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Terhüja M, Siddappa M, Lamichhane P, Meshram CD, Snider TA, Ritchey JW, Oomens AGP. Intranasal Vaccination with a Respiratory-Syncytial-Virus-Based Virus-like Particle Displaying the G Protein Conserved Region Induces Severe Weight Loss and Pathology upon Challenge with Wildtype Respiratory Syncytial Virus. Viruses 2024; 16:843. [PMID: 38932136 PMCID: PMC11209524 DOI: 10.3390/v16060843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of severe respiratory tract disease worldwide, and a pediatric vaccine is not available. We generated a filamentous RSV-based virus-like particle (VLP) that presents the central conserved region of the attachment protein G. This was achieved by co-expressing the matrix protein, phosphoprotein, nucleoprotein, and a hybrid fusion protein in which the F ectodomain was replaced with the G central region (GCR). The latter is relatively conserved and contains a receptor binding site and hence is a logical vaccine target. The immunogenicity and efficacy of the resulting VLP, termed VLP-GCR, were examined in mice using intranasal application without adjuvant. VLP-GCR induced substantial anti-N antibody levels but very low anti-G antibody levels, even after three vaccinations. In contrast, a VLP presenting prefusion-stabilized fusion (preF) protein instead of GCR induced both high anti-F and anti-nucleoprotein antibody levels, suggesting that our GCR antigen was poorly immunogenic. Challenge of VLP-GCR-vaccinated mice caused increased weight loss and lung pathology, and both VLPs induced mucus in the lungs. Thus, neither VLP is suitable as a vaccine for RSV-naive individuals. However, VLP-preF enhanced the proportion of preF antibodies and could serve as a multi-antigen mucosal booster vaccine in the RSV-experienced population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megolhubino Terhüja
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA (J.W.R.)
| | - Manjunath Siddappa
- Department of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Chitradurga 577502, Karnataka, India
| | - Pramila Lamichhane
- RNA Viruses Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Allergy, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Chetan D. Meshram
- CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226031, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Timothy A. Snider
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA (J.W.R.)
| | - Jerry W. Ritchey
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA (J.W.R.)
| | - Antonius G. P. Oomens
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA (J.W.R.)
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Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a negative sense single-stranded RNA virus that can result in epidemics of seasonal respiratory infections. Generally, one of the two genotypes (A and B) predominates in a single season and alternate annually with regional variation. RSV is a known cause of disease and death at both extremes of ages in the pediatric and elderly, as well as immunocompromised populations. The clinical impact of RSV on the hospitalized adults has been recently clarified with the expanded use of multiplex molecular assays. Among adults, RSV can produce a wide range of clinical symptoms due to upper respiratory tract infections potentially leading to severe lower respiratory tract infections, as well as exacerbations of underlying cardiac and lung diseases. While supportive care is the mainstay of therapy, there are currently multiple therapeutic and preventative options under development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah H Nam
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of California, Irvine, Orange, California
| | - Michael G Ison
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Organ Transplantation, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
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Tetramerization of Phosphoprotein is Essential for Respiratory Syncytial Virus Budding while its N Terminal Region Mediates Direct Interactions with the Matrix Protein. J Virol 2021; 95:JVI.02217-20. [PMID: 33408180 PMCID: PMC8092690 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02217-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
It was shown previously that the Matrix (M), Phosphoprotein (P), and the Fusion (F) proteins of Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) are sufficient to produce virus-like particles (VLPs) that resemble the RSV infection-induced virions. However, the exact mechanism and interactions among the three proteins are not known. This work examines the interaction between P and M during RSV assembly and budding. We show that M interacts with P in the absence of other viral proteins in cells using a Split Nano Luciferase assay. By using recombinant proteins, we demonstrate a direct interaction between M and P. By using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) we identify three novel M interaction sites on P, namely site I in the αN2 region, site II in the 115-125 region, and the oligomerization domain (OD). We show that the OD, and likely the tetrameric structural organization of P, is required for virus-like filament formation and VLP release. Although sites I and II are not required for VLP formation, they appear to modulate P levels in RSV VLPs.Importance Human RSV is the commonest cause of infantile bronchiolitis in the developed world and of childhood deaths in resource-poor settings. It is a major unmet target for vaccines and anti-viral drugs. The lack of knowledge of RSV budding mechanism presents a continuing challenge for VLP production for vaccine purpose. We show that direct interaction between P and M modulates RSV VLP budding. This further emphasizes P as a central regulator of RSV life cycle, as an essential actor for transcription and replication early during infection and as a mediator for assembly and budding in the later stages for virus production.
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Yang Y, Shi W, Abiona OM, Nazzari A, Olia AS, Ou L, Phung E, Stephens T, Tsybovsky Y, Verardi R, Wang S, Werner A, Yap C, Ambrozak D, Bylund T, Liu T, Nguyen R, Wang L, Zhang B, Zhou T, Chuang GY, Graham BS, Mascola JR, Corbett KS, Kwong PD. Newcastle Disease Virus-Like Particles Displaying Prefusion-Stabilized SARS-CoV-2 Spikes Elicit Potent Neutralizing Responses. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:73. [PMID: 33494381 PMCID: PMC7912142 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9020073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic highlights an urgent need for vaccines that confer protection from SARS-CoV-2 infection. One approach to an effective COVID-19 vaccine may be through the display of SARS-CoV-2 spikes on the surface of virus-like particles, in a manner structurally mimicking spikes on a native virus. Here we report the development of Newcastle disease virus-like particles (NDVLPs) displaying the prefusion-stabilized SARS-CoV-2 spike ectodomain (S2P). Immunoassays with SARS-CoV-2-neutralizing antibodies revealed the antigenicity of S2P-NDVLP to be generally similar to that of soluble S2P, and negative-stain electron microscopy showed S2P on the NDVLP surface to be displayed with a morphology corresponding to its prefusion conformation. Mice immunized with S2P-NDVLP showed substantial neutralization titers (geometric mean ID50 = 386) two weeks after prime immunization, significantly higher than those elicited by a molar equivalent amount of soluble S2P (geometric mean ID50 = 17). Neutralizing titers at Week 5, two weeks after a boost immunization with S2P-NDVLP doses ranging from 2.0 to 250 μg, extended from 2125 to 4552, and these generally showed a higher ratio of neutralization versus ELISA than observed with soluble S2P. Overall, S2P-NDVLP appears to be a promising COVID-19 vaccine candidate capable of eliciting substantial neutralizing activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongping Yang
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Wei Shi
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Olubukola M. Abiona
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Alexandra Nazzari
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Adam S. Olia
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Li Ou
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Emily Phung
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Tyler Stephens
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, Cancer Research Technology Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (T.S.); (Y.T.)
| | - Yaroslav Tsybovsky
- Electron Microscopy Laboratory, Cancer Research Technology Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (T.S.); (Y.T.)
| | - Raffaello Verardi
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Shuishu Wang
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Anne Werner
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Christina Yap
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - David Ambrozak
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Tatsiana Bylund
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Tracy Liu
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Richard Nguyen
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Lingshu Wang
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Baoshan Zhang
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Tongqing Zhou
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Gwo-Yu Chuang
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Barney S. Graham
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - John R. Mascola
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Kizzmekia S. Corbett
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
| | - Peter D. Kwong
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; (Y.Y.); (W.S.); (O.M.A.); (A.N.); (A.S.O.); (L.O.); (E.P.); (R.V.); (S.W.); (A.W.); (C.Y.); (D.A.); (T.B.); (T.L.); (R.N.); (L.W.); (B.Z.); (T.Z.); (G.-Y.C.); (B.S.G.); (J.R.M.); (K.S.C.)
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Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) belongs to the recently defined Pneumoviridae family, Orthopneumovirus genus. It is a negative sense, single stranded RNA virus that results in epidemics of respiratory infections that typically peak in the winter in temperate climates and during the rainy season in tropical climates. Generally, one of the two genotypes (A and B) predominates in a single season, alternating annually, although regional variation occurs. RSV is a cause of disease and death in children, older people, and immunocompromised patients, and its clinical effect on adults admitted to hospital is clarified with expanded use of multiplex molecular assays. Among adults, RSV produces a wide range of clinical symptoms including upper respiratory tract infections, severe lower respiratory tract infections, and exacerbations of underlying disease. Here we discuss the latest evidence on the burden of RSV related disease in adults, especially in those with immunocompromise or other comorbidities. We review current therapeutic and prevention options, as well as those in development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah H Nam
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Organ Transplantation, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
| | - Michael G Ison
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Organ Transplantation, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
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Effect of Previous Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection on Murine Immune Responses to F and G Protein-Containing Virus-Like Particles. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00087-19. [PMID: 30760576 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00087-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Most individuals are infected with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) by age two, but infection does not result in long-term protective immunity to subsequent infections. Previous RSV infection may, however, impact responses to an RSV vaccine. The goal of these studies was to explore the effect of previous RSV infection on murine antibody responses to RSV F and G protein-containing virus-like particles (VLP), comparing responses to those resulting from VLP immunization of RSV-naive animals. These studies showed that after RSV infection, immunization with a single dose of VLPs containing a conformation-stabilized prefusion F protein stimulated high titers of neutralizing antibodies (NA), while an immunization with post-F-containing VLPs or a second RSV infection only weakly stimulated NA, even though total anti-F protein IgG antibody levels in both VLP-immunized animals were similar. Furthermore, single pre-F or post-F VLP immunization of animals previously infected (primed) with RSV resulted in total anti-F antibody titers that were 10- to 12-fold higher than titers after a VLP prime and boost of RSV-naive animals or after two consecutive RSV infections. The avidities of serum antibodies as well as numbers of splenic B cells and bone marrow cells after different immunization protocols were also assessed. The combined results show that RSV infection can quite effectively prime animals for the production of protective antibodies that can be efficiently activated by a pre-F VLP boost but not by a post-F VLP boost or a second RSV infection.IMPORTANCE Humans may experience repeated infections caused by the same serotype of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), in contrast to infections with most other viruses, indicating that immune memory responses to RSV are defective. However, the effects of any residual but nonprotective immunity on responses to RSV vaccines are not clear. This study demonstrates that a VLP vaccine candidate containing a stabilized prefusion F protein can robustly stimulate protective immunity in animals previously infected with RSV, while a second RSV infection or a postfusion F-containing VLP cannot. This result shows that a properly constructed immunogen can be an effective vaccine in animals previously infected with RSV. The results also suggest that the defect in RSV memory is not in the induction of that memory but rather in its activation by a subsequent RSV infection.
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Meshram CD, Oomens AGP. Identification of a human respiratory syncytial virus phosphoprotein domain required for virus-like-particle formation. Virology 2019; 532:48-54. [PMID: 31009855 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Perceived inefficiency and inadequate knowledge of the human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) assembly process present a hurdle for large-scale production of authentic hRSV virus-like particles (VLPs) for vaccine purposes. We previously established that the matrix protein, phosphoprotein (P), and fusion protein carboxy-terminus were sufficient to generate VLPs that resemble filamentous wildtype hRSV. Here, the contribution of P was examined. By co-expressing matrix, fusion, and modified P proteins, a ser/thr-rich P region (residues 39-57) was found to be critical for VLP formation, whereas the oligomerization domain was not. Substitutions throughout region 39-57 inhibited VLP formation and relevant amino acids were identified. Phosphomimetic substitutions of serines and threonines inhibited VLP formation; Phosphoblatant substitutions did not. The data show that P not only co-regulates replication and transcription but also has an important role in assembly, mediated by a separate domain that likely interacts with M and/or F and is highly regulated by phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chetan D Meshram
- Department of Microbiology. University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
| | - Antonius G P Oomens
- Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, 250 McElroy Hall, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
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Lee Y, Lee YT, Ko EJ, Kim KH, Hwang HS, Park S, Kwon YM, Kang SM. Soluble F proteins exacerbate pulmonary histopathology after vaccination upon respiratory syncytial virus challenge but not when presented on virus-like particles. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2018; 13:2594-2605. [PMID: 28854003 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2017.1362514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) fusion (F) protein is suggested to be a protective vaccine target although its efficacy and safety concerns remain not well understood. We investigated immunogenicity, efficacy, and safety of F proteins in a soluble form or on virus-like particle (F-VLP). F VLP preferentially elicited IgG2a antibody and T helper type 1 (Th1) immune responses whereas F protein induced IgG1 isotype and Th2 responses. Despite lung viral clearance after prime or prime-boost and then RSV challenge, F protein immune mice displayed weight loss and lung histopathology and high mucus production and eosinophils. In contrast, prime or prime-boost vaccination of F VLP induced effective protection, prevented infiltration of eosinophils and vaccine- enhanced disease after challenge. This study provides insight into developing an effective and safe RSV vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youri Lee
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA.,b Department of Biology Institute for Biomedical Sciences , Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Young-Tae Lee
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Eun-Ju Ko
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Ki-Hye Kim
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Hye Suk Hwang
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Soojin Park
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Young-Man Kwon
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Sang Moo Kang
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA.,b Department of Biology Institute for Biomedical Sciences , Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
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9
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Respiratory Syncytial Virus: Infection, Detection, and New Options for Prevention and Treatment. Clin Microbiol Rev 2017; 30:277-319. [PMID: 27903593 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00010-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 342] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is a significant cause of hospitalization of children in North America and one of the leading causes of death of infants less than 1 year of age worldwide, second only to malaria. Despite its global impact on human health, there are relatively few therapeutic options available to prevent or treat RSV infection. Paradoxically, there is a very large volume of information that is constantly being refined on RSV replication, the mechanisms of RSV-induced pathology, and community transmission. Compounding the burden of acute RSV infections is the exacerbation of preexisting chronic airway diseases and the chronic sequelae of RSV infection. A mechanistic link is even starting to emerge between asthma and those who suffer severe RSV infection early in childhood. In this article, we discuss developments in the understanding of RSV replication, pathogenesis, diagnostics, and therapeutics. We attempt to reconcile the large body of information on RSV and why after many clinical trials there is still no efficacious RSV vaccine and few therapeutics.
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A single intranasal administration of virus-like particle vaccine induces an efficient protection for mice against human respiratory syncytial virus. Antiviral Res 2017; 144:57-69. [PMID: 28529001 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2017.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Revised: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is an important pediatric pathogen causing acute viral respiratory disease in infants and young children. However, no licensed vaccines are currently available. Virus-like particles (VLPs) may bring new hope to producing RSV VLP vaccine with high immunogenicity and safety. Here, we constructed the recombinants of matrix protein (M) and fusion glycoprotein (F) of RSV, respectively into a replication-deficient first-generation adenoviral vector (FGAd), which were used to co-infect Vero cells to assemble RSV VLPs successfully. The resulting VLPs showed similar immunoreactivity and function to RSV virion in vitro. Moreover, Th1 polarized response, and effective mucosal virus-neutralizing antibody and CD8+ T-cell responses were induced by a single intranasal (i.n.) administration of RSV VLPs rather than intramuscular (i.m.) inoculation, although the comparable RSV F-specific serum IgG and long-lasting RSV-specific neutralizing antibody were detected in the mice immunized by both routes. Upon RSV challenge, VLP-immunized mice showed increased viral clearance but decreased signs of enhanced lung pathology and fewer eosinophils compared to mice immunized with formalin-inactivated RSV (FI-RSV). In addition, a single i.n. RSV VLP vaccine has the capability to induce RSV-specific long-lasting neutralizing antibody responses observable up to 15 months. Our results demonstrate that the long-term and memory immune responses in mice against RSV were induced by a single i.n. administration of RSV VLP vaccine, suggesting a successful approach of RSV VLPs as an effective and safe mucosal vaccine against RSV infection, and an applicable and qualified platform of FGAd-infected Vero cells for VLP production.
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11
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Rey-Jurado E, Kalergis AM. Immunological Features of Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Caused Pneumonia-Implications for Vaccine Design. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E556. [PMID: 28273842 PMCID: PMC5372572 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18030556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2016] [Revised: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) is the causative agent for high rates of hospitalizations due to viral bronchiolitis and pneumonia worldwide. Such a disease is characterized by an infection of epithelial cells of the distal airways that leads to inflammation and subsequently to respiratory failure. Upon infection, different pattern recognition receptors recognize the virus and trigger the innate immune response against the hRSV. Further, T cell immunity plays an important role for virus clearance. Based on animal studies, it is thought that the host immune response to hRSV is based on a biased T helper (Th)-2 and Th17 T cell responses with the recruitment of T cells, neutrophils and eosinophils to the lung, causing inflammation and tissue damage. In contrast, human immunity against RSV has been shown to be more complex with no definitive T cell polarization profile. Nowadays, only a humanized monoclonal antibody, known as palivizumab, is available to protect against hRSV infection in high-risk infants. However, such treatment involves several injections at a significantly high cost. For these reasons, intense research has been focused on finding novel vaccines or therapies to prevent hRSV infection in the population. Here, we comprehensively review the recent literature relative to the immunological features during hRSV infection, as well as the new insights into preventing the disease caused by this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Rey-Jurado
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8330644, Chile.
| | - Alexis M Kalergis
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8330644, Chile.
- Departamento de Endocrinología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8330644, Chile.
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12
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Hwang HS, Kim KH, Lee Y, Lee YT, Ko EJ, Park S, Lee JS, Lee BC, Kwon YM, Moore ML, Kang SM. Virus-like particle vaccines containing F or F and G proteins confer protection against respiratory syncytial virus without pulmonary inflammation in cotton rats. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2017; 13:1031-1039. [PMID: 28129031 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2016.1272743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccine-enhanced disease has been a major obstacle in developing a safe vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). This study demonstrates the immunogenicity, efficacy, and safety of virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines containing RSV F (F VLP), G (G VLP), or F and G proteins (FG VLP) in cotton rats. RSV specific antibodies were effectively induced by vaccination of cotton rats with F VLP or FG VLP vaccines. After challenge, lung RSV clearance was observed with RSV F, G, FG VLP, and formalin inactivated RSV (FI-RSV) vaccines. Upon RSV infection, cotton rats with RSV VLP vaccines were protected against airway hyper-responsiveness and weight loss, which are different from FI-RSV vaccination exhibiting vaccine-enhanced disease of airway obstruction, weight loss, and severe histopathology with eosinophilia and mucus production. FG VLP and F VLP vaccines did not cause pulmonary inflammation whereas G VLP induced moderate lung inflammation with eosinophilia and mucus production. In particular, F VLP and FG VLP vaccines were found to be effective in inducing antibody secreting cell responses in bone marrow and lymphoid organs as well as avoiding the induction of T helper type 2 cytokines. These results provide further evidence to develop a safe RSV vaccine based on VLP platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Suk Hwang
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Ki-Hye Kim
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Youri Lee
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Young-Tae Lee
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Eun-Ju Ko
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - SooJin Park
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Jong Seok Lee
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA.,b National Institute of Biological Resources , Incheon , South Korea
| | - Byung-Cheol Lee
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Young-Man Kwon
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Martin L Moore
- c Department of Pediatrics , Emory University , Atlanta , GA , USA.,d Children's Healthcare of Atlanta , Atlanta , GA , USA
| | - Sang-Moo Kang
- a Center for Inflammation, Immunity & Infection , Institute for Biomedical Sciences, Georgia State University , Atlanta , GA , USA
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13
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Novel chimeric virus-like particles vaccine displaying MERS-CoV receptor-binding domain induce specific humoral and cellular immune response in mice. Antiviral Res 2016; 140:55-61. [PMID: 28040513 PMCID: PMC7113847 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) has continued spreading since its emergence in 2012 with a mortality rate of 35.6%, and is a potential pandemic threat. Prophylactics and therapies are urgently needed to address this public health problem. We report here the efficacy of a vaccine consisting of chimeric virus-like particles (VLP) expressing the receptor binding domain (RBD) of MERS-CoV. In this study, a fusion of the canine parvovirus (CPV) VP2 structural protein gene with the RBD of MERS-CoV can self-assemble into chimeric, spherical VLP (sVLP). sVLP retained certain parvovirus characteristics, such as the ability to agglutinate pig erythrocytes, and structural morphology similar to CPV virions. Immunization with sVLP induced RBD-specific humoral and cellular immune responses in mice. sVLP-specific antisera from these animals were able to prevent pseudotyped MERS-CoV entry into susceptible cells, with neutralizing antibody titers reaching 1: 320. IFN-γ, IL-4 and IL-2 secreting cells induced by the RBD were detected in the splenocytes of vaccinated mice by ELISpot. Furthermore, mice inoculated with sVLP or an adjuvanted sVLP vaccine elicited T-helper 1 (Th1) and T-helper 2 (Th2) cell-mediated immunity. Our study demonstrates that sVLP displaying the RBD of MERS-CoV are promising prophylactic candidates against MERS-CoV in a potential outbreak situation. We constructed a chimeric parvovirus virus-like particles displaying the MERS-CoV receptor-binding domain on the surface. We found that the chimeric virus-like particles induced RBD-specific, neutralizing antibody responses in mice. Splenocytes from immunized mice had considerably higher secretion of both Th1- and Th2-type cytokines. Our results reveal that chimeric virus-like particles induce both specific humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
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Cullen LM, Blanco JCG, Morrison TG. Cotton rat immune responses to virus-like particles containing the pre-fusion form of respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein. J Transl Med 2015; 13:350. [PMID: 26541285 PMCID: PMC4636065 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-015-0705-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Virus-like particles (VLPs) based on Newcastle disease virus (NDV) core proteins, M and NP, and containing two chimera proteins, F/F and H/G, composed of the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) fusion protein (F) and glycoprotein (G) ectodomains fused to the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of the NDV F and HN proteins, respectively, stimulate durable, protective anti-RSV neutralizing antibodies in mice. Furthermore, immunization of mice with a VLP containing a F/F chimera protein with modifications previously reported to stabilize the pre-fusion form of the RSV F protein resulted in significantly improved neutralizing antibody titers over VLPs containing the wild type F protein. The goal of this study was to determine if VLPs containing the pre-fusion form of the RSV F protein stimulated protective immune responses in cotton rats, a more RSV permissive animal model than mice. METHODS Cotton rats were immunized intramuscularly with VLPs containing stabilized pre-fusion F/F chimera protein as well as the H/G chimera protein. The anti-RSV F and RSV G antibody responses were determined by ELISA. Neutralizing antibody titers in sera of immunized animals were determined in plaque reduction assays. Protection of the animals from RSV challenge was assessed. The safety of the VLP vaccine was determined by monitoring lung pathology upon RSV challenge of immunized animals. RESULTS The Pre-F/F VLP induced neutralizing titers that were well above minimum levels previously proposed to be required for a successful vaccine and titers significantly higher than those stimulated by RSV infection. In addition, Pre-F/F VLP immunization stimulated higher IgG titers to the soluble pre-fusion F protein than RSV infection. Cotton rats immunized with Pre-F/F VLPs were protected from RSV challenge, and, importantly, the VLP immunization did not result in enhanced respiratory disease upon RSV challenge. CONCLUSIONS VLPs containing the pre-fusion RSV F protein have characteristics required for a safe, effective RSV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori McGinnes Cullen
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01655, USA.
| | | | - Trudy G Morrison
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01655, USA.
- Program in Immunology and Microbiology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01655, USA.
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Lower respiratory tract infection caused by respiratory syncytial virus: current management and new therapeutics. THE LANCET RESPIRATORY MEDICINE 2015; 3:888-900. [PMID: 26411809 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(15)00255-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major worldwide cause of morbidity and mortality in children under five years of age. Evidence-based management guidelines suggest that there is no effective treatment for RSV lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) and that supportive care, ie, hydration and oxygenation, remains the cornerstone of clinical management. However, RSV treatments in development in the past decade include 10 vaccines and 11 therapeutic agents in active clinical trials. Maternal vaccination is particularly relevant because the most severe disease occurs within the first 6 months of life, when children are unlikely to benefit from active immunisation. We must optimise the implementation of novel RSV therapeutics by understanding the target populations, showing safety, and striving for acceptable pricing in the context of this worldwide health problem. In this Review, we outline the limitations of RSV LRTI management, the drugs in development, and the remaining challenges related to study design, regulatory approval, and implementation.
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17
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Murine immune responses to virus-like particle-associated pre- and postfusion forms of the respiratory syncytial virus F protein. J Virol 2015; 89:6835-47. [PMID: 25903340 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00384-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Virus-like particles (VLPs) built on the Newcastle disease virus (NDV) core proteins, NP and M, and containing two chimeric proteins, F/F and H/G, composed of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) fusion protein (F) and glycoprotein (G) ectodomains fused to the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains of the NDV F and HN proteins, respectively, stimulate durable, protective RSV neutralizing antibodies in mice. Here, we report the properties of VLPs constructed to contain mutant RSV F protein ectodomains stabilized in prefusion (pre-F/F) or postfusion (post-F/F) configurations. The structures of the chimeric proteins assembled into VLPs were verified immunologically by their reactivities with a conformationally restricted anti-F protein monoclonal antibody. Following immunization of mice, without adjuvant, pre-F/F-containing VLPs induced significantly higher neutralizing antibody titers than the post-F/F-containing VLPs or the wild-type F/F-containing VLPs after a single immunization but not after prime and boost immunization. The specificities of anti-F IgG induced by the two mutant VLPs were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using soluble forms of the prefusion and postfusion forms of the F protein as targets. While both types of VLPs stimulated similar levels of IgG specific for the soluble postfusion F protein, titers of IgG specific for prefusion F induced by the pre-F/F-containing VLPs were higher than those induced by post-F/F-containing VLPs. Thus, VLPs containing a stabilized prefusion form of the RSV F protein represent a promising RSV vaccine candidate. IMPORTANCE The development of vaccines for respiratory syncytial virus has been hampered by a lack of understanding of the requirements for eliciting high titers of neutralizing antibodies. The results of this study suggest that particle-associated RSV F protein containing mutations that stabilize the structure in a prefusion conformation may stimulate higher titers of protective antibodies than particles containing F protein in a wild-type or postfusion conformation. These findings indicate that the prefusion F protein assembled into VLPs has the potential to produce a successful RSV vaccine candidate.
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Morrison TG. Meeting report VLPNPV: Session 3: Immune responses. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2014; 10:3064-7. [PMID: 25529229 DOI: 10.4161/21645515.2014.979643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus-like particles (VLPs) and nano-particles (NP) are increasingly considered for both prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines for a wide variety of human and animal diseases. Indeed, 2 VLPs have already been licensed for use in humans, the human papilloma virus vaccine and the hepatitis B virus vaccine. (1) Reflecting this increased interest, a second international conference with a specific focus on VLPs and NP was held at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, in June 2014. Approximately 100 attendees, hailing from many nations, came from academic institutions, research institutes, and biotech companies. A wide variety of topics were discussed, ranging from development and characterization of specific VLP and NP vaccine candidates to methods of production of these particles. Session three was focused on the general question of immune responses to VLPs.
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Key Words
- BLys, B lymphocyte stimulator
- ELISpot, enzyme-linked immunoSpot
- F, fusion
- G, glycoprotein
- HIV, human immunodeficiency virus
- HN, hemagglutinin-neuraminidase
- LLPC, long-lived plasma cells
- M, membrane
- MHC, major histocompatibility complex
- NDV, Newcastle disease virus
- NOD, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domains
- NP, nanoparticles or nucleocapsid protein
- PBL, peripheral blood lymphocytes
- RHDV, rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus
- RSV, respiratory syncytial virus
- T cell responses
- TLR, toll-like receptor
- TMV, tobacco mosaic virus
- TrV, triatoma virus
- VLPs, virus-like particles
- Virus-like particles
- adjuvants
- anti-glycan immunity
- human humoral immune responses
- memory responses
- mucosal immunity
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Affiliation(s)
- Trudy G Morrison
- a Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems ; University of Massachusetts Medical School ; Worcester , MA USA
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