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Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a betaherpesvirus that establishes lifelong infection in its host and can cause severe comorbidities in individuals with suppressed or compromised immune systems. The lifecycle of HCMV consists of lytic and latent phases, largely dependent upon the cell type infected and whether transcription from the major immediate early locus can ensue. Control of this locus, which acts as a critical "switch" region from where the lytic gene expression cascade originates, as well as regulation of the additional ~235 kilobases of virus genome, occurs through chromatinization with cellular histone proteins after infection. Upon infection of a host cell, an initial intrinsic antiviral response represses gene expression from the incoming genome, which is relieved in permissive cells by viral and host factors in concert. Latency is established in a subset of hematopoietic cells, during which viral transcription is largely repressed while the genome is maintained. As these latently infected cells differentiate, the cellular milieu and epigenetic modifications change, giving rise to the initial stages of virus reactivation from latency. Thus, throughout the cycle of infection, chromatinization, chromatin modifiers, and the recruitment of specific transcription factors influence the expression of genes from the HCMV genome. In this review, we discuss epigenetic regulation of the HCMV genome during the different phases of infection, with an emphasis on recent reports that add to our current perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M. Matthews
- Infection Biology, Global Center for Pathogen and Human Health Research, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Ian J. Groves
- Infection Biology, Global Center for Pathogen and Human Health Research, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Christine M. O'Connor
- Infection Biology, Global Center for Pathogen and Human Health Research, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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2
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Ryabchenko B, Šroller V, Horníková L, Lovtsov A, Forstová J, Huérfano S. The interactions between PML nuclear bodies and small and medium size DNA viruses. Virol J 2023; 20:82. [PMID: 37127643 PMCID: PMC10152602 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-023-02049-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PM NBs), often referred to as membraneless organelles, are dynamic macromolecular protein complexes composed of a PML protein core and other transient or permanent components. PML NBs have been shown to play a role in a wide variety of cellular processes. This review describes in detail the diverse and complex interactions between small and medium size DNA viruses and PML NBs that have been described to date. The PML NB components that interact with small and medium size DNA viruses include PML protein isoforms, ATRX/Daxx, Sp100, Sp110, HP1, and p53, among others. Interaction between viruses and components of these NBs can result in different outcomes, such as influencing viral genome expression and/or replication or impacting IFN-mediated or apoptotic cell responses to viral infection. We discuss how PML NB components abrogate the ability of adenoviruses or Hepatitis B virus to transcribe and/or replicate their genomes and how papillomaviruses use PML NBs and their components to promote their propagation. Interactions between polyomaviruses and PML NBs that are poorly understood but nevertheless suggest that the NBs can serve as scaffolds for viral replication or assembly are also presented. Furthermore, complex interactions between the HBx protein of hepadnaviruses and several PML NBs-associated proteins are also described. Finally, current but scarce information regarding the interactions of VP3/apoptin of the avian anellovirus with PML NBs is provided. Despite the considerable number of studies that have investigated the functions of the PML NBs in the context of viral infection, gaps in our understanding of the fine interactions between viruses and the very dynamic PML NBs remain. The complexity of the bodies is undoubtedly a great challenge that needs to be further addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Ryabchenko
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, BIOCEV, Charles University, Vestec, 25250, Czech Republic
| | - Vojtěch Šroller
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, BIOCEV, Charles University, Vestec, 25250, Czech Republic
| | - Lenka Horníková
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, BIOCEV, Charles University, Vestec, 25250, Czech Republic
| | - Alexey Lovtsov
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, BIOCEV, Charles University, Vestec, 25250, Czech Republic
| | - Jitka Forstová
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, BIOCEV, Charles University, Vestec, 25250, Czech Republic
| | - Sandra Huérfano
- Department of Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, BIOCEV, Charles University, Vestec, 25250, Czech Republic.
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3
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Bregnard T, Ahmed A, Semenova IV, Weller SK, Bezsonova I. The B-box1 domain of PML mediates SUMO E2-E3 complex formation through an atypical interaction with UBC9. Biophys Chem 2022; 287:106827. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2022.106827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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4
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Manska S, Rossetto CC. Identification of cellular proteins associated with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) DNA replication suggests novel cellular and viral interactions. Virology 2022; 566:26-41. [PMID: 34861458 PMCID: PMC8720285 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Upon entry of Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) into the host cell, the viral genome is transported to the nucleus where it serves as a template for transcription and genome replication. Production of new viral genomes is a coordinated effort between viral and cellular proteins. While the core replication proteins are encoded by the virus, additional cellular proteins support the process of genome synthesis. We used accelerated native isolation of proteins on nascent DNA (aniPOND) to study protein dynamics on nascent viral DNA during HCMV infection. Using this method, we identified specific viral and cellular proteins that are associated with nascent viral DNA. These included transcription factors, transcriptional regulators, DNA damage and repair factors, and chromatin remodeling complexes. The association of these identified proteins with viral DNA was confirmed by immunofluorescent imaging, chromatin-immunoprecipitation analyses, and shRNA knockdown experiments. These data provide evidence for the requirement of cellular factors involved in HCMV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salomé Manska
- University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, 1664 North Virginia Street/MS320, Reno, NV 89557 USA
| | - Cyprian C. Rossetto
- University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, 1664 North Virginia Street/MS320, Reno, NV 89557 USA,Correspondence to: Cyprian C. Rossetto, Ph.D.
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Lai S, Xu M, Wang Y, Li R, Xia C, Xia S, Chen J. Site-specific SUMOylation of viral polymerase processivity factor: a way of localizingtoND10 subnuclear domains for restricted and self-controlled reproduction of herpesvirus. Virulence 2021; 12:2883-2901. [PMID: 34747321 PMCID: PMC8923073 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.2000689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Lytic replication of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), a member of β-herpesvirus, is a highly complicated and organized process that requires its DNA polymerase processivity factor, UL44, the first-reported HCMV replication protein subjected to SUMO post-translational modification (PTM). SUMOylation plays a pleiotropic role in protein functions of host cells and infecting viruses. Particularly, formation of herpesviral replication compartments (RCs) upon infection is induced in proximity to ND10 subnuclear domains, the host cell’s intrinsic antiviral immune devices and hot SUMOylation spots, relying just on SUMOylation of their protein components to become mature and functional in restriction of the viral replication. In this study, to unveil the exact role of SUMO PTM on UL44 involved in HCMV replication, we screened and identified PIAS3, an annotated E3 SUMO ligase, as a novel UL44-interacting protein engaged in cellular SUMOylation pathway. Co-existence of PIAS3 could enhance the UBC9-based SUMO modification of UL44 specifically at its conserved 410lysine residue lying within the single canonical ψKxE SUMO Conjugation Motif (SCM). Intriguingly, we found this SCM-specific SUMOylation contributes to UL44 co-localization and interaction with subnuclear ND10 domains during infection, which in turn exerts an inhibitory effect on HCMV replication and growth. Together, these results highlight the importance of SUMOylation in regulating viral protein subnuclear localization, representing a novel way of utilizing ND10-based restriction to achieve the self-controlled slower replication and reproduction of herpesviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuyan Lai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mengqiong Xu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yaohao Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruilin Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chuan Xia
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Sisi Xia
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jun Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Foshan Institute of Medical Microbiology, Foshan, Guangdong, China
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Tripathi V, Chatterjee KS, Das R. Non-covalent Interaction With SUMO Enhances the Activity of Human Cytomegalovirus Protein IE1. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:662522. [PMID: 34055792 PMCID: PMC8155523 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.662522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses interact with the host cellular pathways to optimize cellular conditions for replication. The Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) Immediate-Early protein 1 (IE1) is the first viral protein to express during infection. It is a multifunctional and conditionally essential protein for HCMV infection. SUMO signaling regulates several cellular pathways that are also targets of IE1. Consequently, IE1 exploits SUMO signaling to regulate these pathways. The covalent interaction of IE1 and SUMO (IE1-SUMOylation) is well studied. However, the non-covalent interactions between SUMO and IE1 are unknown. We report two SUMO-Interacting Motifs (SIMs) in IE1, one at the end of the core domain and another in the C-terminal domain. NMR titrations showed that IE1-SIMs bind to SUMO1 but not SUMO2. Two critical functions of IE1 are inhibition of SUMOylation of Promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) and transactivation of viral promoters. Although the non-covalent interaction of IE1 and SUMO is not involved in the inhibition of PML SUMOylation, it contributes to the transactivation activity. The transactivation activity of IE1 was previously correlated to its ability to inhibit PML SUMOylation. Our results suggest that transactivation and inhibition of PML SUMOylation are independent activities of IE1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasvi Tripathi
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bengaluru, India
| | - Kiran Sankar Chatterjee
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bengaluru, India
| | - Ranabir Das
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Bengaluru, India
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7
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Chen J, Li G, He H, Li X, Niu W, Cao D, Shen A. Sumoylation of the Carboxy-Terminal of Human Cytomegalovirus DNA Polymerase Processivity Factor UL44 Attenuates Viral DNA Replication. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:652719. [PMID: 33967989 PMCID: PMC8097051 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.652719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Controlled regulation of genomic DNA synthesis is a universally conserved process for all herpesviruses, including human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), and plays a key role in viral pathogenesis, such as persistent infections. HCMV DNA polymerase processivity factor UL44 plays an essential role in viral DNA replication. To better understand the biology of UL44, we performed a yeast two-hybrid screen for host proteins that could interact with UL44. The most frequently isolated result was the SUMO-conjugating enzyme UBC9, a protein involved in the sumoylation pathway. The UBC9-UL44 interaction was confirmed by in vitro His-tag pull-down and in vivo co-immunoprecipitation assays. Using deletion mutants of UL44, we mapped two small regions of UL44, aa 11–16, and 260–269, which might be critical for the interaction with UBC9. We then demonstrated that UL44 was a target for sumoylation by in vitro and in vivo sumoylation assays, as well as in HCMV-infected cells. We further confirmed that 410lysine located within a ψKxE consensus motif on UL44 carboxy-terminal was the major sumoylation site of UL44. Interestingly, although 410lysine had no effects on subcellular localization or protein stability of UL44, the removal of 410lysine sumoylation site enhanced both viral DNA synthesis in transfection-replication assays and viral progeny production in infected cells for HCMV, suggesting sumoylation can attenuate HCMV replication through targeting UL44. Our results suggest that sumoylation plays a key role in regulating UL44 functions and viral replication, and reveal the crucial role of the carboxy-terminal of UL44, for which little function has been known before.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guanlie Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Haiqing He
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenjing Niu
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Di Cao
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ao Shen
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Target and Clinical Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and The Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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8
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Neerukonda SN. Interplay between RNA Viruses and Promyelocytic Leukemia Nuclear Bodies. Vet Sci 2021; 8:vetsci8040057. [PMID: 33807177 PMCID: PMC8065607 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8040057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML NBs) are nuclear membrane-less sub structures that play a critical role in diverse cellular pathways including cell proliferation, DNA damage, apoptosis, transcriptional regulation, stem cell renewal, alternative lengthening of telomeres, chromatin organization, epigenetic regulation, protein turnover, autophagy, intrinsic and innate antiviral immunity. While intrinsic and innate immune functions of PML NBs or PML NB core proteins are well defined in the context of nuclear replicating DNA viruses, several studies also confirm their substantial roles in the context of RNA viruses. In the present review, antiviral activities of PML NBs or its core proteins on diverse RNA viruses that replicate in cytoplasm or the nucleus were discussed. In addition, viral counter mechanisms that reorganize PML NBs, and specifically how viruses usurp PML NB functions in order to create a cellular environment favorable for replication and pathogenesis, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabari Nath Neerukonda
- Department of Animal and Food and Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
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9
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Collados Rodríguez M. The Fate of Speckled Protein 100 (Sp100) During Herpesviruses Infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 10:607526. [PMID: 33598438 PMCID: PMC7882683 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.607526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The constitutive expression of Speckled-100 (Sp100) is known to restrict the replication of many clinically important DNA viruses. This pre-existing (intrinsic) immune defense to virus infection can be further upregulated upon interferon (IFN) stimulation as a component of the innate immune response. In humans, Sp100 is encoded by a single gene locus, which can produce alternatively spliced isoforms. The widely studied Sp100A, Sp100B, Sp100C and Sp100HMG have functions associated with the transcriptional regulation of viral and cellular chromatin, either directly through their characteristic DNA-binding domains, or indirectly through post-translational modification (PTM) and associated protein interaction networks. Sp100 isoforms are resident component proteins of promyelocytic leukemia-nuclear bodies (PML-NBs), dynamic nuclear sub-structures which regulate host immune defenses against many pathogens. In the case of human herpesviruses, multiple protein antagonists are expressed to relieve viral DNA genome transcriptional silencing imposed by PML-NB and Sp100-derived proteinaceous structures, thereby stimulating viral propagation, pathogenesis, and transmission to new hosts. This review details how different Sp100 isoforms are manipulated during herpesviruses HSV1, VZV, HCMV, EBV, and KSHV infection, identifying gaps in our current knowledge, and highlighting future areas of research.
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Razin SV, Gavrilov AA, Iarovaia OV. Modification of Nuclear Compartments and the 3D Genome in the Course of a Viral Infection. Acta Naturae 2020; 12:34-46. [PMID: 33456976 PMCID: PMC7800604 DOI: 10.32607/actanaturae.11041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The review addresses the question of how the structural and functional compartmentalization of the cell nucleus and the 3D organization of the cellular genome are modified during the infection of cells with various viruses. Particular attention is paid to the role of the introduced changes in the implementation of the viral strategy to evade the antiviral defense systems and provide conditions for viral replication. The discussion focuses on viruses replicating in the cell nucleus. Cytoplasmic viruses are mentioned in cases when a significant reorganization of the nuclear compartments or the 3D genome structure occurs during an infection with these viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. V. Razin
- Institute of Gene Biology Russian Academy of Sciences
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Collin V, Gravel A, Kaufer BB, Flamand L. The Promyelocytic Leukemia Protein facilitates human herpesvirus 6B chromosomal integration, immediate-early 1 protein multiSUMOylation and its localization at telomeres. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008683. [PMID: 32658923 PMCID: PMC7394443 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B) is a betaherpesvirus capable of integrating its genome into the telomeres of host chromosomes. Until now, the cellular and/or viral proteins facilitating HHV-6B integration have remained elusive. Here we show that a cellular protein, the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) that forms nuclear bodies (PML-NBs), associates with the HHV-6B immediate early 1 (IE1) protein at telomeres. We report enhanced levels of SUMOylated IE1 in the presence of PML and have identified a putative SUMO Interacting Motif (SIM) within IE1, essential for its nuclear distribution, overall SUMOylation and association with PML to nuclear bodies. Furthermore, using PML knockout cell lines we made the original observation that PML is required for efficient HHV-6B integration into host chromosomes. Taken together, we could demonstrate that PML-NBs are important for IE1 multiSUMOylation and that PML plays an important role in HHV-6B integration into chromosomes, a strategy developed by this virus to maintain its genome in its host over long periods of time. Human herpesvirus 6B (HHV-6B) is a ubiquitous virus that can be life threatening in immunocompromised patients. HHV-6B is among a few other herpesviruses that integrate their genome in host chromosomes as a mean to establish dormancy. Integration of HHV-6B occurs in host telomeres, a region that protects our genome from deterioration and controls the cellular lifespan. To date, the mechanisms leading to HHV-6B integration remain elusive. Our laboratory has identified that the IE1 protein of HHV-6B associates with PML, a cellular protein that is responsible for the regulation of important cellular mechanisms including DNA recombination and repair. With the objective of understanding how IE1 is brought to PML, we discovered that PML aids the SUMOylation of IE1. This finding led us to identify a putative SUMO interaction motif on IE1 that is essentials for both its SUMOylation and IE1 oligomerization with PML-NBs. We next studied the role of PML on HHV-6B integration and identified that cells that are deficient for PML were less susceptible to HHV-6B integration. These results correlate with the fact that PML influences IE1 localization at telomeres, the site of HHV-6B integration. Our study further contributes to our understanding of the mechanisms leading to HHV-6B chromosomal integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Collin
- Division of Infectious Disease and Immunity, CHU de Québec Research Center, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - Annie Gravel
- Division of Infectious Disease and Immunity, CHU de Québec Research Center, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Louis Flamand
- Division of Infectious Disease and Immunity, CHU de Québec Research Center, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
- Department of microbiology, infectious disease and immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, Québec, Canada
- * E-mail:
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12
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Paulus C, Harwardt T, Walter B, Marxreiter A, Zenger M, Reuschel E, Nevels MM. Revisiting promyelocytic leukemia protein targeting by human cytomegalovirus immediate-early protein 1. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008537. [PMID: 32365141 PMCID: PMC7224577 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Promyelocytic leukemia (PML) bodies are nuclear organelles implicated in intrinsic and innate antiviral defense. The eponymous PML proteins, central to the self-organization of PML bodies, and other restriction factors found in these organelles are common targets of viral antagonism. The 72-kDa immediate-early protein 1 (IE1) is the principal antagonist of PML bodies encoded by the human cytomegalovirus (hCMV). IE1 is believed to disrupt PML bodies by inhibiting PML SUMOylation, while PML was proposed to act as an E3 ligase for IE1 SUMOylation. PML targeting by IE1 is considered to be crucial for hCMV replication at low multiplicities of infection, in part via counteracting antiviral gene induction linked to the cellular interferon (IFN) response. However, current concepts of IE1-PML interaction are largely derived from mutant IE1 proteins known or predicted to be metabolically unstable and globally misfolded. We performed systematic clustered charge-to-alanine scanning mutagenesis and identified a stable IE1 mutant protein (IE1cc172-176) with wild-type characteristics except for neither interacting with PML proteins nor inhibiting PML SUMOylation. Consequently, IE1cc172-176 does not associate with PML bodies and is selectively impaired for disrupting these organelles. Surprisingly, functional analysis of IE1cc172-176 revealed that the protein is hypermodified by mixed SUMO chains and that IE1 SUMOylation depends on nucleosome rather than PML binding. Furthermore, a mutant hCMV expressing IE1cc172-176 was only slightly attenuated compared to an IE1-null virus even at low multiplicities of infection. Finally, hCMV-induced expression of cytokine and IFN-stimulated genes turned out to be reduced rather than increased in the presence of IE1cc172-176 relative to wild-type IE1. Our findings challenge present views on the relationship of IE1 with PML and the role of PML in hCMV replication. This study also provides initial evidence for the idea that disruption of PML bodies upon viral infection is linked to activation rather than inhibition of innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Paulus
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Harwardt
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Bernadette Walter
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea Marxreiter
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Marion Zenger
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Edith Reuschel
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Clinic St. Hedwig at Hospital Barmherzige Brüder Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Michael M. Nevels
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, United Kingdom
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Dell'Oste V, Biolatti M, Galitska G, Griffante G, Gugliesi F, Pasquero S, Zingoni A, Cerboni C, De Andrea M. Tuning the Orchestra: HCMV vs. Innate Immunity. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:661. [PMID: 32351486 PMCID: PMC7174589 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how the innate immune system keeps human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in check has recently become a critical issue in light of the global clinical burden of HCMV infection in newborns and immunodeficient patients. Innate immunity constitutes the first line of host defense against HCMV as it involves a complex array of cooperating effectors – e.g., inflammatory cytokines, type I interferon (IFN-I), natural killer (NK) cells, professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and phagocytes – all capable of disrupting HCMV replication. These factors are known to trigger a highly efficient adaptive immune response, where cellular restriction factors (RFs) play a major gatekeeping role. Unlike other innate immunity components, RFs are constitutively expressed in many cell types, ready to act before pathogen exposure. Nonetheless, the existence of a positive regulatory feedback loop between RFs and IFNs is clear evidence of an intimate cooperation between intrinsic and innate immunity. In the course of virus-host coevolution, HCMV has, however, learned how to manipulate the functions of multiple cellular players of the host innate immune response to achieve latency and persistence. Thus, HCMV acts like an orchestra conductor able to piece together and rearrange parts of a musical score (i.e., innate immunity) to obtain the best live performance (i.e., viral fitness). It is therefore unquestionable that innovative therapeutic solutions able to prevent HCMV immune evasion in congenitally infected infants and immunocompromised individuals are urgently needed. Here, we provide an up-to-date review of the mechanisms regulating the interplay between HCMV and innate immunity, focusing on the various strategies of immune escape evolved by this virus to gain a fitness advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Dell'Oste
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Matteo Biolatti
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Ganna Galitska
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Gloria Griffante
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Francesca Gugliesi
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Selina Pasquero
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessandra Zingoni
- Department of Molecular Immunology and Immunopathology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Cristina Cerboni
- Department of Molecular Immunology and Immunopathology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco De Andrea
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.,Center for Translational Research on Autoimmune and Allergic Disease - CAAD, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
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14
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Shan L, Li S, Meeldijk J, Blijenberg B, Hendriks A, van Boxtel KJWM, van den Berg SPH, Groves IJ, Potts M, Svrlanska A, Stamminger T, Wills MR, Bovenschen N. Killer cell proteases can target viral immediate-early proteins to control human cytomegalovirus infection in a noncytotoxic manner. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008426. [PMID: 32282833 PMCID: PMC7179929 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is the most frequent viral cause of congenital defects and can trigger devastating disease in immune-suppressed patients. Cytotoxic lymphocytes (CD8+ T cells and NK cells) control HCMV infection by releasing interferon-γ and five granzymes (GrA, GrB, GrH, GrK, GrM), which are believed to kill infected host cells through cleavage of intracellular death substrates. However, it has recently been demonstrated that the in vivo killing capacity of cytotoxic T cells is limited and multiple T cell hits are required to kill a single virus-infected cell. This raises the question whether cytotoxic lymphocytes can use granzymes to control HCMV infection in a noncytotoxic manner. Here, we demonstrate that (primary) cytotoxic lymphocytes can block HCMV dissemination independent of host cell death, and interferon-α/β/γ. Prior to killing, cytotoxic lymphocytes induce the degradation of viral immediate-early (IE) proteins IE1 and IE2 in HCMV-infected cells. Intriguingly, both IE1 and/or IE2 are directly proteolyzed by all human granzymes, with GrB and GrM being most efficient. GrB and GrM cleave IE1 after Asp398 and Leu414, respectively, likely resulting in IE1 aberrant cellular localization, IE1 instability, and functional impairment of IE1 to interfere with the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. Furthermore, GrB and GrM cleave IE2 after Asp184 and Leu173, respectively, resulting in IE2 aberrant cellular localization and functional abolishment of IE2 to transactivate the HCMV UL112 early promoter. Taken together, our data indicate that cytotoxic lymphocytes can also employ noncytotoxic ways to control HCMV infection, which may be explained by granzyme-mediated targeting of indispensable viral proteins during lytic infection. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is the leading viral cause of congenital defects, can trigger disease in immune-compromised patients, and plays roles in cancer development. Cytotoxic lymphocytes kill HCMV-infected cells via releasing a set of five cytotoxic serine proteases called granzymes. However, the killing capacity of cytotoxic cells is limited and multiple T cell hits are required to kill a single virus-infected cell. This raises the question whether cytotoxic lymphocytes can use granzymes to control HCMV infection in a noncytotoxic manner. Here, we show that cytotoxic lymphocytes can also use granzymes to inhibit HCMV replication in absence of cell death. All five granzymes cleave and inactivate both viral immediate-early (IE1/2) proteins, which are essential players for initiating HCMV infection. Our data support the model that cytotoxic cells employ granzymes to dampen HCMV replication prior to accumulation of sufficient hits to kill the infected cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liling Shan
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Shuang Li
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Meeldijk
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bernadet Blijenberg
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Astrid Hendriks
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Ian J. Groves
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Potts
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Adriana Svrlanska
- Institute of Clinical and Molecular Virology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | | | - Mark R. Wills
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Niels Bovenschen
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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15
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Wang P, Benhenda S, Wu H, Lallemand-Breitenbach V, Zhen T, Jollivet F, Peres L, Li Y, Chen SJ, Chen Z, de Thé H, Meng G. RING tetramerization is required for nuclear body biogenesis and PML sumoylation. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1277. [PMID: 29599493 PMCID: PMC5876331 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03498-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
ProMyelocyticLeukemia nuclear bodies (PML NBs) are stress-regulated domains directly implicated in acute promyelocytic leukemia eradication. Most TRIM family members bind ubiquitin E2s and many acquire ligase activity upon RING dimerization. In contrast, PML binds UBC9, the SUMO E2 enzyme. Here, using X-ray crystallography and SAXS characterization, we demonstrate that PML RING tetramerizes through highly conserved PML-specific sequences, which are required for NB assembly and PML sumoylation. Conserved residues implicated in RING dimerization of other TRIMs also contribute to PML tetramer stability. Wild-type PML rescues the ability of some RING mutants to form NBs as well as their sumoylation. Impaired RING tetramerization abolishes PML/RARA-driven leukemogenesis in vivo and arsenic-induced differentiation ex vivo. Our studies thus identify RING tetramerization as a key step in the NB macro-molecular scaffolding. They suggest that higher order RING interactions allow efficient UBC9 recruitment and thus change the biochemical nature of TRIM-facilitated post-translational modifications. Promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) is a scaffolding protein that organizes PML nuclear bodies. Here the authors present the tetrameric crystal structure of the PML RING domain and show that RING tetramerization is functionally important for nuclear body formation and PML sumoylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengran Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Rui Jin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 197 Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China.,Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences and Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yueyang Road, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Shirine Benhenda
- University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U944, CNRS UMR7212, Equipe labellisée LNCC, Hôpital St. Louis 1, Paris, 75475, France.,Laboratoire International Associé, Hematology and Cancer, RuiJin Hospital, INSERM and CNRS, Shanghai, China
| | - Haiyan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Rui Jin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 197 Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China.,Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Center for Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dong Chuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Valérie Lallemand-Breitenbach
- University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U944, CNRS UMR7212, Equipe labellisée LNCC, Hôpital St. Louis 1, Paris, 75475, France.,Laboratoire International Associé, Hematology and Cancer, RuiJin Hospital, INSERM and CNRS, Shanghai, China.,Collège de France, Paris Sciences Lettres research university, 11 place Marcelin Berthelot, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Tao Zhen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Rui Jin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 197 Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Florence Jollivet
- University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U944, CNRS UMR7212, Equipe labellisée LNCC, Hôpital St. Louis 1, Paris, 75475, France.,Laboratoire International Associé, Hematology and Cancer, RuiJin Hospital, INSERM and CNRS, Shanghai, China
| | - Laurent Peres
- University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U944, CNRS UMR7212, Equipe labellisée LNCC, Hôpital St. Louis 1, Paris, 75475, France.,Laboratoire International Associé, Hematology and Cancer, RuiJin Hospital, INSERM and CNRS, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuwen Li
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Rui Jin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 197 Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Sai-Juan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Rui Jin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 197 Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China.,Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences and Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yueyang Road, Shanghai, 200031, China.,Laboratoire International Associé, Hematology and Cancer, RuiJin Hospital, INSERM and CNRS, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Center for Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dong Chuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Zhu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Rui Jin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 197 Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China. .,Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences and Graduate School, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yueyang Road, Shanghai, 200031, China. .,Laboratoire International Associé, Hematology and Cancer, RuiJin Hospital, INSERM and CNRS, Shanghai, China. .,Key Laboratory of Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Center for Systems Biomedicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dong Chuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Hugues de Thé
- University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, INSERM U944, CNRS UMR7212, Equipe labellisée LNCC, Hôpital St. Louis 1, Paris, 75475, France. .,Laboratoire International Associé, Hematology and Cancer, RuiJin Hospital, INSERM and CNRS, Shanghai, China. .,Collège de France, Paris Sciences Lettres research university, 11 place Marcelin Berthelot, 75005, Paris, France. .,Service de Biochimie, Hôpital St. Louis, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, 75475, France.
| | - Guoyu Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Rui Jin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 197 Ruijin Er Road, Shanghai, 200025, China. .,Laboratoire International Associé, Hematology and Cancer, RuiJin Hospital, INSERM and CNRS, Shanghai, China.
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16
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Stepp WH, Stamos JD, Khurana S, Warburton A, McBride AA. Sp100 colocalizes with HPV replication foci and restricts the productive stage of the infectious cycle. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006660. [PMID: 28968443 PMCID: PMC5638619 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2017] [Revised: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We have shown previously that Sp100 (a component of the ND10 nuclear body) represses transcription, replication and establishment of incoming human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA in the early stages of infection. In this follow up study, we show that Sp100 does not substantially regulate viral infection in the maintenance phase, however at late stages of infection Sp100 interacts with amplifying viral genomes to repress viral processes. We find that Sp100 localizes to HPV16 replication foci generated in primary keratinocytes, to HPV31 replication foci that form in differentiated cells, and to HPV16 replication foci in CIN 1 cervical biopsies. To analyze this further, Sp100 was down regulated by siRNA treatment of differentiating HPV31 containing cells and levels of viral transcription and replication were assessed. This revealed that Sp100 represses viral transcription and replication in differentiated cells. Analysis of Sp100 binding to viral chromatin showed that Sp100 bound across the viral genome, and that binding increased at late stages of infection. Therefore, Sp100 represses the HPV life cycle at both early and late stages of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley H. Stepp
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - James D. Stamos
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Simran Khurana
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Alix Warburton
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Alison A. McBride
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
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17
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Liu XJ, Yang B, Huang SN, Wu CC, Li XJ, Cheng S, Jiang X, Hu F, Ming YZ, Nevels M, Britt WJ, Rayner S, Tang Q, Zeng WB, Zhao F, Luo MH. Human cytomegalovirus IE1 downregulates Hes1 in neural progenitor cells as a potential E3 ubiquitin ligase. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006542. [PMID: 28750047 PMCID: PMC5549770 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Congenital human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is the leading cause of neurological disabilities in children worldwide, but the mechanisms underlying these disorders are far from well-defined. HCMV infection has been shown to dysregulate the Notch signaling pathway in human neural progenitor cells (NPCs). As an important downstream effector of Notch signaling, the transcriptional regulator Hairy and Enhancer of Split 1 (Hes1) is essential for governing NPC fate and fetal brain development. In the present study, we report that HCMV infection downregulates Hes1 protein levels in infected NPCs. The HCMV 72-kDa immediate-early 1 protein (IE1) is involved in Hes1 degradation by assembling a ubiquitination complex and promoting Hes1 ubiquitination as a potential E3 ubiquitin ligase, followed by proteasomal degradation of Hes1. Sp100A, an important component of PML nuclear bodies, is identified to be another target of IE1-mediated ubiquitination. A C-terminal acidic region in IE1, spanning amino acids 451 to 475, is required for IE1/Hes1 physical interaction and IE1-mediated Hes1 ubiquitination, but is dispensable for IE1/Sp100A interaction and ubiquitination. Our study suggests a novel mechanism linking downregulation of Hes1 protein to neurodevelopmental disorders caused by HCMV infection. Our findings also complement the current knowledge of herpesviruses by identifying IE1 as the first potential HCMV-encoded E3 ubiquitin ligase. Congenital human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is the leading cause of neurological disabilities in children, but the underlying pathogenesis of this infection remains unclear. Hes1, an important effector of Notch signaling, governs the fate of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) and fetal brain development. Here we demonstrate that: (1) HCMV infection results in loss of Hes1 protein in NPCs; (2) the HCMV immediate-early 1 protein (IE1) mediates Hes1 protein downregulation through direct interaction, which requires amino acids 451–475; (3) IE1 assembles a Hes1 ubiquitination complex and mediates Hes1 ubiquitination; and (4) IE1 also assembles an Sp100A ubiquitination complex and mediates Sp100A ubiquitination, but does not require amino acids 451–475. These results suggest that HCMV IE1 is a potential E3 ubiquitin ligase. Downregulation of Hes1 by HCMV infection and IE1 implies a novel mechanism linking Hes1 depletion to virus-induced neuropathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Juan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bo Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Sheng-Nan Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Cong-Cong Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xiao-Jun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shuang Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xuan Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children Medical Center, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fei Hu
- Wuhan Brain Hospital, Ministry of Transportation, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Ying-Zi Ming
- The Third Xiangya Hospital, South Central University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Michael Nevels
- School of Biology, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - William J. Britt
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama School of Medicine, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Simon Rayner
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital & University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Qiyi Tang
- Department of Microbiology, Howard University College of Medicine, Howard University, Washington DC, United States of America
| | - Wen-Bo Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- * E-mail: (WBZ); (FZ); (MHL)
| | - Fei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- * E-mail: (WBZ); (FZ); (MHL)
| | - Min-Hua Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology (CEBSIT), Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children Medical Center, Guangzhou, China
- * E-mail: (WBZ); (FZ); (MHL)
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