1
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Yin Z(S, Wang Z. Strategies for engineering oncolytic viruses to enhance cancer immunotherapy. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1450203. [PMID: 39309012 PMCID: PMC11413971 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1450203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 09/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the predominant form of lung cancer and is characterized by rapid metastasis and high mortality, presenting a challenge for early-stage treatment modalities. The heterogeneity of NSCLC's tumor microenvironment (TME) significantly influences the efficacy of anti-PD-1 immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) therapy, leading to varied patient responses. This review characterized different strains of oncolytic viruses in NSCLC and the different gene edits in pre-existing oncolytic viruses. This study also aimed to provide strategies to enhance anti-PD-1 therapy in NSCLC by engineering oncolytic viruses (OVs). This study offers insights into the genomic adaptations necessary for OVs targeting NSCLC, identify genetic determinants of anti-PD-1 response variability, and propose genomic edits to bolster therapy effectiveness. The primary goal of this study is to present a theoretically designed OV with a detailed genomic framework capable of enhancing the response to anti-PD-1 therapy, thereby advancing the field of cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zhengfeng Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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2
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Gibbs VJ, Lin YH, Ghuge AA, Anderson RA, Schiemann AH, Conaglen L, Sansom BJM, da Silva RC, Sattlegger E. GCN2 in Viral Defence and the Subversive Tactics Employed by Viruses. J Mol Biol 2024; 436:168594. [PMID: 38724002 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2024.168594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
The recent SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and associated COVID19 disease illustrates the important role of viral defence mechanisms in ensuring survival and recovery of the host or patient. Viruses absolutely depend on the host's protein synthesis machinery to replicate, meaning that impeding translation is a powerful way to counteract viruses. One major approach used by cells to obstruct protein synthesis is to phosphorylate the alpha subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2α). Mammals possess four different eIF2α-kinases: PKR, HRI, PEK/PERK, and GCN2. While PKR is currently considered the principal eIF2α-kinase involved in viral defence, the other eIF2α-kinases have also been found to play significant roles. Unsurprisingly, viruses have developed mechanisms to counteract the actions of eIF2α-kinases, or even to exploit them to their benefit. While some of these virulence factors are specific to one eIF2α-kinase, such as GCN2, others target all eIF2α-kinases. This review critically evaluates the current knowledge of viral mechanisms targeting the eIF2α-kinase GCN2. A detailed and in-depth understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which viruses evade host defence mechanisms will help to inform the development of powerful anti-viral measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria J Gibbs
- School of Food Technology and Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Yu H Lin
- School of Food Technology and Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Aditi A Ghuge
- School of Food Technology and Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Reuben A Anderson
- School of Food Technology and Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Anja H Schiemann
- School of Food Technology and Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Layla Conaglen
- School of Food Technology and Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Bianca J M Sansom
- School of Natural Sciences, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Richard C da Silva
- School of Natural Sciences, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand; Genome Biology and Epigenetics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Evelyn Sattlegger
- School of Food Technology and Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand; School of Natural Sciences, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand; Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular BioDiscovery, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
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3
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Haller SL, Park C, Bruneau RC, Megawati D, Zhang C, Vipat S, Peng C, Senkevich TG, Brennan G, Tazi L, Rothenburg S. Molecular basis for the host range function of the poxvirus PKR inhibitor E3. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.16.594589. [PMID: 38798513 PMCID: PMC11118487 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.16.594589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
The antiviral protein kinase R (PKR) is activated by viral double-stranded RNA and phosphorylates translation initiation factor eIF2α, thereby inhibiting translation and virus replication. Most poxviruses contain two PKR inhibitors, called E3 and K3 in vaccinia virus (VACV), which are determinants of viral host range. The prevailing model for E3 function is that it inhibits PKR through the non-specific sequestration of double-stranded (ds) RNA. Our data revealed that Syrian hamster PKR was resistant to E3, which is at odds with the sequestration model. However, Syrian hamster PKR was still sensitive to K3 inhibition. In contrast, Armenian hamster PKR showed opposite sensitivities, being sensitive to E3 and resistant to K3 inhibition. Mutational analyses of hamster PKRs showed that sensitivity to E3 inhibition was largely determined by the region linking the dsRNA-binding domains and the kinase domain of PKR, whereas two amino acid residues in the kinase domain (helix αG) determined sensitivity to K3. Expression of PKRs in congenic cells showed that Syrian hamster PKR containing the two Armenian hamster PKR residues in helix-αG was resistant to wild type VACV infection, and that cells expressing either hamster PKR recapitulated the phenotypes observed in species-derived cell lines. The observed resistance of Syrian hamster PKR to E3 explains its host range function and challenges the paradigm that dsRNA-binding PKR inhibitors mainly act by the sequestration of dsRNA. Significance The molecular mechanisms that govern the host range of viruses are incompletely understood. A small number of poxvirus genes have been identified that influence the host range of poxviruses. We show that the host range functions of E3 and K3, two host range factors from vaccinia virus, are a result of species-specific interactions with the antiviral protein kinase R (PKR) and that PKR from closely related species displayed dramatic differences in their sensitivities to these viral inhibitors. While there is a substantial body of work demonstrating host-specific interactions with K3, the current model for E3-mediated PKR inhibition is that E3 non-specifically sequesters dsRNA to prevent PKR activation. This model does not predict species-specific sensitivity to E3; therefore, our data suggest that the current model is incomplete, and that dsRNA sequestration is not the primary mechanism for E3 activity.
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Chang W, Hao M, Qiu J, Sherman BT, Imamichi T. Discovery of a Novel Intron in US10/US11/US12 of HSV-1 Strain 17. Viruses 2023; 15:2144. [PMID: 38005822 PMCID: PMC10675037 DOI: 10.3390/v15112144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) infects humans and causes a variety of clinical manifestations. Many HSV-1 genomes have been sequenced with high-throughput sequencing technologies and the annotation of these genome sequences heavily relies on the known genes in reference strains. Consequently, the accuracy of reference strain annotation is critical for future research and treatment of HSV-1 infection. In this study, we analyzed RNA-Seq data of HSV-1 from NCBI databases and discovered a novel intron in the overlapping coding sequence (CDS) of US10 and US11, and the 3' UTR of US12 in strain 17, a commonly used HSV-1 reference strain. To comprehensively understand the shared US10/US11/US12 intron structure, we used US11 as a representative and surveyed all US11 gene sequences from the NCBI nt/nr database. A total of 193 high-quality US11 sequences were obtained, of which 186 sequences have a domain of uninterrupted tandemly repeated RXP (Arg-X-Pro) in the C-terminus half of the protein. In total, 97 of the 186 sequences encode US11 protein with the same length of the mature US11 in strain 17:26 of them have the same structure of US11 and can be spliced as in strain 17; 71 of them have transcripts that are the same as mature US11 mRNA in strain 17. In total, 76 US11 gene sequences have either canonical or known noncanonical intron border sequences and may be spliced like strain 17 and obtain mature US11 CDS with the same length. If not spliced, they will have extra RXP repeats. A tandemly repeated RXP domain was proposed to be essential for US11 to bind with RNA and other host factors. US10 protein sequences from the same strains have also been studied. The results of this study show that even a frequently used reference organism may have errors in widely used databases. This study provides accurate annotation of the US10, US11, and US12 gene structure, which will build a more solid foundation to study expression regulation of the function of these genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhong Chang
- Laboratory of Human Retrovirology and Lmmunoinformatics, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; (M.H.); (J.Q.); (B.T.S.); (T.I.)
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5
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Persistent inflammation and neuronal loss in the mouse brain induced by a modified form of attenuated herpes simplex virus type I. Virol Sin 2023; 38:108-118. [PMID: 36436797 PMCID: PMC10006190 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2022.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) is a widespread neurotropic virus that can reach the brain and cause a rare but acute herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) with a high mortality rate. Most patients present with changes in neurological and behavioral status, and survivors suffer long-term neurological sequelae. To date, the pathogenesis leading to brain damage is still not well understood. HSV-1 induced encephalitis in the central nervous system (CNS) in animals are usually very diffuse and progressing rapidly, and mostly fatal, making the analysis difficult. Here, we established a mouse model of HSE via intracerebral inoculation of modified version of neural-attenuated strains of HSV-1 (deletion of ICP34.5 and inserting a strong promoter into the latency-associated transcript region), in which the LMR-αΔpA strain initiated moderate productive infection, leading to strong host immune and inflammatory response characterized by persistent microglia activation. This viral replication activity and prolonged inflammatory response activated signaling pathways in neuronal damage, amyloidosis, Alzheimer's disease, and neurodegeneration, eventually leading to neuronal loss and behavioral changes characterized by hypokinesia. Our study reveals detailed pathogenic processes and persistent inflammatory responses in the CNS and provides a controlled, mild and non-lethal HSE model for studying long-term neuronal injury and increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases due to HSV-1 infection.
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Scanlan H, Coffman Z, Bettencourt J, Shipley T, Bramblett DE. Herpes simplex virus 1 as an oncolytic viral therapy for refractory cancers. Front Oncol 2022; 12:940019. [PMID: 35965554 PMCID: PMC9364694 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.940019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The need for efficacious and non-toxic cancer therapies is paramount. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are showing great promise and are introducing new possibilities in cancer treatment with their ability to selectively infect tumor cells and trigger antitumor immune responses. Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) is a commonly selected OV candidate due to its large genome, relative safety profile, and ability to infect a variety of cell types. Talimogene laherparevec (T-VEC) is an HSV-1-derived OV variant and the first and only OV therapy currently approved for clinical use by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This review provides a concise description of HSV-1 as an OV candidate and the genomic organization of T-VEC. Furthermore, this review focuses on the advantages and limitations in the use of T-VEC compared to other HSV-1 OV variants currently in clinical trials. In addition, approaches for future directions of HSV-1 OVs as cancer therapy is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayle Scanlan
- Rowan School of Medicine, RowanSOM-Jefferson Health-Virtua Our Lady of Lourdes Hospital, Stratford, NJ, United States
| | - Zachary Coffman
- Monroe Clinic Rural Family Medicine Program, The University of Illinois College of Medicine Rockford, Monroe, WI, United States
| | - Jeffrey Bettencourt
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Burrell College of Osteopathic Medicine, Las Cruces, NM, United States
| | - Timothy Shipley
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, A.T. Still University School of Osteopathic Medicine in Arizona, Mesa, AZ, United States
| | - Debra E. Bramblett
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Burrell College of Osteopathic Medicine, Las Cruces, NM, United States
- *Correspondence: Debra E. Bramblett,
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7
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Oncolytic HSV: Underpinnings of Tumor Susceptibility. Viruses 2021; 13:v13071408. [PMID: 34372614 PMCID: PMC8310378 DOI: 10.3390/v13071408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 07/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic herpes simplex virus (oHSV) is a therapeutic modality that has seen substantial success for the treatment of cancer, though much remains to be improved. Commonly attenuated through the deletion or alteration of the γ134.5 neurovirulence gene, the basis for the success of oHSV relies in part on the malignant silencing of cellular pathways critical for limiting these viruses in healthy host tissue. However, only recently have the molecular mechanisms underlying the success of these treatments begun to emerge. Further clarification of these mechanisms can strengthen rational design approaches to develop the next generation of oHSV. Herein, we review our current understanding of the molecular basis for tumor susceptibility to γ134.5-attenuated oHSV, with particular focus on the malignant suppression of nucleic acid sensing, along with strategies meant to improve the clinical efficacy of these therapeutic viruses.
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8
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Oncolytic virotherapy: Challenges and solutions. Curr Probl Cancer 2021; 45:100639. [DOI: 10.1016/j.currproblcancer.2020.100639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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9
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Zhu H, Zheng C. The Race between Host Antiviral Innate Immunity and the Immune Evasion Strategies of Herpes Simplex Virus 1. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2020; 84:e00099-20. [PMID: 32998978 PMCID: PMC7528619 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00099-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is very successful in establishing acute and latent infections in humans by counteracting host antiviral innate immune responses. HSV-1 has evolved various strategies to evade host antiviral innate immunity and some cellular survival-associated pathways. Since there is still no vaccine available for HSV-1, a continuous update of information regarding the interaction between HSV-1 infection and the host antiviral innate immunity will provide novel insights to develop new therapeutic strategies for HSV-1 infection and its associated diseases. Here, we update recent studies about how HSV-1 evades the host antiviral innate immunity, specifically how HSV-1 proteins directly or indirectly target the adaptors in the antiviral innate immunity signaling pathways to downregulate the signal transduction. Additionally, some classical intracellular stress responses, which also play important roles in defense of viral invasion, will be discussed here. With a comprehensive review of evasion mechanisms of antiviral innate immunity by HSV-1, we will be able to develop potential new targets for therapies and a possible vaccine against HSV-1 infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huifang Zhu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Neonatal/Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Children's Medical Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Chunfu Zheng
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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10
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Liu S, Zhang J, Fang S, Su X, Zhang Q, Zhu G, Zhu L, Zhao M, Liu F. Antitumor efficacy of oncolytic HSV-1 expressing cytosine deaminase is synergistically enhanced by DPD down-regulation and EMT inhibition in uveal melanoma xenograft. Cancer Lett 2020; 495:123-134. [PMID: 32946963 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2020.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common intraocular tumor in adults and has a high incidence of metastases. Possible treatments remain limited in UM with enucleation and radiation, leading to poor prognosis in this chemo-resistant carcinoma. Thus, urging demand for novel treatment is needed. We examined the antitumor efficacy of a new recombinant oncolytic herpes simplex virus type 1 (oHSV-1) armed with E.coli cytosine deaminase (CD). We determined the efficacy of the oncolytic virus in UM cell lines. In vivo experiments showed that oHSV-CD/5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) treatment reduce tumor volume and prolonged survival. We further demonstrated the molecular mechanisms of oHSV-CD/5-FC treatment. The oncolytic virus down-regulated IL-6 expression and thereby reversed the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype. Dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD), the rate-limiting enzyme in 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) metabolism, was also down-regulated. Therefore, the efficacy of oHSV-CD/5-FC was synergistically enhanced by DPD down-regulation and EMT inhibition. This study provides solid evidence for the antitumor efficacy of oHSV-CD/5-FC treatment in vitro and in vivo. The molecular mechanisms of this treatment may bring a new therapeutic approach for future treatment of UM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sisi Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University People's Hospital, Eye Diseases and Optometry Institute, Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, College of Optometry, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Junwen Zhang
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing, China
| | - Sheng Fang
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaodong Su
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing, China
| | - Qing Zhang
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing, China
| | - Guidong Zhu
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing, China
| | - Li Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University People's Hospital, Eye Diseases and Optometry Institute, Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, College of Optometry, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Mingwei Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University People's Hospital, Eye Diseases and Optometry Institute, Beijing Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, College of Optometry, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China.
| | - Fusheng Liu
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing, China.
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11
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VHS, US3 and UL13 viral tegument proteins are required for Herpes Simplex Virus-Induced modification of protein kinase R. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5580. [PMID: 32221365 PMCID: PMC7101438 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62619-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
To replicate, spread and persist in the host environment, viruses have evolved several immunological escape mechanisms via the action of specific viral proteins. The model "host shut off" adopted by virion host shut off (VHS) protein of Herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) represents an immune evasion mechanism which affects the best-characterized component of the innate immunological response, protein kinase R (PKR). However, up to now, the real mechanism employed by VHS to control PKR is still unknown. In this paper, we implement and extend our previous findings reporting that wild-type HSV-1 is able to control PKR, whereas a VHS mutant virus (R2621) clearly induces an accumulation of phosphorylated PKR in several cell types in a VHS-RNase activity-dependent manner. Furthermore, we demonstrate for the first time a new PKR-regulatory mechanism based on the involvement of Us3 and UL13 tegument viral proteins. The combined approach of transfection and infection assay was useful to discover the new role of both viral proteins in the immunological escape and demonstrate that Us3 and UL13 control the accumulation of the phosphorylated form (ph-PKR). Lastly, since protein kinases are tightly regulated by phosphorylation events and, at the same time, phosphorylate other proteins by inducing post-translational modifications, the interplay between Us3 and VHS during HSV-1 infection has been investigated. Interestingly, we found that VHS protein accumulates at higher molecular weight following Us3 transfection, suggesting an Us3-mediated phosphorylation of VHS. These findings reveal a new intriguing interplay between viral proteins during HSV-1 infection involved in the regulation of the PKR-mediated immune response.
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12
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Oncolytic Virus Encoding a Master Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Interleukin 12 in Cancer Immunotherapy. Cells 2020; 9:cells9020400. [PMID: 32050597 PMCID: PMC7072539 DOI: 10.3390/cells9020400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 01/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are genetically modified or naturally occurring viruses, which preferentially replicate in and kill cancer cells while sparing healthy cells, and induce anti-tumor immunity. OV-induced tumor immunity can be enhanced through viral expression of anti-tumor cytokines such as interleukin 12 (IL-12). IL-12 is a potent anti-cancer agent that promotes T-helper 1 (Th1) differentiation, facilitates T-cell-mediated killing of cancer cells, and inhibits tumor angiogenesis. Despite success in preclinical models, systemic IL-12 therapy is associated with significant toxicity in humans. Therefore, to utilize the therapeutic potential of IL-12 in OV-based cancer therapy, 25 different IL-12 expressing OVs (OV-IL12s) have been genetically engineered for local IL-12 production and tested preclinically in various cancer models. Among OV-IL12s, oncolytic herpes simplex virus encoding IL-12 (OHSV-IL12) is the furthest along in the clinic. IL-12 expression locally in the tumors avoids systemic toxicity while inducing an efficient anti-tumor immunity and synergizes with anti-angiogenic drugs or immunomodulators without compromising safety. Despite the rapidly rising interest, there are no current reviews on OV-IL12s that exploit their potential efficacy and safety to translate into human subjects. In this article, we will discuss safety, tumor-specificity, and anti-tumor immune/anti-angiogenic effects of OHSV-IL12 as mono- and combination-therapies. In addition to OHSV-IL12 viruses, we will also review other IL-12-expressing OVs and their application in cancer therapy.
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13
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Dauber B, Saffran HA, Smiley JR. The herpes simplex virus host shutoff (vhs) RNase limits accumulation of double stranded RNA in infected cells: Evidence for accelerated decay of duplex RNA. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008111. [PMID: 31626661 PMCID: PMC6821131 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The herpes simplex virus virion host shutoff (vhs) RNase destabilizes cellular and viral mRNAs and blunts host innate antiviral responses. Previous work demonstrated that cells infected with vhs mutants display enhanced activation of the host double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-activated protein kinase R (PKR), implying that vhs limits dsRNA accumulation in infected cells. Confirming this hypothesis, we show that partially complementary transcripts of the UL23/UL24 and UL30/31 regions of the viral genome increase in abundance when vhs is inactivated, giving rise to greatly increased levels of intracellular dsRNA formed by annealing of the overlapping portions of these RNAs. Thus, vhs limits accumulation of dsRNA at least in part by reducing the levels of complementary viral transcripts. We then asked if vhs also destabilizes dsRNA after its initial formation. Here, we used a reporter system employing two mCherry expression plasmids bearing complementary 3’ UTRs to produce defined dsRNA species in uninfected cells. The dsRNAs are unstable, but are markedly stabilized by co-expressing the HSV dsRNA-binding protein US11. Strikingly, vhs delivered by super-infecting HSV virions accelerates the decay of these pre-formed dsRNAs in both the presence and absence of US11, a novel and unanticipated activity of vhs. Vhs binds the host RNA helicase eIF4A, and we find that vhs-induced dsRNA decay is attenuated by the eIF4A inhibitor hippuristanol, providing evidence that eIF4A participates in the process. Our results show that a herpesvirus host shutoff RNase destabilizes dsRNA in addition to targeting partially complementary viral mRNAs, raising the possibility that the mRNA destabilizing proteins of other viral pathogens dampen the host response to dsRNA through similar mechanisms. Essentially all viruses produce double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) during infection. Host organisms therefore deploy a variety of dsRNA receptors to trigger innate antiviral defenses. Not surprisingly, viruses in turn produce an array of antagonists to block this host response. The best characterized of the viral antagonists function by binding to and masking dsRNA and/or blocking downstream signaling events. Other less studied viral antagonists appear to function by reducing the levels of dsRNA in infected cells, but exactly how they do so remains unknown. Here we show that one such viral antagonist, the herpes simplex virus vhs ribonuclease, reduces dsRNA levels in two distinct ways. First, as previously suggested, it dampens the accumulation of partially complementary viral mRNAs, reducing the potential for generating dsRNA. Second, it helps remove dsRNA after its formation, a novel and surprising activity of a protein best known for its activity on single-stranded mRNA. Many other viral pathogens produce proteins that target mRNAs for rapid destruction, and it will be important to determine if these also limit host dsRNA responses in similar ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Dauber
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Holly A. Saffran
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - James R. Smiley
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- * E-mail:
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14
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The ICP0 Protein of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) Downregulates Major Autophagy Adaptor Proteins Sequestosome 1 and Optineurin during the Early Stages of HSV-1 Infection. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.01258-19. [PMID: 31375597 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01258-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infects mucosal epithelial cells and establishes lifelong infections in sensory neurons. Following reactivation, the virus is transferred anterograde to the initial site of infection or to sites innervated by infected neurons, causing vesicular lesions. Upon immunosuppression, frequent HSV-1 reactivation can cause severe diseases, such as blindness and encephalitis. Autophagy is a process whereby cell components are recycled, but it also serves as a defense mechanism against pathogens. HSV-1 is known to combat autophagy through the functions of the γ134.5 protein, which prevents formation of the autophagophore by binding to Beclin 1, a key factor involved in the elongation of the isolation membrane, and by redirecting the protein phosphatase 1α (PP1α) to dephosphorylate the translation initiation factor 2α (eIF2α) to prevent host translational shutoff. Other viral proteins that counteract innate immunity negatively impact autophagy. Here, we present a novel strategy of HSV-1 to evade the host through the downregulation of the autophagy adaptor protein sequestosome (p62/SQSTM1) and of the mitophagy adaptor optineurin (OPTN). This down-modulation occurs during the early steps of the infection. We also found that infected cell protein 0 (ICP0) of the virus mediates the down-modulation of the two autophagy adaptors in a mechanism independent of its E3 ubiquitin ligase activity. Cells depleted of either p62 or OPTN were able to mount greater antiviral responses, whereas cells expressing exogenous p62 displayed decreased virus yields. We conclude that downregulation of p62/SQSTM1 and OPTN is a viral strategy to counteract the host.IMPORTANCE Autophagy is a homeostatic mechanism of cells to recycle components, as well as a defense mechanism to get rid of pathogens. Strategies that HSV-1 has developed to counteract autophagy have been described and involve inhibition of autophagosome formation or indirect mechanisms. Here, we present a novel mechanism that involves downregulation of two major autophagy adaptor proteins, sequestosome 1 (p62/SQSTM1) and optineurin (OPTN). These findings generate the question of why the virus targets two major autophagy adaptors if it has mechanisms to block autophagosome formation. P62/SQSTM1 and OPTN proteins have pleiotropic functions, including regulation of innate immunity, inflammation, protein sorting, and chromatin remodeling. The decrease in virus yields in the presence of exogenous p62/SQSTM1 suggests that these adaptors have an antiviral function. Thus, HSV-1 may have developed multiple strategies to incapacitate autophagy to ensure replication. Alternatively, the virus may target another antiviral function of these proteins.
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Liu X, Matrenec R, Gack MU, He B. Disassembly of the TRIM23-TBK1 Complex by the Us11 Protein of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Impairs Autophagy. J Virol 2019; 93:e00497-19. [PMID: 31189704 PMCID: PMC6694819 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00497-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Us11 protein encoded by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) functions to impair autophagy; however, the molecular mechanisms of this inhibition remain to be fully established. Here, we report that the Us11 protein targets tripartite motif protein 23 (TRIM23), which is a key regulator of autophagy-mediated antiviral defense mediated by TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1). In virus-infected cells, the Us11 protein drastically reduces the formation of autophagosomes mediated by TRIM23 or TBK1. This autophagy-inhibitory effect is attributable to the binding of the Us11 protein to the ARF domain in TRIM23. Furthermore, such interaction spatially excludes TBK1 from the TRIM23 complex that also contains heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90). When stably expressed alone in host cells, the Us11 protein recapitulates the observed phenotypes seen in cells infected with the US11-expressing or wild-type virus. Consistent with this, expression of the Us11 protein promotes HSV-1 growth, while expression of TRIM23 restricts HSV-1 replication in the absence of US11. Together, these results suggest that disruption of the TRIM23-TBK1 complex by the Us11 protein inhibits autophagy-mediated restriction of HSV-1 infection.IMPORTANCE Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved process that restricts certain intracellular pathogens, including HSV-1. Although HSV-1 is well known to inhibit autophagy, little is known about the precise molecular mechanisms of autophagy inhibition. We demonstrate that the Us11 protein of HSV-1 spatially disrupts the TRIM23-TBK1 complex, which subsequently suppresses autophagy and autophagy-mediated virus restriction. Thus, expression of the Us11 protein facilitates HSV-1 replication. These data unveil new insight into viral escape from autophagy-mediated host restriction mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Liu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Rachel Matrenec
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Michaela U Gack
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Bin He
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Hutzen B, Ghonime M, Lee J, Mardis ER, Wang R, Lee DA, Cairo MS, Roberts RD, Cripe TP, Cassady KA. Immunotherapeutic Challenges for Pediatric Cancers. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2019; 15:38-48. [PMID: 31650024 PMCID: PMC6804520 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2019.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Solid tumors contain a mixture of malignant cells and non-malignant infiltrating cells that often create a chronic inflammatory and immunosuppressive microenvironment that restricts immunotherapeutic approaches. Although childhood and adult cancers share some similarities related to microenvironmental changes, pediatric cancers are unique, and adult cancer practices may not be wholly applicable to our pediatric patients. This review highlights the differences in tumorigenesis, viral infection, and immunologic response between children and adults that need to be considered when trying to apply experiences from experimental therapies in adult cancer patients to pediatric cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Hutzen
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Mohammed Ghonime
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Joel Lee
- The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Elaine R Mardis
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.,The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.,Institute for Genomic Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Ruoning Wang
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.,The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Dean A Lee
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.,The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Mitchell S Cairo
- Department of Pediatrics, Cancer and Blood Diseases Center, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
| | - Ryan D Roberts
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.,The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Timothy P Cripe
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.,The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Kevin A Cassady
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.,The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA.,Division of Pediatric Infection Diseases, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY, USA
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17
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Thomas S, Kuncheria L, Roulstone V, Kyula JN, Mansfield D, Bommareddy PK, Smith H, Kaufman HL, Harrington KJ, Coffin RS. Development of a new fusion-enhanced oncolytic immunotherapy platform based on herpes simplex virus type 1. J Immunother Cancer 2019; 7:214. [PMID: 31399043 PMCID: PMC6689178 DOI: 10.1186/s40425-019-0682-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oncolytic viruses preferentially replicate in tumors as compared to normal tissue and promote immunogenic cell death and induction of host systemic anti-tumor immunity. HSV-1 was chosen for further development as an oncolytic immunotherapy in this study as it is highly lytic, infects human tumor cells broadly, kills mainly by necrosis and is a potent activator of both innate and adaptive immunity. HSV-1 also has a large capacity for the insertion of additional, potentially therapeutic, exogenous genes. Finally, HSV-1 has a proven safety and efficacy profile in patients with cancer, talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), an oncolytic HSV-1 which expresses GM-CSF, being the only oncolytic immunotherapy approach that has received FDA approval. As the clinical efficacy of oncolytic immunotherapy has been shown to be further enhanced by combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors, developing improved oncolytic platforms which can synergize with other existing immunotherapies is a high priority. In this study we sought to further optimize HSV-1 based oncolytic immunotherapy through multiple approaches to maximize: (i) the extent of tumor cell killing, augmenting the release of tumor antigens and danger-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) factors; (ii) the immunogenicity of tumor cell death; and (iii) the resulting systemic anti-tumor immune response. METHODS To sample the wide diversity amongst clinical strains of HSV-1, twenty nine new clinical strains isolated from cold sores from otherwise healthy volunteers were screened across a panel of human tumor cell lines to identify the strain with the most potent tumor cell killing ability, which was then used for further development. Following deletion of the genes encoding ICP34.5 and ICP47 to provide tumor selectivity, the extent of cell killing and the immunogenicity of cell death was enhanced through insertion of a gene encoding a truncated, constitutively highly fusogenic form of the envelope glycoprotein of gibbon ape leukemia virus (GALV-GP-R-). A number of further armed derivatives of this virus were then constructed intended to further enhance the anti-tumor immune response which was generated following fusion-enhanced, oncolytic virus replication-mediated cell death. These viruses expressed GMCSF, an anti-CTLA-4 antibody-like molecule, CD40L, OX40L and/or 4-1BB, each of which is expected to act predominantly at the site and time of immune response initiation. Expression of these proteins was confirmed by ELISA and/or western blotting. Immunogenic cell death was assessed by measuring the levels of HMGB1 and ATP from cell free supernatants from treated cells, and by measuring the surface expression of calreticulin. GALV-GP-R- mediated cell to cell fusion and killing was tested in a range of tumor cell lines in vitro. Finally, the in vivo therapeutic potential of these viruses was tested using human A549 (lung cancer) and MDA-MB-231(breast cancer) tumor nude mouse xenograft models and systemic anti-tumor effects tested using dual flank syngeneic 4434 (melanoma), A20 (lymphoma) mouse tumor models alone and in combination with a murine anti-PD1 antibody, and 9 L (gliosarcoma) tumors in rats. RESULTS The twenty nine clinical strains of HSV-1 isolated and tested demonstrated a broad range of tumor cell killing abilities allowing the most potent strain to be identified which was then used for further development. Oncolytic ability was demonstrated to be further augmented by the expression of GALV-GP-R- in a range of tumor cell lines in vitro and in mouse xenograft models in nude mice. The expression of GALV-GP-R- was also demonstrated to lead to enhanced immunogenic cell death in vitro as confirmed by the increased release of HMGB1 and ATP and increased levels of calreticulin on the cell surface. Experiments using the rat 9 L syngeneic tumor model demonstrated that GALV-GP-R- expression increased abscopal uninjected (anenestic) tumor responses and data using mouse 4434 tumors demonstrated that virus treatment increased CD8+ T cell levels both in the injected and uninjected tumor, and also led to increased expression of PD-L1. A combination study using varying doses of a virus expressing GALV-GP-R- and mGM-CSF and an anti-murine PD1 antibody showed enhanced anti-tumor effects with the combination which was most evident at low virus doses, and also lead to immunological memory. Finally, treatment of mice with derivatives of this virus which additionally expressed anti-mCTLA-4, mCD40L, m4-1BBL, or mOX40L demonstrated enhanced activity, particularly in uninjected tumors. CONCLUSION The new HSV-1 based platform described provides a potent and versatile approach to developing new oncolytic immunotherapies for clinical use. Each of the modifications employed was demonstrated to aid in optimizing the potential of the virus to both directly kill tumors and to lead to systemic therapeutic benefit. For clinical use, these viruses are expected to be most effective in combination with other anti-cancer agents, in particular PD1/L1-targeted immune checkpoint blockade. The first virus from this program (expressing GALV-GP-R- and hGM-CSF) has entered clinical development alone and in combination with anti-PD1 therapy in a number of tumor types (NCT03767348).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Howard L. Kaufman
- Institute for Cancer Research, London, UK
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA USA
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18
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Enhanced Replication of Mouse Adenovirus Type 1 following Virus-Induced Degradation of Protein Kinase R (PKR). mBio 2019; 10:mBio.00668-19. [PMID: 31015330 PMCID: PMC6479006 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00668-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The first line of defense in cells during viral infection is the innate immune system, which is activated by different viral products. PKR is a part of this innate immune system and is induced by interferon and activated by dsRNA produced by DNA and RNA viruses. PKR is such an important part of the antiviral response that many viral families have gene products to counteract its activation or the resulting effects of its activity. Although a few RNA viruses degrade PKR, this method of counteracting PKR has not been reported for any DNA viruses. MAV-1 does not encode virus-associated RNAs, a human adenoviral defense against PKR activation. Instead, MAV-1 degrades PKR, and it is the first DNA virus reported to do so. The innate immune evasion by PKR degradation is a previously unidentified way for a DNA virus to circumvent the host antiviral response. Protein kinase R (PKR) plays a major role in activating host immunity during infection by sensing double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) produced by viruses. Once activated by dsRNA, PKR phosphorylates the translation factor eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF2α), halting cellular translation. Many viruses have methods of inhibiting PKR activation or its downstream effects, circumventing protein synthesis shutdown. These include sequestering dsRNA or producing proteins that bind to and inhibit PKR activation. Here we describe our finding that in multiple cell types, PKR was depleted during mouse adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) infection. MAV-1 did not appear to be targeting PKR at the transcriptional or translational level, because total PKR mRNA levels and levels of PKR mRNA bound to polysomes were unchanged or increased during MAV-1 infection. However, inhibiting the proteasome reduced the PKR depletion seen in MAV-1-infected cells, whereas inhibiting the lysosome had no effect. This suggests that proteasomal degradation alone is responsible for PKR degradation during MAV-1 infection. Time course experiments indicated that the degradation occurs early after infection. Infecting cells with UV-inactivated virus prevented PKR degradation, whereas inhibiting viral DNA replication did not. Together, these results suggest that an early viral gene is responsible. Degradation of PKR is a rare mechanism to oppose PKR activity, and it has been described in only six RNA viruses. To our knowledge, this is the first example of a DNA virus counteracting PKR by degrading it.
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19
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The US11 Gene of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Promotes Neuroinvasion and Periocular Replication following Corneal Infection. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.02246-18. [PMID: 30760571 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02246-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) cycles between phases of latency in sensory neurons and replication in mucosal sites. HSV-1 encodes two key proteins that antagonize the shutdown of host translation, US11 through preventing PKR activation and ICP34.5 through mediating dephosphorylation of the α subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α). While profound attenuation of ICP34.5 deletion mutants has been repeatedly demonstrated, a role for US11 in HSV-1 pathogenesis remains unclear. We therefore generated an HSV-1 strain 17 US11-null virus and examined its properties in vitro and in vivo In U373 glioblastoma cells, US11 cooperated with ICP34.5 to prevent eIF2α phosphorylation late in infection. However, the effect was muted in human corneal epithelial cells (HCLEs), which did not accumulate phosphorylated eIF2α unless both US11 and ICP34.5 were absent. Low levels of phosphorylated eIF2α correlated with continued protein synthesis and with the ability of virus lacking US11 to overcome antiviral immunity in HCLE and U373 cells. Neurovirulence following intracerebral inoculation of mice was not affected by the deletion of US11. In contrast, the time to endpoint criteria following corneal infection was greater for the US11-null virus than for the wild-type virus. Replication in trigeminal ganglia and periocular tissue was promoted by US11, as was periocular disease. The establishment of latency and the frequency of virus reactivation from trigeminal ganglia were unaffected by US11 deletion, although emergence of the US11-null virus occurred with slowed kinetics. Considered together, the data indicate that US11 facilitates the countering of antiviral response of infected cells and promotes the efficient emergence of virus following reactivation.IMPORTANCE Alphaherpesviruses are ubiquitous DNA viruses and include the human pathogens herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2 and are significant causes of ulcerative mucosal sores, infectious blindness, encephalitis, and devastating neonatal disease. Successful primary infection and persistent coexistence with host immune defenses are dependent on the ability of these viruses to counter the antiviral response. HSV-1 and HSV-2 and other primate viruses within the Simplexvirus genus encode US11, an immune antagonist that promotes virus production by preventing shutdown of protein translation. Here we investigated the impact of US11 deletion on HSV-1 growth in vitro and pathogenesis in vivo This work supports a role for US11 in pathogenesis and emergence from latency, elucidating immunomodulation by this medically important cohort of viruses.
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20
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Selective Editing of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Enables Interferon Induction and Viral Replication That Destroy Malignant Cells. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.01761-18. [PMID: 30404809 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01761-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), devoid of the γ134.5 gene, exerts antitumor activities. However, the oncolytic effects differ, ranging from pronounced to little responses. Although viral and host factors are involved, much remains to be deciphered. Here we report that engineered HSV-1 ΔN146, bearing amino acids 147 to 263 of γ134.5, replicates competently in and lyses malignant cells refractory to the γ134.5 null mutant. Upon infection, ΔN146 precludes phosphorylation of translation initiation factor eIF2α (α subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2), ensuring viral protein synthesis. On the other hand, ΔN146 activates interferon (IFN) regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and IFN expression, known to prime immunity against virus and tumor. Nevertheless, ΔN146 exhibits sustained replication even exposed to exogenous IFN-α. In a 4T1 tumor model, ΔN146 markedly reduces tumor growth and metastasis formation. This coincides with viral replication or T cell infiltration in primary tumors. ΔN146 is undetectable in normal tissues in vivo Targeted HSV-1 editing results in a unique antineoplastic agent that enables inflammation without major interference of viral growth within tumor cells.IMPORTANCE Oncolytic herpes simplex virus 1 is a promising agent for cancer immunotherapy. Due to a complex virus-host interaction, less is clear about what viral signature(s) constitutes a potent oncolytic backbone. Through molecular or genetic dissection, we showed that selective editing of the γ134.5 gene enables viral replication in malignant cells, activation of transcription factor IRF3, and subsequent induction of type I IFN. This translates into profoundly reduced primary tumor growth and metastasis burden in an aggressive breast carcinoma model in vivo Our work reveals a distinct oncolytic platform that is amendable for further development.
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21
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Poelaert KCK, Van Cleemput J, Laval K, Favoreel HW, Soboll Hussey G, Maes RK, Nauwynck HJ. Abortigenic but Not Neurotropic Equine Herpes Virus 1 Modulates the Interferon Antiviral Defense. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:312. [PMID: 30258819 PMCID: PMC6144955 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV1) is considered as a major pathogen of Equidae, causing symptoms from mild respiratory disease to late-term abortion and neurological disorders. Different EHV1 strains circulating in the field have been characterized to be of abortigenic or neurovirulent phenotype. Both variants replicate in a plaque-wise manner in the epithelium of the upper respiratory tract (URT), where the abortigenic strains induce more prominent viral plaques, compared to the neurovirulent strains. Considering the differences in replication at the URT, we hypothesized that abortigenic strains may show an increased ability to modulate the type I IFN secretion/signaling pathway, compared to strains that display the neurovirulent phenotype. Here, we analyze IFN levels induced by abortigenic and neurovirulent EHV1 using primary respiratory epithelial cells (EREC) and respiratory mucosa ex vivo explants. Similar levels of IFNα (~70 U/ml) were detected in explants inoculated with both types of EHV1 strains from 48 to 72 hpi. Second, EREC and mucosa explants were treated with recombinant equine IFNα (rEqIFNα) or Ruxolitinib (Rux), an IFN signaling inhibitor, prior to and during inoculation with abortigenic or neurovirulent EHV1. Replication of both EHV1 variants was suppressed by rEqIFNα. Further, addition of Rux increased replication in a concentration-dependent manner, indicating an IFN-susceptibility for both variants. However, in two out of three horses, at a physiological concentration of 100 U/ml of rEqIFNα, an increase in abortigenic EHV1 replication was observed compared to 10 U/ml of rEqIFNα, which was not observed for the neurovirulent strains. Moreover, in the presence of Rux, the plaque size of the abortigenic variants remained unaltered, whereas the typically smaller viral plaques induced by the neurovirulent variants became larger. Overall, our results demonstrate the importance of IFNα in the control of EHV1 replication in the URT for both abortigenic and neurovirulent variants. In addition, our findings support the speculation that abortigenic variants of EHV1 may have developed anti-IFN mechanisms that appear to be absent or less pronounced in neurovirulent EHV1 strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrien C K Poelaert
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jolien Van Cleemput
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Kathlyn Laval
- Lewis Thomas Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
| | - Herman W Favoreel
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gisela Soboll Hussey
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Roger K Maes
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Hans J Nauwynck
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
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22
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Peters C, Paget M, Tshilenge KT, Saha D, Antoszczyk S, Baars A, Frost T, Martuza RL, Wakimoto H, Rabkin SD. Restriction of Replication of Oncolytic Herpes Simplex Virus with a Deletion of γ34.5 in Glioblastoma Stem-Like Cells. J Virol 2018; 92:e00246-18. [PMID: 29793956 PMCID: PMC6052301 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00246-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses, including herpes simplex viruses (HSVs), are a new class of cancer therapeutic engineered to infect and kill cancer cells while sparing normal tissue. To ensure that oncolytic HSV (oHSV) is safe in the brain, all oHSVs in clinical trial for glioma lack the γ34.5 genes responsible for neurovirulence. However, loss of γ34.5 attenuates growth in cancer cells. Glioblastoma (GBM) is a lethal brain tumor that is heterogeneous and contains a subpopulation of cancer stem cells, termed GBM stem-like cells (GSCs), that likely promote tumor progression and recurrence. GSCs and matched serum-cultured GBM cells (ScGCs), representative of bulk or differentiated tumor cells, were isolated from the same patient tumor specimens. ScGCs are permissive to replication and cell killing by oHSV with deletion of the γ34.5 genes (γ34.5- oHSV), while patient-matched GSCs were not, implying an underlying biological difference between stem and bulk cancer cells. GSCs specifically restrict the synthesis of HSV-1 true late (TL) proteins, without affecting viral DNA replication or transcription of TL genes. A global shutoff of cellular protein synthesis also occurs late after γ34.5- oHSV infection of GSCs but does not affect the synthesis of early and leaky late viral proteins. Levels of phosphorylated eIF2α and eIF4E do not correlate with cell permissivity. Expression of Us11 in GSCs rescues replication of γ34.5- oHSV. The difference in degrees of permissivity between GSCs and ScGCs to γ34.5- oHSV illustrates a selective translational regulatory pathway in GSCs that may be operative in other stem-like cells and has implications for creating oHSVs.IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus (HSV) can be genetically engineered to endow cancer-selective replication and oncolytic activity. γ34.5, a key neurovirulence gene, has been deleted in all oncolytic HSVs in clinical trial for glioma. Glioblastoma stem-like cells (GSCs) are a subpopulation of tumor cells thought to drive tumor heterogeneity and therapeutic resistance. GSCs are nonpermissive for γ34.5- HSV, while non-stem-like cancer cells from the same patient tumors are permissive. GSCs restrict true late protein synthesis, despite normal viral DNA replication and transcription of all kinetic classes. This is specific for true late translation as early and leaky late transcripts are translated late in infection, notwithstanding shutoff of cellular protein synthesis. Expression of Us11 in GSCs rescues the replication of γ34.5- HSV. We have identified a cell type-specific innate response to HSV-1 that limits oncolytic activity in glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cole Peters
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Max Paget
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kizito-Tshitoko Tshilenge
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Dipongkor Saha
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Slawomir Antoszczyk
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Anouk Baars
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Thomas Frost
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Robert L Martuza
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Hiroaki Wakimoto
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Samuel D Rabkin
- Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Teo CSH, O’Hare P. A bimodal switch in global protein translation coupled to eIF4H relocalisation during advancing cell-cell transmission of herpes simplex virus. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007196. [PMID: 30028874 PMCID: PMC6070287 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We used the bioorthogonal protein precursor, homopropargylglycine (HPG) and chemical ligation to fluorescent capture agents, to define spatiotemporal regulation of global translation during herpes simplex virus (HSV) cell-to-cell spread at single cell resolution. Translational activity was spatially stratified during advancing infection, with distal uninfected cells showing normal levels of translation, surrounding zones at the earliest stages of infection with profound global shutoff. These cells further surround previously infected cells with restored translation close to levels in uninfected cells, reflecting a very early biphasic switch in translational control. While this process was dependent on the virion host shutoff (vhs) function, in certain cell types we also observed temporally altered efficiency of shutoff whereby during early transmission, naïve cells initially exhibited resistance to shutoff but as infection advanced, naïve target cells succumbed to more extensive translational suppression. This may reflect spatiotemporal variation in the balance of oscillating suppression-recovery phases. Our results also strongly indicate that a single particle of HSV-2, can promote pronounced global shutoff. We also demonstrate that the vhs interacting factor, eIF4H, an RNA helicase accessory factor, switches from cytoplasmic to nuclear localisation precisely correlating with the initial shutdown of translation. However translational recovery occurs despite sustained eIF4H nuclear accumulation, indicating a qualitative change in the translational apparatus before and after suppression. Modelling simulations of high multiplicity infection reveal limitations in assessing translational activity due to sampling frequency in population studies and how analysis at the single cell level overcomes such limitations. The work reveals new insight and a revised model of translational manipulation during advancing infection which has important implications both mechanistically and with regards to the physiological role of translational control during virus propagation. The work also demonstrates the potential of bioorthogonal chemistry for single cell analysis of cellular metabolic processes during advancing infections in other virus systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Su Hui Teo
- Section of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Medical School, London, United Kingdom
| | - Peter O’Hare
- Section of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary’s Medical School, London, United Kingdom
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Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Inhibits TANK-Binding Kinase 1 through Formation of the Us11-Hsp90 Complex. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.00402-18. [PMID: 29743370 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00402-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The Us11 protein of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is an accessory factor with multiple functions. In virus-infected cells, it inhibits double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR), 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase, RIG-I, and MDA-5. However, its precise role is incompletely defined. By screening a human cDNA library, we showed that the Us11 protein targets heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90), which inactivates TANK binding kinase 1 (TBK1) and antiviral immunity. When ectopically expressed, HSV-1 Us11 precludes TBK1 from access to Hsp90 and interferon (IFN) promoter activation. Consistently, the Us11 protein, upon HSV infection, suppresses the expression of beta interferon (IFN-β), RANTES, and interferon-stimulated genes. This is mirrored by a blockade in the phosphorylation of interferon regulatory factor 3. Mechanistically, the Us11 protein associates with endogenous Hsp90 to disrupt the Hsp90-TBK1 complex. Furthermore, Us11 induces destabilization of TBK1 through a proteasome-dependent pathway. Accordingly, Us11 expression facilitates HSV growth. In contrast, TBK1 expression restricts viral replication. These results suggest that control of TBK1 by Us11 promotes HSV-1 infection.IMPORTANCE TANK binding kinase 1 plays a key role in antiviral immunity. Although multiple factors are thought to participate in this process, the picture is obscure in herpes simplex virus infection. We demonstrated that the Us11 protein of HSV-1 forms a complex with heat shock protein 90, which inactivates TANK binding kinase 1 and IFN induction. As a result, expression of the Us11 protein promotes HSV replication. These experimental data provide a new insight into the molecular network of virus-host interactions.
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Chattopadhyay D, Mukhopadhyay A, Ojha D, Sadhukhan P, Dutta S. Immuno-metabolic changes in herpes virus infection. Cytokine 2018; 112:52-62. [PMID: 29960669 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidences indicate that change in cellular metabolic pathways can alter immune response and function of the host; emphasizing the role of metabolome in health and diseases. Human Herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) and type-2 (HSV-2) causes diseases from asymptomatic to highly prevalent oral and genital herpes, recurrent blisters or neurological complications. Immune responses against HSV are complex with delicate interplay between innate signaling pathways and adaptive immune responses. The innate response involves the induction of protective IFN-1; while Natural Killer (NK) cells and plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells (pDC) confer in vivo adaptive anti-HSV response along with humoral and cellular components in controlling infection and latency. Metabolic changes lead to up-/down-regulation of several cytokines and chemokines like IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, IL-10 and MIP1β in HSV infection and recurrences. Recently, the viral protein ICP0 has been identified as an attenuator of TLR signaling, that inhibit innate responses to HSV. This review will summarize the role of metabolome in innate and adaptive effectors in infection, pathogenesis and immune control of HSV, highlighting the delicate interplay between the metabolic changes and immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debprasad Chattopadhyay
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Nehru Nagar, Belagavi 590010, India; ICMR-Virus Unit, Infectious Diseases and Beliaghata General Hospital, 57 Dr Suresh Chandra Banerjee Road, Beliaghata, Kolkata, West Bengal 700010, India.
| | - Aparna Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University, 86/1, College Street, Kolkata 700073, India
| | - Durbadal Ojha
- ICMR-National Institute of Traditional Medicine, Nehru Nagar, Belagavi 590010, India
| | - Provash Sadhukhan
- ICMR-Virus Unit, Infectious Diseases and Beliaghata General Hospital, 57 Dr Suresh Chandra Banerjee Road, Beliaghata, Kolkata, West Bengal 700010, India
| | - Shanta Dutta
- ICMR-National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, P- C.I.T. Scheme XM, 33 CIT Road, Beliaghata, Kolkata, West Bengal 700010, India
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Bommareddy PK, Peters C, Saha D, Rabkin SD, Kaufman HL. Oncolytic Herpes Simplex Viruses as a Paradigm for the Treatment of Cancer. ANNUAL REVIEW OF CANCER BIOLOGY-SERIES 2018. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cancerbio-030617-050254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Praveen K. Bommareddy
- Department of Surgery, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, USA
| | - Cole Peters
- Molecular Neurosurgery Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
- Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
| | - Dipongkor Saha
- Molecular Neurosurgery Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
| | - Samuel D. Rabkin
- Molecular Neurosurgery Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
| | - Howard L. Kaufman
- Department of Surgery, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, USA
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Antagonism of the Protein Kinase R Pathway in Human Cells by Rhesus Cytomegalovirus. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.01793-17. [PMID: 29263260 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01793-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
While cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections are often limited in host range by lengthy coevolution with a single host species, a few CMVs are known to deviate from this rule. For example, rhesus macaque CMV (RhCMV), a model for human CMV (HCMV) pathogenesis and vaccine development, can replicate in human cells, as well as in rhesus cells. Both HCMV and RhCMV encode species-specific antagonists of the broadly acting host cell restriction factor protein kinase R (PKR). Although the RhCMV antagonist of PKR, rTRS1, has very limited activity against human PKR, here, we show it is essential for RhCMV replication in human cells because it prevents human PKR from phosphorylating the translation initiation factor eIF2α, thereby allowing continued translation and viral replication. Although rTRS1 is necessary for RhCMV replication, it is not sufficient to rescue replication of HCMV lacking its own PKR antagonists in human fibroblasts. However, overexpression of rTRS1 in human fibroblasts enabled HCMV expressing rTRS1 to replicate, indicating that elevated levels or early expression of a weak antagonist can counteract a resistant restriction factor like human PKR. Exploring potential mechanisms that might allow RhCMV to replicate in human cells revealed that RhCMV makes no less double-stranded RNA than HCMV. Rather, in human cells, RhCMV expresses rTRS1 at levels 2 to 3 times higher than those of the HCMV-encoded PKR antagonists during HCMV infection. These data suggest that even a modest increase in expression of this weak PKR antagonist is sufficient to enable RhCMV replication in human cells.IMPORTANCE Rhesus macaque cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) offers a valuable model for studying congenital human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) pathogenesis and vaccine development. Therefore, it is critical to understand variations in how each virus infects and affects its host species to be able to apply insights gained from the RhCMV model to HCMV. While HCMV is capable only of infecting cells from humans and very closely related species, RhCMV displays a wider host range, including human as well as rhesus cells. RhCMV expresses an antagonist of a broadly acting antiviral factor present in all mammalian cells, and its ability to counter both the rhesus and human versions of this host factor is a key component of RhCMV's ability to cross species barriers. Here, we examine the molecular mechanisms that allow this RhCMV antagonist to function against a human restriction factor.
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Meng W, Han SC, Li CC, Dong HJ, Wang XJ. Multifunctional viral protein γ34.5 manipulates nucleolar protein NOP53 for optimal viral replication of HSV-1. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:103. [PMID: 29367603 PMCID: PMC5833762 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-017-0116-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
To ensure efficient virus replication, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) encodes several viral proteins to counter host defense response upon infection. Among these proteins, the multifunctional viral protein γ34.5 crucially interferes with or disrupts several antiviral pathways at multiple levels. The current study shows that γ34.5 utilizes nucleolar protein NOP53 to facilitate the dephosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor eIF2α for efficient viral translation. Our study shows that: (1) ectopic expression of NOP53 greatly increases the intracellular and extracellular viral yields of HSV-1 (wild strain F) in type I interferon-deficient Vero cells, and more subtly promotes viral replication of γ34.5 deletion mutant virus HSV-1/Δγ34.5. (2) NOP53 is migrated from nuclei in HSV-1/F infected cells, but is redistributed incompletely after infection by either HSV-1/Δγ34.5 or ICP4 deletion mutant virus HSV-1/d120 (replication inadequate). Ectopic expression of γ34.5, consequently, induces cytoplasmic translocation of NOP53 in response to HSV-1/Δγ34.5 infection. (3) Increase of NOP53, in two forms of transient transfection and in vitro expression, attenuates the phosphorylation level of eIF2α in HSV-1/F infected cells, but fails to affect eIF2α phosphorylation induced by HSV-1/Δγ34.5 infection. (4) Knockdown of NOP53, which impairs the specific interaction between γ34.5 and protein phosphatase PP1α, disrupts the ability of γ34.5 to maintain HSV-1 virulence. (5) NOP53 knockdown also significantly reduces tissue damage and decreases viral yield in livers of HSV-1 infected mice. Our findings expand the understanding of the underlying mechanism by which viral protein γ34.5 induces NOP53 redistribution; cytoplasmic NOP53 facilitates γ34.5 recruitment of PP1α to dephosphorylate eIF2α, for optimal viral replication. This paper also demonstrates that blocking the specific interaction between γ34.5 and PP1α would be a useful approach for the development of antiviral agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Meng
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Shi-Chong Han
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Cui-Cui Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Hui-Jun Dong
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China
| | - Xiao-Jia Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, 100193, Beijing, China.
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29
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Vincent HA, Moorman NJ. Human cytomegalovirus regulation of eIF2α kinases. Future Virol 2017. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2017-0068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Heather A Vincent
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Nathaniel J Moorman
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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30
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Sato Y, Koshizuka T, Ishibashi K, Hashimoto K, Ishioka K, Ikuta K, Yokota SI, Fujii N, Suzutani T. Involvement of herpes simplex virus type 1 UL13 protein kinase in induction of SOCS genes, the negative regulators of cytokine signaling. Microbiol Immunol 2017; 61:159-167. [PMID: 28419615 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Revised: 03/29/2017] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) family has eight members and suppresses various cytokine signaling pathways, including IFN signaling. Therefore, some viruses have evolved molecular mechanisms for inducing SOCS proteins and thus escaping host immunity. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) has a mechanism for escaping from type I IFN by induction of both SOCS1 and SOCS3. In this study, expression of the eight members of the SOCS family stimulated by HSV-1 infection was comparatively analyzed by qRT-PCR. It was found that SOCS1 and SOCS3 are induced by HSV-1-infection at 4 hr post infection. However, such induction was not observed in UL13 deficient virus-infected cells, suggesting that UL13 protein kinase participates in induction of both genes. The transcription factor Sp1-binding sites of SOCS3 promoter/enhancer region were identified as the regulatory elements for induction of SOCS3 in HSV-1 infected cells. Accumulation of activated Sp1 was detectable in the nuclei of HSV-1-infected cells before induction of SOCS3. Taken together, these results suggest that HSV-1 has a potent mechanism for escaping from the IFN system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Sato
- Department of Microbiology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Tetsuo Koshizuka
- Department of Microbiology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Kei Ishibashi
- Department of Urology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Koichi Hashimoto
- Department of Pediatrics, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Ken Ishioka
- Department of Microbiology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Kazufumi Ikuta
- Department of Microbiology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Yokota
- Department of Microbiology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Nobuhiro Fujii
- Department of Microbiology, Sapporo Medical University School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Tatsuo Suzutani
- Department of Microbiology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima, Japan
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31
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Cassady KA, Bauer DF, Roth J, Chambers MR, Shoeb T, Coleman J, Prichard M, Gillespie GY, Markert JM. Pre-clinical Assessment of C134, a Chimeric Oncolytic Herpes Simplex Virus, in Mice and Non-human Primates. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2017; 5:1-10. [PMID: 28345027 PMCID: PMC5363760 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic herpes simplex virus (oHSV) type I constructs are investigational anti-neoplastic agents for a variety of malignancies, including malignant glioma. Clinical trials to date have supported the safety of these agents even when directly administered in the CNS. Traditional pre-clinical US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) toxicity studies for these agents have included the use of two species, generally including murine and primate studies. Recently, the FDA has decreased its requirement of non-human primates as an animal model for ethical reasons, especially for established viral systems where there are good alternative model systems. Here we present data demonstrating the safety of C134, a chimeric oHSV construct, in CBA mice as well as in a limited number of the HSV-sensitive non-human primate Aotus nancymaae as a proposed agent for clinical trials. These data, along with the previously conducted clinical trials of oHSV constructs, support the use of the CBA mouse model as sufficient for the pre-clinical toxicity studies of this agent. We summarize our experience with different HSV recombinants and differences between them using multiple assays to assess neurovirulence, as well as our experience with C134 in a limited number of A. nancymaae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin A Cassady
- Department of Pediatrics, Research Institute Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Disorders, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43212, USA; Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - David F Bauer
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Justin Roth
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Melissa R Chambers
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Trent Shoeb
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Jennifer Coleman
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Mark Prichard
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - G Yancey Gillespie
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - James M Markert
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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32
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Bommareddy PK, Patel A, Hossain S, Kaufman HL. Talimogene Laherparepvec (T-VEC) and Other Oncolytic Viruses for the Treatment of Melanoma. Am J Clin Dermatol 2017; 18:1-15. [PMID: 27988837 DOI: 10.1007/s40257-016-0238-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Many mammalian viruses have properties that can be commandeered for the treatment of cancer. These characteristics include preferential infection and replication in tumor cells, the initiation of tumor cell lysis, and the induction of innate and adaptive anti-tumor immunity. Furthermore, viruses can be genetically engineered to reduce pathogenicity and increase immunogenicity resulting in minimally toxic therapeutic agents. Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC; Imlygic™), is a genetically modified herpes simplex virus, type 1, and is the first oncolytic virus therapy to be approved for the treatment of advanced melanoma by the US FDA. T-VEC is attenuated by the deletion of the herpes neurovirulence viral genes and enhanced for immunogenicity by the deletion of the viral ICP47 gene. Immunogenicity is further supported by expression of the human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) gene, which helps promote the priming of T cell responses. T-VEC demonstrated significant improvement in durable response rate, objective response rate, and progression-free survival in a randomized phase III clinical trial for patients with advanced melanoma. This review will discuss the optimal selection of patients for such treatment and describe how therapy is optimally delivered. We will also discuss future directions for oncolytic virus immunotherapy, which will likely include combination T-VEC clinical trials, expansion of T-VEC to other types of non-melanoma skin cancers, and renewed efforts at oncolytic virus drug development with other viruses.
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Herpes Simplex Virus 2 Virion Host Shutoff Endoribonuclease Activity Is Required To Disrupt Stress Granule Formation. J Virol 2016; 90:7943-55. [PMID: 27334584 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00947-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED We previously established that cells infected with herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) are disrupted in their ability to form stress granules (SGs) in response to oxidative stress and that this disruption is mediated by virion host shutoff protein (vhs), a virion-associated endoribonuclease. Here, we test the requirement for vhs endoribonuclease activity in disruption of SG formation. We analyzed the ability of HSV-2 vhs carrying the point mutation D215N, which ablates its endoribonuclease activity, to disrupt SG formation in both transfected and infected cells. We present evidence that ablation of vhs endoribonuclease activity results in defects in vhs-mediated disruption of SG formation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that preformed SGs can be disassembled by HSV-2 infection in a manner that requires vhs endoribonuclease activity and that, befitting this ability to promote SG disassembly, vhs is able to localize to SGs. Together these data indicate that endoribonuclease activity must be maintained in order for vhs to disrupt SG formation. We propose a model whereby vhs-mediated destruction of SG mRNA promotes SG disassembly and may also prevent SG assembly. IMPORTANCE Stress granules (SGs) are transient cytoplasmic structures that form when a cell is exposed to stress. SGs are emerging as potential barriers to viral infection, necessitating a more thorough understanding of their basic biology. We identified virion host shutoff protein (vhs) as a herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) protein capable of disrupting SG formation. As mRNA is a central component of SGs and the best-characterized activity of vhs is as an endoribonuclease specific for mRNA in vivo, we investigated the requirement for vhs endoribonuclease activity in disruption of SG formation. Our studies demonstrate that endoribonuclease activity is required for vhs to disrupt SG formation and, more specifically, that SG disassembly can be driven by vhs endoribonuclease activity. Notably, during the course of these studies we discovered that there is an ordered departure of SG components during their disassembly and, furthermore, that vhs itself has the capacity to localize to SGs.
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34
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Pollack MH, Aston J, Benrashid M, Johnson DB, Puzanov I. Talimogene laherparepvec in advanced melanoma. Expert Opin Orphan Drugs 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/21678707.2016.1186539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Megan H. Pollack
- Department of Pharmaceutical Services, Vanderbilt University Medical Center and Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Jonathan Aston
- Department of Pharmaceutical Services, Vanderbilt University Medical Center and Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Mona Benrashid
- Department of Pharmaceutical Services, Vanderbilt University Medical Center and Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Douglas B. Johnson
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center and Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Igor Puzanov
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center and Vanderbilt Ingram Cancer Center, Nashville, TN, USA
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The Herpes Simplex Virus Virion Host Shutoff Protein Enhances Translation of Viral True Late mRNAs Independently of Suppressing Protein Kinase R and Stress Granule Formation. J Virol 2016; 90:6049-6057. [PMID: 27099317 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03180-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The herpes simplex virus (HSV) virion host shutoff (vhs) RNase destabilizes cellular and viral mRNAs, suppresses host protein synthesis, dampens antiviral responses, and stimulates translation of viral mRNAs. vhs mutants display a host range phenotype: translation of viral true late mRNAs is severely impaired and stress granules accumulate in HeLa cells, while translation proceeds normally in Vero cells. We found that vhs-deficient virus activates the double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase R (PKR) much more strongly than the wild-type virus does in HeLa cells, while PKR is not activated in Vero cells, raising the possibility that PKR might play roles in stress granule induction and/or inhibiting translation in restrictive cells. We tested this possibility by evaluating the effects of inactivating PKR. Eliminating PKR in HeLa cells abolished stress granule formation but had only minor effects on viral true late protein levels. These results document an essential role for PKR in stress granule formation by a nuclear DNA virus, indicate that induction of stress granules is the consequence rather than the cause of the translational defect, and are consistent with our previous suggestion that vhs promotes translation of viral true late mRNAs by preventing mRNA overload rather than by suppressing eIF2α phosphorylation. IMPORTANCE The herpes simplex virus vhs RNase plays multiple roles during infection, including suppressing PKR activation, inhibiting the formation of stress granules, and promoting translation of viral late mRNAs. A key question is the extent to which these activities are mechanistically connected. Our results demonstrate that PKR is essential for stress granule formation in the absence of vhs, but at best, it plays a secondary role in suppressing translation of viral mRNAs. Thus, the ability of vhs to promote translation of viral mRNAs can be largely uncoupled from PKR suppression, demonstrating that this viral RNase modulates at least two distinct aspects of RNA metabolism.
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36
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Finnen RL, Banfield BW. Alphaherpesvirus Subversion of Stress-Induced Translational Arrest. Viruses 2016; 8:81. [PMID: 26999187 PMCID: PMC4810271 DOI: 10.3390/v8030081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article, we provide an overview of translational arrest in eukaryotic cells in response to stress and the tactics used specifically by alphaherpesviruses to overcome translational arrest. One consequence of translational arrest is the formation of cytoplasmic compartments called stress granules (SGs). Many viruses target SGs for disruption and/or modification, including the alphaherpesvirus herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). Recently, it was discovered that HSV-2 disrupts SG formation early after infection via virion host shutoff protein (vhs), an endoribonuclease that is packaged within the HSV-2 virion. We review this discovery and discuss the insights it has provided into SG biology as well as its potential significance in HSV-2 infection. A model for vhs-mediated disruption of SG formation is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renée L Finnen
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
| | - Bruce W Banfield
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
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37
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Abstract
More than 50% of the U.S. population is infected with herpes simplex virus type-I (HSV-1) and global infectious estimates are nearly 90%. HSV-1 is normally seen as a harmless virus but debilitating diseases can arise, including encephalitis and ocular diseases. HSV-1 is unique in that it can undermine host defenses and establish lifelong infection in neurons. Viral reactivation from latency may allow HSV-1 to lay siege to the brain (Herpes encephalitis). Recent advances maintain that HSV-1 proteins act to suppress and/or control the lysosome-dependent degradation pathway of macroautophagy (hereafter autophagy) and consequently, in neurons, may be coupled with the advancement of HSV-1-associated pathogenesis. Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests that HSV-1 infection may constitute a gradual risk factor for neurodegenerative disorders. The relationship between HSV-1 infection and autophagy manipulation combined with neuropathogenesis may be intimately intertwined demanding further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas O'Connell
- a Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology , Keck Medical School, University of Southern California , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Chengyu Liang
- a Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology , Keck Medical School, University of Southern California , Los Angeles , CA , USA
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38
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Treatment of colon cancer with oncolytic herpes simplex virus in preclinical models. Gene Ther 2016; 23:450-9. [PMID: 26871935 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2016.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs), which are a rare population in any type of cancer, including colon cancer, are tumorigenic and responsible for cancer recurrence and metastasis. CSCs have been isolated from a number of different solid tumors recently, although the isolation of CSCs in colon cancer is still challenging. We cultured colon cancer cells in stem cell medium to obtain colonosphere cells. These cells possessed the characteristics of CSCs, with a high capacity of tumorigenicity, migration and invasion in vitro and in vivo. The isolation and identification of CSCs have provided new targets for the therapeutics. Oncolytic herpes simplex viruses (oHSV) are an effective strategy for killing colon cancer cells in preclinical models. Here, we examined the efficacy of an oncolytic herpes simplex virus type 2 (oHSV2) in killing colon cancer cells and colon cancer stem-like cells (CSLCs). oHSV2 was found to be highly cytotoxic to the adherent and sphere cells in vitro, and oHSV2 treatment in vivo significantly inhibited tumor growth. This study demonstrates that oHSV2 is effective against colon cancer cells and colon CSLCs and could be a promising strategy for treating colon cancer patients.
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Kohlhapp FJ, Kaufman HL. Molecular Pathways: Mechanism of Action for Talimogene Laherparepvec, a New Oncolytic Virus Immunotherapy. Clin Cancer Res 2015; 22:1048-54. [PMID: 26719429 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-15-2667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses are native or engineered viruses that preferentially replicate in and lyse cancer cells. Selective tumor cell replication is thought to depend on infection of neoplastic cells, which harbor low levels of protein kinase R (PKR) and dysfunctional type I IFN signaling elements. These changes allow more efficient viral replication, and with selected deletion of specific viral genes, replication in normal cells with activated PKR may not be possible. Direct tumor cell lysis, release of soluble tumor antigens, and danger-associated molecular factors are all thought to help prime and promote tumor-specific immunity. Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC) is a genetically modified herpes simplex virus, type I and is the first oncolytic virus to demonstrate a clinical benefit in patients with melanoma. T-VEC has also been evaluated for the treatment of head and neck cancer, pancreatic cancer, and likely other types of cancer will be targeted in the near future. T-VEC has been modified for improved safety, tumor-selective replication, and induction of host immunity by deletion of several viral genes and expression of human granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor. Although the mechanism of action for T-VEC is incompletely understood, the safety profile of T-VEC and ability to promote immune responses suggest future combination studies with other immunotherapy approaches including checkpoint blockade through PD-1, PD-L1, and CTLA-4 to be a high priority for clinical development. Oncolytic viruses also represent unique regulatory and biosafety challenges but offer a potential new class of agents for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick J Kohlhapp
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey
| | - Howard L Kaufman
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
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Pol J, Kroemer G, Galluzzi L. First oncolytic virus approved for melanoma immunotherapy. Oncoimmunology 2015; 5:e1115641. [PMID: 26942095 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2015.1115641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
On 2015, October 27th, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has officially approved talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC, also known as OncoVEXGM-CSF) for use in melanoma patients with injectable but non-resectable lesions in the skin and lymph nodes. T-VEC (which is commercialized by Amgen, Inc. under the name of Imlygic®) becomes therefore the first oncolytic virus approved for cancer therapy in the US.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Pol
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France; Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France
| | - Guido Kroemer
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France; Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Paris, France; Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France; Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden; Share senior co-authorship
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- INSERM, U1138, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France; Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France; Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France; Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France; Share senior co-authorship
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41
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Pediatric cancer gone viral. Part I: strategies for utilizing oncolytic herpes simplex virus-1 in children. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2015; 2:S2372-7705(16)30017-1. [PMID: 26436135 PMCID: PMC4589755 DOI: 10.1038/mto.2015.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Progress for improving outcomes in pediatric patients with solid tumors remains slow. In addition, currently available therapies are fraught with numerous side effects, often causing significant life-long morbidity for long-term survivors. The use of viruses to kill tumor cells based on their increased vulnerability to infection is gaining traction, with several viruses moving through early and advanced phase clinical testing. The prospect of increased efficacy and decreased toxicity with these agents is thus attractive for pediatric cancer. In part I of this two-part review, we focus on strategies for utilizing oncolytic engineered herpes simplex virus (HSV) to target pediatric malignancies. We discuss mechanisms of action, routes of delivery, and the role of preexisting immunity on antitumor efficacy. Challenges to maximizing oncolytic HSV in children are examined, and we highlight how these may be overcome through various arming strategies. We review the preclinical and clinical evidence demonstrating safety of a variety of oncolytic HSVs. In Part II, we focus on the antitumor efficacy of oncolytic HSV in pediatric tumor types, pediatric clinical advances made to date, and future prospects for utilizing HSV in pediatric patients with solid tumors.
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Peters C, Rabkin SD. Designing Herpes Viruses as Oncolytics. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2015; 2:S2372-7705(16)30012-2. [PMID: 26462293 PMCID: PMC4599707 DOI: 10.1038/mto.2015.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic herpes simplex virus (oHSV) was one of the first genetically-engineered oncolytic viruses. Because herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a natural human pathogen that can cause serious disease, it is incumbent that it be genetically-engineered or significantly attenuated for safety. Here we present a detailed explanation of the functions of HSV-1 genes frequently mutated to endow oncolytic activity. These genes are non-essential for growth in tissue culture cells but are important for growth in post-mitotic cells, interfering with intrinsic antiviral and innate immune responses or causing pathology, functions dispensable for replication in cancer cells. Understanding the function of these genes leads to informed creation of new oHSVs with better therapeutic efficacy. Virus infection and replication can also be directed to cancer cells through tumor-selective receptor binding and transcriptional- or post-transcriptional miRNA-targeting, respectively. In addition to the direct effects of oHSV on infected cancer cells and tumors, oHSV can be 'armed' with transgenes that are: reporters, to track virus replication and spread; cytotoxic, to kill uninfected tumor cells; immune modulatory, to stimulate anti-tumor immunity; or tumor microenvironment altering, to enhance virus spread or to inhibit tumor growth. In addition to HSV-1, other alphaherpesviruses are also discussed for their oncolytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cole Peters
- Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, and Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston MA
| | - Samuel D Rabkin
- Program in Virology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, and Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston MA
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Le-Trilling VTK, Trilling M. Attack, parry and riposte: molecular fencing between the innate immune system and human herpesviruses. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 86:1-13. [DOI: 10.1111/tan.12594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- V. T. K. Le-Trilling
- Institute for Virology; University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen; Essen Germany
| | - M. Trilling
- Institute for Virology; University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen; Essen Germany
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44
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Rosato PC, Leib DA. Neurons versus herpes simplex virus: the innate immune interactions that contribute to a host-pathogen standoff. Future Virol 2015; 10:699-714. [PMID: 26213562 PMCID: PMC4508759 DOI: 10.2217/fvl.15.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a prevalent neurotropic virus, which establishes lifelong latent infections in the neurons of sensory ganglia. Despite our long-standing knowledge that HSV predominately infects sensory neurons during its life cycle, little is known about the neuronal antiviral response to HSV infection. Recent studies show that while sensory neurons have impaired intrinsic immunity to HSV infection, paracrine IFN signaling can potentiate a potent antiviral response. Additionally, antiviral autophagy plays an important role in neuronal control of HSV infection. Here we review the literature of antiviral signaling and autophagy in neurons, the mechanisms by which HSV can counteract these responses, and postulate how these two pathways may synergize to mediate neuronal control of HSV infection and yet result in lifelong persistence of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela C Rosato
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
| | - David A Leib
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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45
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Kumari P, Narayanan S, Kumar H. Herpesviruses: interfering innate immunity by targeting viral sensing and interferon pathways. Rev Med Virol 2015; 25:187-201. [DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Puja Kumari
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Biological Sciences; Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER); Bhopal India
| | - Sathish Narayanan
- Laboratory of Virology, Department of Biological Sciences; Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER); Bhopal India
| | - Himanshu Kumar
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Biological Sciences; Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER); Bhopal India
- Laboratory of Host Defense; WPI Immunology Frontier Research Centre, Osaka University; Osaka Japan
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Johnson KE, Bottero V, Flaherty S, Dutta S, Singh VV, Chandran B. IFI16 restricts HSV-1 replication by accumulating on the hsv-1 genome, repressing HSV-1 gene expression, and directly or indirectly modulating histone modifications. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004503. [PMID: 25375629 PMCID: PMC4223080 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferon-γ inducible factor 16 (IFI16) is a multifunctional nuclear protein involved in transcriptional regulation, induction of interferon-β (IFN-β), and activation of the inflammasome response. It interacts with the sugar-phosphate backbone of dsDNA and modulates viral and cellular transcription through largely undetermined mechanisms. IFI16 is a restriction factor for human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and herpes simplex virus (HSV-1), though the mechanisms of HSV-1 restriction are not yet understood. Here, we show that IFI16 has a profound effect on HSV-1 replication in human foreskin fibroblasts, osteosarcoma cells, and breast epithelial cancer cells. IFI16 knockdown increased HSV-1 yield 6-fold and IFI16 overexpression reduced viral yield by over 5-fold. Importantly, HSV-1 gene expression, including the immediate early proteins, ICP0 and ICP4, the early proteins, ICP8 and TK, and the late proteins gB and Us11, was reduced in the presence of IFI16. Depletion of the inflammasome adaptor protein, ASC, or the IFN-inducing transcription factor, IRF-3, did not affect viral yield. ChIP studies demonstrated the presence of IFI16 bound to HSV-1 promoters in osteosarcoma (U2OS) cells and fibroblasts. Using CRISPR gene editing technology, we generated U2OS cells with permanent deletion of IFI16 protein expression. ChIP analysis of these cells and wild-type (wt) U2OS demonstrated increased association of RNA polymerase II, TATA binding protein (TBP) and Oct1 transcription factors with viral promoters in the absence of IFI16 at different times post infection. Although IFI16 did not alter the total histone occupancy at viral or cellular promoters, its absence promoted markers of active chromatin and decreased those of repressive chromatin with viral and cellular gene promoters. Collectively, these studies for the first time demonstrate that IFI16 prevents association of important transcriptional activators with wt HSV-1 promoters and suggest potential mechanisms of IFI16 restriction of wt HSV-1 replication and a direct or indirect role for IFI16 in histone modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen E. Johnson
- H.M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Virginie Bottero
- H.M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Stephanie Flaherty
- H.M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Sujoy Dutta
- H.M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Vivek Vikram Singh
- H.M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Bala Chandran
- H.M. Bligh Cancer Research Laboratories, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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47
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The herpes simplex virus 1 virion host shutoff protein enhances translation of viral late mRNAs by preventing mRNA overload. J Virol 2014; 88:9624-32. [PMID: 24920814 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01350-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED We recently demonstrated that the virion host shutoff (vhs) protein, an mRNA-specific endonuclease, is required for efficient herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) replication and translation of viral true-late mRNAs, but not other viral and cellular mRNAs, in many cell types (B. Dauber, J. Pelletier, and J. R. Smiley, J. Virol. 85:5363-5373, 2011, http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00115-11). Here, we evaluated whether the structure of true-late mRNAs or the timing of their transcription is responsible for the poor translation efficiency in the absence of vhs. To test whether the highly structured 5' untranslated region (5'UTR) of the true-late gC mRNA is the primary obstacle for translation initiation, we replaced it with the less structured 5'UTR of the γ-actin mRNA. However, this mutation did not restore translation in the context of a vhs-deficient virus. We then examined whether the timing of transcription affects translation efficiency at late times. To this end, we engineered a vhs-deficient virus mutant that transcribes the true-late gene US11 with immediate-early kinetics (IEUS11-ΔSma). Interestingly, IEUS11-ΔSma showed increased translational activity on the US11 transcript at late times postinfection, and US11 protein levels were restored to wild-type levels. These results suggest that mRNAs can maintain translational activity throughout the late stage of infection if they are present before translation factors and/or ribosomes become limiting. Taken together, these results provide evidence that in the absence of the mRNA-destabilizing function of vhs, accumulation of viral mRNAs overwhelms the capacity of the host translational machinery, leading to functional exclusion of the last mRNAs that are made during infection. IMPORTANCE The process of mRNA translation accounts for a significant portion of a cell's energy consumption. To ensure efficient use of cellular resources, transcription, translation, and mRNA decay are tightly linked and highly regulated. However, during virus infection, the overall amount of mRNA may increase drastically, possibly overloading the capacity of the translation apparatus. Our results suggest that the HSV-1 vhs protein, an mRNA-specific endoribonuclease, prevents mRNA overload during infection, thereby allowing translation of late viral mRNAs. The requirement for vhs varies between cell types. Further studies of the basis for this difference likely will offer insights into how cells regulate overall mRNA levels and access to the translational apparatus.
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48
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Sen D, Balakrishnan B, Jayandharan GR. Cellular unfolded protein response against viruses used in gene therapy. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:250. [PMID: 24904562 PMCID: PMC4033601 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Viruses are excellent vehicles for gene therapy due to their natural ability to infect and deliver the cargo to specific tissues with high efficiency. Although such vectors are usually "gutted" and are replication defective, they are subjected to clearance by the host cells by immune recognition and destruction. Unfolded protein response (UPR) is a naturally evolved cyto-protective signaling pathway which is triggered due to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress caused by accumulation of unfolded/misfolded proteins in its lumen. The UPR signaling consists of three signaling pathways, namely PKR-like ER kinase, activating transcription factor 6, and inositol-requiring protein-1. Once activated, UPR triggers the production of ER molecular chaperones and stress response proteins to help reduce the protein load within the ER. This occurs by degradation of the misfolded proteins and ensues in the arrest of protein translation machinery. If the burden of protein load in ER is beyond its processing capacity, UPR can activate pro-apoptotic pathways or autophagy leading to cell death. Viruses are naturally evolved in hijacking the host cellular translation machinery to generate a large amount of proteins. This phenomenon disrupts ER homeostasis and leads to ER stress. Alternatively, in the case of gutted vectors used in gene therapy, the excess load of recombinant vectors administered and encountered by the cell can trigger UPR. Thus, in the context of gene therapy, UPR becomes a major roadblock that can potentially trigger inflammatory responses against the vectors and reduce the efficiency of gene transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dwaipayan Sen
- Department of Hematology, Christian Medical College Vellore, India
| | | | - Giridhara R Jayandharan
- Department of Hematology, Christian Medical College Vellore, India ; Centre for Stem Cell Research, Christian Medical College Vellore, India
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Ishioka K, Ikuta K, Sato Y, Kaneko H, Sorimachi K, Fukushima E, Saijo M, Suzutani T. Herpes simplex virus type 1 virion-derived US11 inhibits type 1 interferon-induced protein kinase R phosphorylation. Microbiol Immunol 2014; 57:426-36. [PMID: 23773021 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2012] [Revised: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) VRTK(-) strain that was previously isolated in our laboratory as an acyclovir-resistant thymidine kinase (TK)-deficient mutant, is more sensitive to type 1 interferon than is the parent strain VR3. The properties of this mutant were investigated to clarify the mechanism for its hyper-sensitivity to interferon (IFN). It was found that: (i) IFN-pretreated cells, but not those treated with IFN after adsorption, are hyper-sensitive to IFN; (ii) the mutant cannot inhibit protein kinase R phosphorylation efficiently during the early stage of replication (2 hrs post-infection); (iii) expression of US11 in infected cells and its incorporation into the virion is reduced in the mutant compared to the wild type, despite the fact that a similar degree of DNA synthesis occurs during replication of both strains and; (iv) over-expression of wild-type viral TK has no effect on the phenotype of the VRTK(-) strain, indicating that the phenotype is induced by a mutation(s) that does not involve the TK gene. These results suggested that the presence of US11 in the virion, but not that expressed after infection, plays an important role in the escape function of HSV-1 from the antiviral activity of type 1 IFN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken Ishioka
- Department of Microbiology, Fukushima Medical University School of Medicine, Fukushima 960-1295, Japan
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50
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Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) causes a chronic, lifelong infection in >60% of adults. Multiple recent vaccine trials have failed, with viral diversity likely contributing to these failures. To understand HSV-1 diversity better, we comprehensively compared 20 newly sequenced viral genomes from China, Japan, Kenya, and South Korea with six previously sequenced genomes from the United States, Europe, and Japan. In this diverse collection of passaged strains, we found that one-fifth of the newly sequenced members share a gene deletion and one-third exhibit homopolymeric frameshift mutations (HFMs). Individual strains exhibit genotypic and potential phenotypic variation via HFMs, deletions, short sequence repeats, and single-nucleotide polymorphisms, although the protein sequence identity between strains exceeds 90% on average. In the first genome-scale analysis of positive selection in HSV-1, we found signs of selection in specific proteins and residues, including the fusion protein glycoprotein H. We also confirmed previous results suggesting that recombination has occurred with high frequency throughout the HSV-1 genome. Despite this, the HSV-1 strains analyzed clustered by geographic origin during whole-genome distance analysis. These data shed light on likely routes of HSV-1 adaptation to changing environments and will aid in the selection of vaccine antigens that are invariant worldwide.
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