which play fundamental roles in mRNA translation, while more recent studies have begun to reveal the remarkable lengths poxviruses go to in order to control both host and viral protein synthesis. Here, we discuss some of the central strategies used by poxviruses and the broader battle that ensues with the host cell to control the translation system, the outcome of which ultimately dictates the fate of infection. This article is categorized under: Translation > Translation Regulation.

Battling for Ribosomes: Translational Control at the Forefront of the Antiviral Response

In the early stages of infection, gaining control of the cellular protein synthesis machinery including its ribosomes is the ultimate combat objective for a virus. To successfully replicate, viruses unequivocally need to usurp and redeploy this machinery for translation of their own mRNA. In response, the host triggers global shutdown of translation while paradoxically allowing swift synthesis of antiviral proteins as a strategy to limit collateral damage. This fundamental conflict at the level of translational control defines the outcome of infection. As part of this special issue on molecular mechanisms of early virus-host cell interactions, we review the current state of knowledge regarding translational control during viral infection with specific emphasis on protein kinase RNA-activated and mammalian target of rapamycin-mediated mechanisms. We also describe recent technological advances that will allow unprecedented insight into how viruses and host cells battle for ribosomes.

The vaccinia virus K7 protein promotes histone methylation associated with heterochromatin formation

It has been well established that many vaccinia virus proteins suppress host antiviral pathways by targeting the transcription of antiviral proteins, thus evading the host innate immune system. However, whether viral proteins have an effect on the host’s overall cellular transcription is less understood. In this study we investigated the regulation of heterochromatin during vaccinia virus infection. Heterochromatin is a highly condensed form of chromatin that is less transcriptionally active and characterized by methylation of histone proteins. We examined the change in methylation of two histone proteins, H3 and H4, which are major markers of heterochromatin, during the course of viral infection. Using immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry we were able to track the overall change in the methylated levels of H3K9 and H4K20. Our results suggest that there is significant increase in methylation of H3K9 and H4K20 during Orthopoxviruses infection compared to mock-infected cells. However, this effect was not seen when we infected cells with Leporipoxviruses. We further screened several vaccinia virus single and multi-gene deletion mutant and identified the vaccinia virus gene K7R as a contributor to the increase in cellular histone methylation during infection.

Orientia tsutsugamushi Strain Ikeda Ankyrin Repeat-Containing Proteins Recruit SCF1 Ubiquitin Ligase Machinery via Poxvirus-Like F-Box Motifs

A rising theme among intracellular microbes is the delivery of ankyrin repeat-containing effectors (Anks) that interact with target proteins to co-opt host cell functions. Orientia tsutsugamushi, an obligate intracellular bacterium and the etiologic agent of scrub typhus, encodes one of the largest Ank repertoires of any sequenced microorganism. They have been previously identified as type 1 secretion system substrates. Here, in silico and manual sequence analyses revealed that a large proportion of O. tsutsugamushi strain Ikeda Anks bear a eukaryotic/poxvirus-like F-box motif, which is known to recruit host cell SCF1 ubiquitin ligase machinery. We assessed the Anks for the ability to serve as F-box proteins. Coimmunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that F-box-containing Anks interact with overexpressed and/or endogenous SCF1 components. When coexpressed with FLAG-Ank4_01 or FLAG-Ank9, a glutathione S-transferase (GST)-tagged version of the SCF1 component SKP1 localized to subcellular sites of FLAG-Ank accumulation. The abilities of recombinant Anks to interact and colocalize with SKP1 were F-box dependent. GST-SKP1 precipitated O. tsutsugamushi-derived Ank9 from infected host cells, verifying both that the pathogen expresses Ank9 during infection and the protein's capability to bind SKP1. Aligning O. tsutsugamushi, poxviral, and eukaryotic F-box sequences delineated three F-box residues that are highly conserved and likely to be functionally important. Substitution of these residues ablated the ability of GFP-Ank9 to interact with GST-SKP1. These results demonstrate that O. tsutsugamushi strain Ikeda Anks can co-opt host cell polyubiquitination machinery, provide the first evidence that an O. tsutsugamushi Ank does so during infection, and advance overall understanding of microbial F-box proteins.

IMPORTANCE

Ankyrin repeat-containing proteins (Anks) are important virulence factors of intracellular bacteria that mediate protein-protein interactions with host cell targets. Orientia tsutsugamushi, which causes a debilitating infection called scrub typhus in one of the most densely populated regions of the world, encodes one of the largest Ank armamentariums of any sequenced bacterium. This study demonstrates that O. tsutsugamushi strain Ikeda Anks also bear F-box motifs that interact with host cell polyubiquitination machinery. By proving that an Orientia-derived Ank interacts with SKP1 in infected cells, this evidences the first bona fide Orientia effector and the first example of an endogenous F-box-containing Ank-mammalian-host ligand interaction for any intracellular bacterium. Also, importantly, this work identifies key residues that are essential for microbial F-box function.

Poxviral ankyrin proteins

Multiple repeats of the ankyrin motif (ANK) are ubiquitous throughout the kingdoms of life but are absent from most viruses. The main exception to this is the poxvirus family, and specifically the chordopoxviruses, with ANK repeat proteins present in all but three species from separate genera. The poxviral ANK repeat proteins belong to distinct orthologue groups spread over different species, and align well with the phylogeny of their genera. This distribution throughout the chordopoxviruses indicates these proteins were present in an ancestral vertebrate poxvirus, and have since undergone numerous duplication events. Most poxviral ANK repeat proteins contain an unusual topology of multiple ANK motifs starting at the N-terminus with a C-terminal poxviral homologue of the cellular F-box enabling interaction with the cellular SCF ubiquitin ligase complex. The subtle variations between ANK repeat proteins of individual poxviruses suggest an array of different substrates may be bound by these protein-protein interaction domains and, via the F-box, potentially directed to cellular ubiquitination pathways and possible degradation. Known interaction partners of several of these proteins indicate that the NF-κB coordinated anti-viral response is a key target, whilst some poxviral ANK repeat domains also have an F-box independent affect on viral host-range.

Interaction of infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus ORF119L with PINCH leads to dominant-negative inhibition of integrin-linked kinase and cardiovascular defects in zebrafish

Infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV) is the type species of the Megalocytivirus genus, Iridoviridae family, causing a severe systemic disease with high mortality in mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi) in China and Southeast Asia. At present, the pathogenesis of ISKNV infection is still not fully understood. Based on a genome-wide bioinformatics analysis of ISKNV-encoded proteins, we found that ISKNV open reading frame 119L (ORF119L) is predicted to encode a three-ankyrin-repeat (3ANK)-domain-containing protein, which shows high similarity to the dominant negative form of integrin-linked kinase (ILK); i.e., viral ORF119L lacks the ILK kinase domain. Thus, we speculated that viral ORF119L might affect the host ILK complex. Here, we demonstrated that viral ORF119L directly interacts with particularly interesting Cys-His-rich protein (PINCH) and affects the host ILK-PINCH interaction in vitro in fathead minnow (FHM) cells. In vivo ORF119L overexpression in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos resulted in myocardial dysfunctions with disintegration of the sarcomeric Z disk. Importantly, ORF119L overexpression in zebrafish highly resembles the phenotype of endogenous ILK inhibition, either by overexpressing a dominant negative form of ILK or by injecting an ILK antisense morpholino oligonucleotide. Intriguingly, ISKNV-infected mandarin fish develop disorganized sarcomeric Z disks in cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, phosphorylation of AKT, a downstream effector of ILK, was remarkably decreased in ORF119L-overexpressing zebrafish embryos. With these results, we show that ISKNV ORF119L acts as a domain-negative inhibitor of the host ILK, providing a novel mechanism for the megalocytivirus pathogenesis.

IMPORTANCE

Our work is the first to show the role of a dominant negative inhibitor of the host ILK from ISKNV (an iridovirus). Mechanistically, the viral ORF119L directly binds to the host PINCH, attenuates the host PINCH-ILK interaction, and thus impairs ILK signaling. Intriguingly, ORF119L-overexpressing zebrafish embryos and ISKNV-infected mandarin fish develop similar disordered sarcomeric Z disks in cardiomyocytes. These findings provide a novel mechanism for megalocytivirus pathogenesis.

Chlorovirus Skp1-binding ankyrin repeat protein interplay and mimicry of cellular ubiquitin ligase machinery

The ubiquitin-proteasome system is targeted by many viruses that have evolved strategies to redirect host ubiquitination machinery. Members of the genus Chlorovirus are proposed to share an ancestral lineage with a broader group of related viruses, nucleo-cytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV). Chloroviruses encode an Skp1 homolog and ankyrin repeat (ANK) proteins. Several chlorovirus-encoded ANK repeats contain C-terminal domains characteristic of cellular F-boxes or related NCLDV chordopox PRANC (pox protein repeats of ankyrin at C-terminal) domains. These observations suggested that this unique combination of Skp1 and ANK repeat proteins might form complexes analogous to the cellular Skp1-Cul1-F-box (SCF) ubiquitin ligase complex. We identified two ANK proteins from the prototypic chlorovirus Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus-1 (PBCV-1) that functioned as binding partners for the virus-encoded Skp1, proteins A682L and A607R. These ANK proteins had a C-terminal Skp1 interactional motif that functioned similarly to cellular F-box domains. A C-terminal motif of ANK protein A682L binds Skp1 proteins from widely divergent species. Yeast two-hybrid analyses using serial domain deletion constructs confirmed the C-terminal localization of the Skp1 interactional motif in PBCV-1 A682L. ANK protein A607R represents an ANK family with one member present in all 41 sequenced chloroviruses. A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of these related ANK and viral Skp1 proteins suggested partnered function tailored to the host alga or common ancestral heritage. Here, we show protein-protein interaction between corresponding family clusters of virus-encoded ANK and Skp1 proteins from three chlorovirus types. Collectively, our results indicate that chloroviruses have evolved complementing Skp1 and ANK proteins that mimic cellular SCF-associated proteins.

IMPORTANCE

Viruses have evolved ways to direct ubiquitination events in order to create environments conducive to their replication. As reported in the manuscript, the large chloroviruses encode several components involved in the SCF ubiquitin ligase complex including a viral Skp1 homolog. Studies on how chloroviruses manipulate their host algal ubiquitination system will provide insights toward viral protein mimicry, substrate recognition, and key interactive domains controlling selective protein degradation. These findings may also further understanding of the evolution of other large DNA viruses, like poxviruses, that are reported to share the same monophyly lineage as chloroviruses.

The poxvirus encoded ubiquitin ligase, p28, is regulated by proteasomal degradation and autoubiquitination

Virus manipulation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system has become increasingly apparent. Ubiquitin is a 76 amino acid protein that is post-translationally conjugated to target proteins, while poly-ubiquitination subsequently leads to degradation via the 26S proteasome. Target specificity is determined by a large family of ubiquitin ligases. Poxviruses encode p28, a highly conserved ubiquitin ligase expressed in a wide range of poxviruses (J. Virol. 79:597). Here we investigate the relationship between p28 and ubiquitination. Confocal microscopy indicated that orthologs of p28 co-localized with ubiquitin at the virus factory. Flow cytometry assays further demonstrated that p28 was regulated by proteasomal degradation. Moreover, when the ubiquitin ligase activity of p28 was disrupted by mutating the RING domain conjugated ubiquitin still localized to the viral factories, indicating that an unknown ubiquitin ligase(s) was responsible for regulating p28. Our observations indicate that p28 is a ubiquitin ligase that is regulated by ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation.

Multiple Orientia tsutsugamushi ankyrin repeat proteins interact with SCF1 ubiquitin ligase complex and eukaryotic elongation factor 1 α

Background

Orientia tsutsugamushi, the causative agent of scrub typhus, is an obligate intracellular bacterium. Previously, a large number of genes that encode proteins containing eukaryotic protein-protein interaction motifs such as ankyrin-repeat (Ank) domains were identified in the O. tsutsugamushi genome. However, little is known about the Ank protein function in O. tsutsugamushi.

Methodology/Principal Findings

To characterize the function of Ank proteins, we investigated a group of Ank proteins containing an F-box–like domain in the C-terminus in addition to the Ank domains. All nine selected ank genes were expressed at the transcriptional level in host cells infected with O. tsutsugamushi, and specific antibody responses against three Ank proteins were detected in the serum from human patients, indicating an active expression of the bacterial Ank proteins post infection. When ectopically expressed in HeLa cells, the Ank proteins of O. tsutsugamushi were consistently found in the nucleus and/or cytoplasm. In GST pull-down assays, multiple Ank proteins specifically interacted with Cullin1 and Skp1, core components of the SCF1 ubiquitin ligase complex, as well as the eukaryotic elongation factor 1 α (EF1α). Moreover, one Ank protein co-localized with the identified host targets and induced downregulation of EF1α potentially via enhanced ubiquitination. The downregulation of EF1α was observed consistently in diverse host cell types infected with O. tsutsugamushi.

Conclusion/Significance

These results suggest that conserved targeting and subsequent degradation of EF1α by multiple O. tsutsugamushi Ank proteins could be a novel bacterial strategy for replication and/or pathogenesis during mammalian host infection.

Recombinant myxoma virus lacking all poxvirus ankyrin-repeat proteins stimulates multiple cellular anti-viral pathways and exhibits a severe decrease in virulence

Although the production of single gene knockout viruses is a useful strategy to study viral gene functions, the redundancy of many host interactive genes within a complex viral genome can obscure their collective functions. In this study, a rabbit-specific poxvirus, myxoma virus (MYXV), was genetically altered to disrupt multiple members of the poxviral ankyrin-repeat (ANK-R) protein superfamily, M-T5, M148, M149 and M150. A particularly robust activation of the NF-κB pathway was observed in A549 cells following infection with the complete ANK-R knockout (vMyx-ANKsKO). Also, an increased release of IL-6 was only observed upon infection with vMyx-ANKsKO. In virus-infected rabbit studies, vMyx-ANKsKO was the most extensively attenuated and produced the smallest primary lesion of all ANK-R mutant constructs. This study provides the first insights into the shared functions of the poxviral ANK-R protein superfamily in vitro and in vivo.

Orf virus (ORFV) ANK-1 protein mitochondrial localization is mediated by ankyrin repeat motifs

Orf virus (ORFV) strain D1701-V, a Parapoxvirus belonging to the family Poxviridae, became attractive as a novel virus vector system that we successfully used for the generation of recombinant vaccines. Therefore, the identification of viral genes involved in host tropisms or immune modulation is of great interest, as for instance the ORFV-encoded ankyrin-repeat (AR) containing proteins. The present study shows for the first time that the ANK-1 designated gene product of ORFV126 is targeted to mitochondria of ORFV-infected and in ANK-1 transiently expressing cells. Taking advantage of ANK-1 EGFP fusion proteins and confocal fluorescence microscopy mutational and deletion analyses indicated the importance of AR8 and AR9, which may contain a novel class of mitochondria-targeting sequence (MTS) in the central to C-terminal part of this AR-containing protein. The fluorescent findings were corroborated by cell fractionation and Western blotting experiments. The presented results open the avenue for more detailed investigations on cellular binding partners and the function of ANK-1 in viral replication or virulence.

From scourge to cure: tumour-selective viral pathogenesis as a new strategy against cancer

Tumour mutations corrupt cellular pathways, and accumulate to disrupt, dysregulate, and ultimately avoid mechanisms of cellular control. Yet the very changes that tumour cells undergo to secure their own growth success also render them susceptible to viral infection. Enhanced availability of surface receptors, disruption of antiviral sensing, elevated metabolic activity, disengagement of cell cycle controls, hyperactivation of mitogenic pathways, and apoptotic avoidance all render the malignant cell environment highly supportive to viral replication. The therapeutic use of oncolytic viruses (OVs) with a natural tropism for infecting and subsequently lysing tumour cells is a rapidly progressing area of cancer research. While many OVs exhibit an inherent degree of tropism for transformed cells, this can be further promoted through pharmacological interventions and/or the introduction of viral mutations that generate recombinant oncolytic viruses adapted to successfully replicate only in a malignant cellular environment. Such adaptations that augment OV tumour selectivity are already improving the therapeutic outlook for cancer, and there remains tremendous untapped potential for further innovation.

Myxoma virus protein M029 is a dual function immunomodulator that inhibits PKR and also conscripts RHA/DHX9 to promote expanded host tropism and viral replication

Myxoma virus (MYXV)-encoded protein M029 is a member of the poxvirus E3 family of dsRNA-binding proteins that antagonize the cellular interferon signaling pathways. In order to investigate additional functions of M029, we have constructed a series of targeted M029-minus (vMyx-M029KO and vMyx-M029ID) and V5-tagged M029 MYXV. We found that M029 plays a pivotal role in determining the cellular tropism of MYXV in all mammalian cells tested. The M029-minus viruses were able to replicate only in engineered cell lines that stably express a complementing protein, such as vaccinia E3, but underwent abortive or abated infection in all other tested mammalian cell lines. The M029-minus viruses were dramatically attenuated in susceptible host European rabbits and caused no observable signs of myxomatosis. Using V5-tagged M029 virus, we observed that M029 expressed as an early viral protein is localized in both the nuclear and cytosolic compartments in virus-infected cells, and is also incorporated into virions. Using proteomic approaches, we have identified Protein Kinase R (PKR) and RNA helicase A (RHA)/DHX9 as two cellular binding partners of M029 protein. In virus-infected cells, M029 interacts with PKR in a dsRNA-dependent manner, while binding with DHX9 was not dependent on dsRNA. Significantly, PKR knockdown in human cells rescued the replication defect of the M029-knockout viruses. Unexpectedly, this rescue of M029-minus virus replication by PKR depletion could then be reversed by RHA/DHX9 knockdown in human monocytic THP1 cells. This indicates that M029 not only inhibits generic PKR anti-viral pathways, but also binds and conscripts RHA/DHX9 as a pro-viral effector to promote virus replication in THP1 cells. Thus, M029 is a critical host range and virulence factor for MYXV that is required for replication in all mammalian cells by antagonizing PKR-mediated anti-viral functions, and also conscripts pro-viral RHA/DHX9 to promote viral replication specifically in myeloid cells.

Poxviruses exploit diverse strategies to modulate host anti-viral responses in order to achieve broad cellular tropism and replication. Here we report the findings that Myxoma virus (MYXV), a rabbit-specific poxvirus, expresses a viral protein M029 that possesses dual immunomodulatory functions. M029 binds and inhibits the anti-viral functions of protein kinase R (PKR) and also binds and conscripts the pro-viral activities of another cellular protein, RNA helicase A (RHA/DHX9), a member of the DEXD/H box family of proteins. Engineered M029-minus MYXVs did not cause lethal disease myxomatosis in the European rabbits. M029-minus MYXVs were also unable to replicate in diverse mammalian cell types, but can be rescued by knocking down the expression of PKR. However, this rescue of M029-minus virus replication could then be reversed by RHA/DHX9 knockdown in human myeloid cells. These findings reveal a novel strategy used by a single viral immunomodulatory protein that both inhibits a host anti-viral factor and additionally conscripting a host pro-viral factor to expand viral tropism in a wider range of target mammalian cells.

Bugs and drugs: oncolytic virotherapy in combination with chemotherapy

Single agent therapies are rarely successful in treating cancer, particularly at metastatic or end stages, and survival rates with monotherapies alone are generally poor. The combination of multiple therapies to treat cancer has already driven significant improvements in the standard of care treatments for many types of cancers. The first combination treatments exploited for cancer therapy involved the use of several cytotoxic chemotherapy agents. Later, with the development of more targeted agents, the use of novel, less toxic drugs, in combination with the more classic cytotoxic drugs has proven advantageous for certain cancer types. Recently, the combination of oncolytic virotherapy with chemotherapy has shown that the use of these two therapies with very distinct anti-tumor mechanisms may also lead to synergistic interactions that ultimately result in increased therapeutic effects not achievable by either therapy alone. The mechanisms of synergy between oncolytic viruses (OVs) and chemotherapeutic agents are just starting to be elucidated. It is evident, however, that the success of these OV-drug combinations depends greatly on the particular OV, the drug(s) selected, and the cancer type targeted. This review summarizes the different OV-drug combinations investigated to date, including the use of second generation armed OVs, which have been studied with the specific purpose of generating synergistic interactions with particular chemotherapy agents. The known mechanisms of synergy between these OV-drug combinations are also summarized. The importance of further investigating these mechanisms of synergy will be critical in order to maximize the therapeutic efficacy of OV-drug combination therapies in the future.

Genetic screen of a library of chimeric poxviruses identifies an ankyrin repeat protein involved in resistance to the avian type I interferon response

Viruses must be able to resist host innate responses, especially the type I interferon (IFN) response. They do so by preventing the induction or activity of IFN and/or by resisting the antiviral effectors that it induces. Poxviruses are no exception, with many mechanisms identified whereby mammalian poxviruses, notably, vaccinia virus (VACV), but also cowpox and myxoma viruses, are able to evade host IFN responses. Similar mechanisms have not been described for avian poxviruses (avipoxviruses). Restricted for permissive replication to avian hosts, they have received less attention; moreover, the avian host responses are less well characterized. We show that the prototypic avipoxvirus, fowlpox virus (FWPV), is highly resistant to the antiviral effects of avian IFN. A gain-of-function genetic screen identified fpv014 to contribute to increased resistance to exogenous recombinant chicken alpha IFN (ChIFN1). fpv014 is a member of the large family of poxvirus (especially avipoxvirus) genes that encode proteins containing N-terminal ankyrin repeats (ANKs) and C-terminal F-box-like motifs. By binding the Skp1/cullin-1 complex, the F box in such proteins appears to target ligands bound by the ANKs for ubiquitination. Mass spectrometry and immunoblotting demonstrated that tandem affinity-purified, tagged fpv014 was complexed with chicken cullin-1 and Skp1. Prior infection with an fpv014-knockout mutant of FWPV still blocked transfected poly(I·C)-mediated induction of the beta IFN (ChIFN2) promoter as effectively as parental FWPV, but the mutant was more sensitive to exogenous ChIFN1. Therefore, unlike the related protein fpv012, fpv014 does not contribute to the FWPV block to induction of ChIFN2 but does confer resistance to an established antiviral state.

Genetic screen of a mutant poxvirus library identifies an ankyrin repeat protein involved in blocking induction of avian type I interferon

Mammalian poxviruses, including vaccinia virus (VACV), have evolved multiple mechanisms to evade the host type I interferon (IFN) responses at different levels, with viral proteins targeting IFN induction, signaling, and antiviral effector functions. Avian poxviruses (avipoxviruses), which have been developed as recombinant vaccine vectors for permissive (i.e., poultry) and nonpermissive (i.e., mammals, including humans) species, encode no obvious equivalents of any of these proteins. We show that fowlpox virus (FWPV) fails to induce chicken beta IFN (ChIFN2) and is able to block its induction by transfected poly(I·C), an analog of cytoplasmic double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). A broad-scale loss-of-function genetic screen was used to find FWPV-encoded modulators of poly(I·C)-mediated ChIFN2 induction. It identified fpv012, a member of a family of poxvirus genes highly expanded in the avipoxviruses (31 in FWPV; 51 in canarypox virus [CNPV], representing 15% of the total gene complement), encoding proteins containing N-terminal ankyrin repeats (ANKs) and C-terminal F-box-like motifs. Under ectopic expression, the first ANK of fpv012 is dispensable for inhibitory activity and the CNPV ortholog is also able to inhibit induction of ChIFN2. FWPV defective in fpv012 replicates well in culture and barely induces ChIFN2 during infection, suggesting that other factors are involved in blocking IFN induction and resisting the antiviral effectors. Nevertheless, unlike parental and revertant viruses, the mutants induce moderate levels of expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), suggesting either that there is sufficient ChIFN2 expression to partially induce the ISGs or the involvement of alternative, IFN-independent pathways that are also normally blocked by fpv012.

Varicella-zoster virus ORF12 protein activates the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway to regulate cell cycle progression

Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) activates the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway and alters cell cycle progression, but the viral protein(s) responsible for these activities is unknown. We previously reported that the VZV open reading frame 12 (ORF12) protein triggers phosphorylation of ERK. Here, we demonstrate that the VZV ORF12 protein also activates the PI3K/Akt pathway to regulate cell cycle progression. Transfection of cells with a plasmid expressing the ORF12 protein induced phosphorylation of Akt, which was dependent on PI3K. Infection of cells with wild-type VZV triggered phosphorylation of Akt, while infection with an ORF12 deletion mutant induced less phosphorylated Akt. The activation of Akt by ORF12 protein was associated with its binding to the p85 subunit of PI3K. Infection of cells with wild-type VZV resulted in increased levels of cyclin B1, cyclin D3, and phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β), while infection with the ORF12 deletion mutant induced lower levels of these proteins. Wild-type VZV infection reduced the G(1) phase cell population and increased the M phase cell population, while infection with the ORF12 deletion mutant had a reduced effect on the G(1) and M phase populations. Inhibition of Akt activity with LY294002 reduced the G(1) and M phase differences observed in cells infected with wild-type and ORF12 mutant viruses. In conclusion, we have found that the VZV ORF12 protein activates the PI3K/Akt pathway to regulate cell cycle progression. Since VZV replicates in both dividing (e.g., keratinocytes) and nondividing (neurons) cells, the ability of the VZV ORF12 protein to regulate the cell cycle is likely important for VZV replication in various cell types in the body.

Myxoma virus-mediated oncolysis of ascites-derived human ovarian cancer cells and spheroids is impacted by differential AKT activity

OBJECTIVE

We propose that metastatic epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a potential therapeutic target for the oncolytic agent, Myxoma virus (MYXV).

METHODS

Primary EOC cells were isolated from patient ascites and cultured as adherent cells or in suspension using Ultra Low-Attachment dishes. MYXV expressing green fluorescent protein was used to infect cells and spheroids. Infection was monitored by fluorescence microscopy, viral titering and immunoblotting for M-T7 and M130 virus protein expression, and cell viability by alamarBlue assay. Akti-1/2 (5 μM) and rapamycin (20 nM) were used to assay the role of PI3K-AKT signaling in mediating MYXV infection.

RESULTS

Ascites-derived EOC cells grown in adherent culture are effectively killed by MYXV infection. EOC cells grown in suspension to form three-dimensional EOC spheroids readily permit MYXV entry into cells, yet are protected from the cytopathic effects of late MYXV infection. Upon reattachment (to model secondary metastasis), EOC spheroids are re-sensitized to MYXV-mediated oncolysis. The critical determinant that facilitates efficient MYXV infection is the presence of an activated PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. Treatment with the specific AKT inhibitor Akti-1/2 reduces infection of monolayer EOC cells and spheroids. Direct infection of freshly-collected ascites demonstrated that 54.5% of patient samples were sensitive to MYXV-mediated oncolytic cell killing. We also demonstrate that factor(s) present in ascites may negatively impact MYXV infection and oncolysis of EOC cells, which may be due to a down-regulation in endogenous AKT activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Differential activity of AKT serves as the mechanistic basis for regulating MYXV-mediated oncolysis of EOC spheroids during key steps of the metastatic program. In addition, we provide the first evidence that MYXV oncolytic therapy may be efficacious for a significant proportion of ovarian cancer patients with metastatic disease.

HijAkt: The PI3K/Akt pathway in virus replication and pathogenesis

As obligate parasites of cellular processes, viruses must take over cellular macromolecular machinery. It is also becoming clear that viruses routinely control intracellular signaling pathways through the direct or indirect control of kinases and phosphatases. This control of cellular phosphoproteins is important to promote a variety of viral processes, from control of entry to nuclear function to the stimulation of viral protein synthesis. This review focuses on the takeover of the cellular phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway by a variety of retroviruses, DNA viruses, and RNA viruses, highlighting the functions ascribed to virus activation of PI3K and Akt activity. This review also describes the role that the PI3K/Akt pathway plays in the host response, noting that it that can trigger anti- as well as proviral functions.

Phylogenetic analysis of the large family of poxvirus ankyrin-repeat proteins reveals orthologue groups within and across chordopoxvirus genera

Ankyrin-repeat (ANK) protein-interaction domains are common in cellular proteins but are relatively rare in viruses. Chordopoxviruses, however, encode a large number of ANK domain-containing ORFs of largely unknown function. Recently, a second protein-interaction domain, an F-box-like motif, was identified in several poxvirus ANK proteins. Cellular F-box proteins recruit substrates to the ubiquitination machinery of the cell, a putative function for ANK/poxviral F-box proteins. Using publicly available genome sequence data we examined all 328 predicted ANK proteins encoded by 27 chordopoxviruses that represented the eight vertebrate poxvirus genera whose members encode ANK proteins. Within these we identified 15 putative ANK protein orthologue groups within orthopoxviruses, five within parapoxviruses, 23 within avipoxviruses and seven across members of the genera Leporipoxvirus, Capripoxvirus, Yatapoxvirus, Suipoxvirus and Cervidpoxvirus. Sequence comparisons showed that members of each of these four clusters of orthologues were not closely related to members of any of the other clusters. Of these ORFs, 67% encoded a C-terminal poxviral F-box-like motif, whose absence could largely be attributed to fragmentation of ORFs. Our findings suggest that the large family of poxvirus ANK proteins arose by extensive gene duplication and divergence that occurred independently in four major genus-based groups after the groups diverged from each other. It seems likely that the ancestor ANK proteins of poxviruses contained both the N-terminal ANK repeats and a C-terminal F-box-like domain, with the latter domain subsequently being lost in a small subset of these proteins.

The current status and future directions of myxoma virus, a master in immune evasion

Myxoma virus (MYXV) gained importance throughout the twentieth century because of the use of the highly virulent Standard Laboratory Strain (SLS) by the Australian government in the attempt to control the feral Australian population of Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit) and the subsequent illegal release of MYXV in Europe. In the European rabbit, MYXV causes a disease with an exceedingly high mortality rate, named myxomatosis, which is passively transmitted by biting arthropod vectors. MYXV still has a great impact on European rabbit populations around the world. In contrast, only a single cutaneous lesion, restricted to the point of inoculation, is seen in its natural long-term host, the South-American Sylvilagus brasiliensis and the North-American S. Bachmani. Apart from being detrimental for European rabbits, however, MYXV has also become of interest in human medicine in the last two decades for two reasons. Firstly, due to the strong immune suppressing effects of certain MYXV proteins, several secreted virus-encoded immunomodulators (e.g. Serp-1) are being developed to treat systemic inflammatory syndromes such as cardiovascular disease in humans. Secondly, due to the inherent ability of MYXV to infect a broad spectrum of human cancer cells, the live virus is also being developed as an oncolytic virotherapeutic to treat human cancer. In this review, an update will be given on the current status of MYXV in rabbits as well as its potential in human medicine in the twenty-first century.

Table of contents

Abstract

1. The virus

2. History

3. Pathogenesis and disease symptoms

4. Immunomodulatory proteins of MYXV

4.1. MYXV proteins with anti-apoptotic functions

4.1.1. Inhibition of pro-apoptotic molecules

4.1.2. Inhibition by protein-protein interactions by ankyrin repeat viral proteins

4.1.3. Inhibition of apoptosis by enhancing the degradation of cellular proteins

4.1.4. Inhibition of apoptosis by blocking host Protein Kinase R (PKR)

4.2. MYXV proteins interfering with leukocyte chemotaxis

4.3. MYXV serpins that inhibit cellular pro-inflammatory or pro-apoptotic proteases

4.4. MYXV proteins that interfere with leukocyte activation

4.5. MYXV proteins with sequence similarity to HIV proteins

4.6. MYXV proteins with unknown immune function

5. Vaccination strategies against myxomatosis

5.1. Current MYXV vaccines

5.2. Vaccination campaigns to protect European rabbits in the wild

6. Applications of myxoma virus for human medicine

6.1. MYXV proteins as therapeutics for allograft vasculopathy and atherosclerosis

6.2. Applications for MYXV as a live oncolytic virus to treat cancer

7. Discussion and Conclusions

8. List of Abbreviations

References

Author Details

Authors' contributions

Competing interests

Figure Legends

Acknowledgements

Poxvirus exploitation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system

Ubiquitination plays a critical role in many cellular processes. A growing number of viruses have evolved strategies to exploit the ubiquitin-proteasome system, including members of the Poxviridae family. Members of the poxvirus family have recently been shown to encode BTB/kelch and ankyrin/F-box proteins that interact with cullin-3 and cullin-1 based ubiquitin ligases, respectively. Multiple members of the poxvirus family also encode ubiquitin ligases with intrinsic activity. This review describes the numerous mechanisms that poxviruses employ to manipulate the ubiquitin-proteasome system.

MNF, an ankyrin repeat protein of myxoma virus, is part of a native cellular SCF complex during viral infection

Myxoma virus (MYXV), a member of the Poxviridae family, is the agent responsible for myxomatosis, a fatal disease in the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Like all poxviruses, MYXV is known for encoding multiple proteins that regulate cellular signaling pathways. Among them, four proteins share the same ANK/PRANC structure: M148R, M149R, MNF (Myxoma Nuclear factor) and M-T5, all of them described as virulence factors. This family of poxvirus proteins, recently identified, has drawn considerable attention for its potential role in modulating the host ubiquitin-proteasome system during viral infection. To date, many members of this novel protein family have been shown to interact with SCF components, in vitro. Here, we focus on MNF gene, which has been shown to express a nuclear protein presenting nine ANK repeats, one of which has been identified as a nuclear localization signal. In transfection, MNF has been shown to colocalise with the transcription factor NF-κB in the nucleus of TNFα-stimulated cells. Functionally, MNF is a critical virulence factor since its deletion generates an almost apathogenic virus. In this study, to pursue the investigation of proteins interacting with MNF and of its mechanism of action, we engineered a recombinant MYXV expressing a GFP-linked MNF under the control of MNF native promoter. Infection of rabbits with MYXV-GFPMNF recombinant virus provided the evidence that the GFP fusion does not disturb the main function of MNF. Hence, cells were infected with MYXV-GFPMNF and immunoprecipitation of the GFPMNF fusion protein was performed to identify MNF's partners. For the first time, endogenous components of SCF (Cullin-1 and Skp1) were co-precipitated with an ANK myxoma virus protein, expressed in an infectious context, and without over-expression of any protein.

Structure function studies of vaccinia virus host range protein k1 reveal a novel functional surface for ankyrin repeat proteins

Poxvirus host tropism at the cellular level is regulated by virus-encoded host range proteins acting downstream of virus entry. The functioning mechanisms of most host range proteins are unclear, but many contain multiple ankyrin (ANK) repeats, a motif that is known for ligand interaction through a concave surface. We report here the crystal structure of one of the ANK repeat-containing host range proteins, the vaccinia virus K1 protein. The structure, at a resolution of 2.3 A, showed that K1 consists entirely of ANK repeats, including seven complete ones and two incomplete ones, one each at the N and C terminus. Interestingly, Phe82 and Ser83, which were previously shown to be critical for K1's function, are solvent exposed and located on a convex surface, opposite the consensus ANK interaction surface. The importance of this convex surface was further supported by our additional mutagenesis studies. We found that K1's host range function was negatively affected by substitution of either Asn51 or Cys47 and completely abolished by substitution of both residues. Cys47 and Asn51 are also exposed on the convex surface, spatially adjacent to Phe82 and Ser83. Altogether, our data showed that K1 residues on a continuous convex ANK repeat surface are critical for the host range function, suggesting that K1 functions through ligand interaction and does so with a novel ANK interaction surface.