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Hang Y, Huang J, Ding M, Shen Y, Zhou Y, Cai W. Extracellular vesicles reshape the tumor microenvironment to improve cancer immunotherapy: Current knowledge and future prospects. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 140:112820. [PMID: 39096874 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/05/2024]
Abstract
Tumor immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment, but limitations remain, including low response rates and immune complications. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as a new class of therapeutic agents for various diseases. Recent research shows that changes in the amount and composition of EVs can reshape the tumor microenvironment (TME), potentially improving the effectiveness of immunotherapy. This exciting discovery has sparked clinical interest in using EVs to enhance the immune system's response to cancer. In this Review, we delve into the world of EVs, exploring their origins, how they're generated, and their complex interactions within the TME. We also discuss the crucial role EVs play in reshaping the TME during tumor development. Specifically, we examine how their cargo, including molecules like PD-1 and non-coding RNA, influences the behavior of key immune cells within the TME. Additionally, we explore the current applications of EVs in various cancer therapies, the latest advancements in engineering EVs for improved immunotherapy, and the challenges faced in translating this research into clinical practice. By gaining a deeper understanding of how EVs impact the TME, we can potentially uncover new therapeutic vulnerabilities and significantly enhance the effectiveness of existing cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Hang
- Baoshan Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - JingYi Huang
- Baoshan Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Mingming Ding
- Baoshan Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanhua Shen
- Baoshan Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - YaoZhong Zhou
- Changshu Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Changshu, China.
| | - Wan Cai
- Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China.
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2
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Liu M, Wen Z, Zhang T, Zhang L, Liu X, Wang M. The role of exosomal molecular cargo in exosome biogenesis and disease diagnosis. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1417758. [PMID: 38983854 PMCID: PMC11231912 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1417758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Exosomes represent a type of extracellular vesicles derived from the endosomal pathway that transport diverse molecular cargoes such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These cargoes have emerged as crucial elements impacting disease diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, and are integral to the process of exosome formation. This review delves into the essential molecular cargoes implicated in the phases of exosome production and release. Emphasis is placed on their significance as cancer biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets, accompanied by an exploration of the obstacles and feasible applications linked to these developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meijin Liu
- Laboratory Medicine, People's Hospital of Ganzhou Economic Development Zone, Ganzhou, China
| | - Zhenzhen Wen
- Laboratory Medicine, People's Hospital of Ganzhou Economic Development Zone, Ganzhou, China
| | - Tingting Zhang
- Laboratory Medicine, People's Hospital of Ganzhou Economic Development Zone, Ganzhou, China
| | - Linghan Zhang
- Laboratory Medicine, People's Hospital of Ganzhou Economic Development Zone, Ganzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- Laboratory Medicine, People's Hospital of Ganzhou Economic Development Zone, Ganzhou, China
| | - Maoyuan Wang
- Laboratory Medicine, People's Hospital of Ganzhou Economic Development Zone, Ganzhou, China
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, GanZhou, China
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3
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Lee YJ, Shin KJ, Chae YC. Regulation of cargo selection in exosome biogenesis and its biomedical applications in cancer. Exp Mol Med 2024; 56:877-889. [PMID: 38580812 PMCID: PMC11059157 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-024-01209-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, are increasingly recognized as potent mediators of intercellular communication due to their capacity to transport a diverse array of bioactive molecules. They assume vital roles in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes and hold significant promise as emerging disease biomarkers, therapeutic agents, and carriers for drug delivery. Exosomes encompass specific groups of membrane proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, cytosolic proteins, and other signaling molecules within their interior. These cargo molecules dictate targeting specificity and functional roles upon reaching recipient cells. Despite our growing understanding of the significance of exosomes in diverse biological processes, the molecular mechanisms governing the selective sorting and packaging of cargo within exosomes have not been fully elucidated. In this review, we summarize current insights into the molecular mechanisms that regulate the sorting of various molecules into exosomes, the resulting biological functions, and potential clinical applications, with a particular emphasis on their relevance in cancer and other diseases. A comprehensive understanding of the loading processes and mechanisms involved in exosome cargo sorting is essential for uncovering the physiological and pathological roles of exosomes, identifying therapeutic targets, and advancing the clinical development of exosome-based therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Jin Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Republic of Korea.
- National Creative Research Center for Cell Plasticity, KAIST Stem Cell Center, Department of Biological Sciences, KAIST, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.
| | - Kyeong Jin Shin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Chan Chae
- Department of Biological Sciences, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), Ulsan, 44919, Republic of Korea.
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4
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Huang X, Zhang M, Zhang Z. The Role of LMP1 in Epstein-Barr Virus-associated Gastric Cancer. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2024; 24:127-141. [PMID: 37183458 DOI: 10.2174/1568009623666230512153741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
EBV promotes many cancers such as lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and gastric; Latent Membrane Protein 1 (LMP1) is considered to be a major oncogenic protein encoded by Epstein- Barr virus (EBV). LMP1 functions as a carcinogen in lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and LMP1 may also promote gastric cancer. The expression level of LMP1 in host cells is a key determinant in tumorigenesis and maintenance of virus specificity. By promoting cell immortalization and cell transformation, promoting cell proliferation, affecting immunity, and regulating cell apoptosis, LMP1 plays a crucial tumorigenic role in epithelial cancers. However, very little is currently known about LMP1 in Epstein-Barr virus-associated gastric cancer (EBVaGC); the main reason is that the expression level of LMP1 in EBVaGC is comparatively lower than other EBV-encoded proteins, such as The Latent Membrane Protein 2A (LMP2A), Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1) and BamHI-A rightward frame 1 (BARF1), to date, there are few studies related to LMP1 in EBVaGC. Recent studies have demonstrated that LMP1 promotes EBVaGC by affecting The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase- Akt (PI3K-Akt), Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), and other signaling pathways to regulate many downstream targets such as Forkhead box class O (FOXO), C-X-C-motif chemokine receptor (CXCR), COX-2 (Cyclooxygenase-2); moreover, the gene methylation induced by LMP1 in EBVaGC has become one of the characteristics that distinguish this gastric cancer (GC) from other types of gastric cancer and LMP1 also promotes the formation of the tumor microenvironment (TME) of EBVaGC in several ways. This review synthesizes previous relevant literature, aiming to highlight the latest findings on the mechanism of action of LMP1 in EBVaGC, summarize the function of LMP1 in EBVaGC, lay the theoretical foundation for subsequent new research on LMP1 in EBVaGC, and contribute to the development of novel LMP1-targeted drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinqi Huang
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Grade 20, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, China
| | - Meilan Zhang
- Cancer Research Institute of Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, China
| | - Zhiwei Zhang
- Cancer Research Institute of Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, China
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5
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Yue M, Hu S, Sun H, Tuo B, Jia B, Chen C, Wang W, Liu J, Liu Y, Sun Z, Hu J. Extracellular vesicles remodel tumor environment for cancer immunotherapy. Mol Cancer 2023; 22:203. [PMID: 38087360 PMCID: PMC10717809 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-023-01898-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor immunotherapy has transformed neoplastic disease management, yet low response rates and immune complications persist as major challenges. Extracellular vesicles including exosomes have emerged as therapeutic agents actively involved in a diverse range of pathological conditions. Mounting evidence suggests that alterations in the quantity and composition of extracellular vesicles (EVs) contribute to the remodeling of the immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), thereby influencing the efficacy of immunotherapy. This revelation has sparked clinical interest in utilizing EVs for immune sensitization. In this perspective article, we present a comprehensive overview of the origins, generation, and interplay among various components of EVs within the TME. Furthermore, we discuss the pivotal role of EVs in reshaping the TME during tumorigenesis and their specific cargo, such as PD-1 and non-coding RNA, which influence the phenotypes of critical immune cells within the TME. Additionally, we summarize the applications of EVs in different anti-tumor therapies, the latest advancements in engineering EVs for cancer immunotherapy, and the challenges encountered in clinical translation. In light of these findings, we advocate for a broader understanding of the impact of EVs on the TME, as this will unveil overlooked therapeutic vulnerabilities and potentially enhance the efficacy of existing cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Yue
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
- Henan Institute of Interconnected Intelligent Health Management, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
| | - Shengyun Hu
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
| | - Haifeng Sun
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
| | - Baojing Tuo
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
- Henan Institute of Interconnected Intelligent Health Management, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
| | - Bin Jia
- Department of Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Henan Institute of Interconnected Intelligent Health Management, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
| | - Wenkang Wang
- Department of Breast Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
| | - Jinbo Liu
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Radiotherapy, Henan Cancer Hospital, Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China.
| | - Zhenqiang Sun
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China.
- Henan Institute of Interconnected Intelligent Health Management, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China.
| | - Junhong Hu
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, Henan, China.
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Xu L, Zhang M, Tu D, Lu Z, Lu T, Ma D, Zhou Y, Zhang S, Ma Y, Yan D, Wang X, Sang W. Chidamide Induces Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) Lytic Infection and Acts Synergistically with Tenofovir to Eliminate EBV-Positive Burkitt Lymphoma. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2023; 387:288-298. [PMID: 37875309 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.123.001583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a type of human γ-herpesvirus, and its reactivation plays an important role in the development of EBV-driven Burkitt lymphoma (BL). Despite intensive chemotherapy, the prognosis of relapsed/refractory BL patients remains unfavorable, and a definitive method to completely eliminate latent EBV infection is lacking. Previous studies have demonstrated that histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors can induce the transition of EBV from latency to the lytic phase. The lytic activation of EBV can be inhibited by tenofovir, a potent inhibitor of DNA replication. Herein, we explored the antitumor effect and EBV clearance potential of a novel HDAC inhibitor called chidamide, combined with tenofovir, in the treatment of EBV-positive BL. In the study, chidamide exhibited inhibitory activity against HDAC. Moreover, chidamide inhibited BL cell proliferation, arrested cell cycle progression, and induced BL cell apoptosis primarily by regulating the MAPK pathways. Additionally, chidamide promoted the transcription of lytic genes, including BZLF1, BMRF1, and BMLF1 Compared with chidamide alone, the addition of tenofovir further induced growth arrest and apoptosis in EBV-positive BL cells and inhibited the transcriptions of EBV lytic genes induced by chidamide alone. Furthermore, our in vivo data demonstrated that the combination of chidamide and tenofovir had superior tumor-suppressive effects in a mouse model of BL cell tumors. The aforementioned findings confirm the synergistic effect of chidamide combined with tenofovir in inducing growth inhibition and apoptosis in EBV-positive BL cells and provide an effective strategy for eliminating EBV and EBV-associated malignancies. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: High levels of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-DNA have consistently been associated with unfavorable progression-free survival and overall survival in EBV-associated lymphomas. Therefore, identifying novel strategies to effectively eradicate tumor cells and eliminate EBV is crucial for lymphoma patients. This study confirmed, for the first time, the synergistic effect of chidamide combined with tenofovir in the treatment of Burkitt lymphoma and the eradication of EBV virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Xu
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Dongyun Tu
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Ziyi Lu
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Tianyi Lu
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Dongshen Ma
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Yi Zhou
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Shuo Zhang
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Yuhan Ma
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Dongmei Yan
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Xiangmin Wang
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Wei Sang
- 1Blood Diseases Institute (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Key Laboratory of Bone Marrow Stem Cell (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.), Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China; and Departments of Hematology (L.X., M.Z., D.T., Z.L., T.L., Y.Z., S.Z., Y.M., D.Y., X.W., W.S.) and Pathology (D.M.), the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
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Wang C, Li W, Shao L, Zhou A, Zhao M, Li P, Zhang Z, Wu J. Both extracellular vesicles from helicobacter pylori-infected cells and helicobacter pylori outer membrane vesicles are involved in gastric/extragastric diseases. Eur J Med Res 2023; 28:484. [PMID: 37932800 PMCID: PMC10626716 DOI: 10.1186/s40001-023-01458-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as crucial mediators in the cross-talk between hosts and pathogens, playing a significant role in infectious diseases and cancers. Among these pathogens, Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a particularly important bacterium implicated in various gastrointestinal disorders, gastric cancers, and systemic illnesses. H. pylori achieves these effects by stimulating host cells to secrete EVs and generating internal outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). The EVs derived from H. pylori-infected host cells modulate inflammatory signaling pathways, thereby affecting cell proliferation, apoptosis, cytokine release, immune cell modification, and endothelial dysfunction, as well as disrupting cellular junctional structures and inducing cytoskeletal reorganization. In addition, OMVs isolated from H. pylori play a pivotal role in shaping subsequent immunopathological responses. These vesicles incite both inflammatory and immunosuppressive reactions within the host environment, facilitating pathogen evasion of host defenses and invasion of host cells. Despite this growing understanding, research involving H. pylori-derived EVs remains in its early stages across different domains. In this comprehensive review, we present recent advancements elucidating the contributions of EV components, such as non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) and proteins, to the pathogenesis of gastric and extragastric diseases. Furthermore, we highlight their potential utility as biomarkers, therapeutic targets, and vehicles for targeted delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengyao Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, BeijingKey Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenkun Li
- Department of Gastroenterology National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, BeijingKey Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Linlin Shao
- Department of Gastroenterology National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, BeijingKey Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Anni Zhou
- Department of Gastroenterology National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, BeijingKey Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengran Zhao
- Department of Gastroenterology National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, BeijingKey Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Li
- Department of Gastroenterology National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, BeijingKey Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, People's Republic of China
| | - Zheng Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, BeijingKey Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jing Wu
- Department of Gastroenterology National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, BeijingKey Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, People's Republic of China.
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8
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Abou Harb M, Meckes DG, Sun L. Epstein-Barr virus LMP1 enhances levels of large extracellular vesicle-associated PD-L1. J Virol 2023; 97:e0021923. [PMID: 37702487 PMCID: PMC10617501 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00219-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE A growing body of evidence has supported the notion that viruses utilize EVs and associated pathways to incorporate viral products. This allows for the evasion of an immune response while enabling viral spread within the host. Given that viral proteins often elicit strong antigenic peptides that are recognized by T cells, the regulation of the PD-L1 pathway through the overexpression of lEV-associated PD-L1 may serve as a strategy for immune evasion by viruses. The discovery that EBV LMP1 increases the secretion of PD-L1 in larger EVs identifies a new potential target for immune blockade therapy in EBV-associated cancers. Our findings may help to clarify the mechanism of LMP1-mediated enhancement of PD-L1 packaging into lEVs and may lead to the identification of more specific targets for treatment. Additionally, the identification of lEV biomarkers that predict a viral origin of disease could allow for more targeted therapies to be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Abou Harb
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
| | - David G. Meckes
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
| | - Li Sun
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
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9
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Martin C, Ligat G, Malnou CE. The Yin and the Yang of extracellular vesicles during viral infections. Biomed J 2023:100659. [PMID: 37690583 DOI: 10.1016/j.bj.2023.100659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as key players in the intercellular communication is a subject of growing interest in all areas of physiology and pathophysiology, and the field of viral infections is no exception to the rule. In this review, we focus on the current state of knowledge and remaining gaps regarding the entanglement of viruses and EVs during infections. These two entities share many similarities, mainly due to their intricated biogenesis pathways that are in constant interaction. EVs can promote the replication and dissemination of viruses within the organism, through the dysregulation of their cargo and the modulation of the innate and adaptive immune response that occurs upon infection, but they can also promote the mitigation of viral infections. Here, we will examine how viruses hijack EV biogenesis pathways and describe the consequences of dysregulated EV secretion during viral infections, beneficial or not for viruses, revealing the duality of their possible effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlène Martin
- Institut Toulousain des Maladies Infectieuses et Inflammatoires (Infinity), Université de Toulouse, INSERM, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Gaëtan Ligat
- Institut Toulousain des Maladies Infectieuses et Inflammatoires (Infinity), Université de Toulouse, INSERM, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Cécile E Malnou
- Institut Toulousain des Maladies Infectieuses et Inflammatoires (Infinity), Université de Toulouse, INSERM, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France.
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10
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Ávila-Flores A, Sánchez-Cabezón JJ, Ochoa-Echeverría A, Checa AI, Rosas-García J, Téllez-Araiza M, Casado S, Liébana R, Santos-Mendoza T, Mérida I. Identification of Host PDZ-Based Interactions with the SARS-CoV-2 E Protein in Human Monocytes. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12793. [PMID: 37628973 PMCID: PMC10454406 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241612793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteins containing PDZ (post-synaptic density, PSD-95/disc large, Dlg/zonula occludens, ZO-1) domains assemble signaling complexes that orchestrate cell responses. Viral pathogens target host PDZ proteins by coding proteins containing a PDZ-binding motif (PBM). The presence of a PBM in the SARS-CoV-2 E protein contributes to the virus's pathogenicity. SARS-CoV-2 infects epithelia, but also cells from the innate immune response, including monocytes and alveolar macrophages. This process is critical for alterations of the immune response that are related to the deaths caused by SARS-CoV-2. Identification of E-protein targets in immune cells might offer clues to understanding how SARS-CoV-2 alters the immune response. We analyzed the interactome of the SARS-CoV-2 E protein in human monocytes. The E protein was expressed fused to a GFP tag at the amino terminal in THP-1 monocytes, and associated proteins were identified using a proteomic approach. The E-protein interactome provided 372 partners; only 8 of these harbored PDZ domains, including the cell polarity protein ZO-2, the chemoattractant IL-16, and syntenin. We addressed the expression and localization of the identified PDZ proteins along the differentiation of primary and THP-1 monocytes towards macrophages and dendritic cells. Our data highlight the importance of identifying the functions of PDZ proteins in the maintenance of immune fitness and the viral alteration of inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonia Ávila-Flores
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, Spanish National Centre for Biotechnology, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.J.S.-C.); (A.O.-E.); (A.I.C.); (S.C.); (R.L.)
| | - Juan José Sánchez-Cabezón
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, Spanish National Centre for Biotechnology, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.J.S.-C.); (A.O.-E.); (A.I.C.); (S.C.); (R.L.)
| | - Ane Ochoa-Echeverría
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, Spanish National Centre for Biotechnology, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.J.S.-C.); (A.O.-E.); (A.I.C.); (S.C.); (R.L.)
| | - Ana I. Checa
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, Spanish National Centre for Biotechnology, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.J.S.-C.); (A.O.-E.); (A.I.C.); (S.C.); (R.L.)
| | - Jorge Rosas-García
- Laboratory of Transcriptomics and Molecular Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (J.R.-G.); (M.T.-A.); (T.S.-M.)
| | - Mariana Téllez-Araiza
- Laboratory of Transcriptomics and Molecular Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (J.R.-G.); (M.T.-A.); (T.S.-M.)
| | - Sara Casado
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, Spanish National Centre for Biotechnology, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.J.S.-C.); (A.O.-E.); (A.I.C.); (S.C.); (R.L.)
| | - Rosa Liébana
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, Spanish National Centre for Biotechnology, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.J.S.-C.); (A.O.-E.); (A.I.C.); (S.C.); (R.L.)
| | - Teresa Santos-Mendoza
- Laboratory of Transcriptomics and Molecular Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (J.R.-G.); (M.T.-A.); (T.S.-M.)
| | - Isabel Mérida
- Department of Immunology and Oncology, Spanish National Centre for Biotechnology, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (J.J.S.-C.); (A.O.-E.); (A.I.C.); (S.C.); (R.L.)
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11
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Dixson AC, Dawson TR, Di Vizio D, Weaver AM. Context-specific regulation of extracellular vesicle biogenesis and cargo selection. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2023; 24:454-476. [PMID: 36765164 PMCID: PMC10330318 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-023-00576-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 147.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
To coordinate, adapt and respond to biological signals, cells convey specific messages to other cells. An important aspect of cell-cell communication involves secretion of molecules into the extracellular space. How these molecules are selected for secretion has been a fundamental question in the membrane trafficking field for decades. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been recognized as key players in intercellular communication, carrying not only membrane proteins and lipids but also RNAs, cytosolic proteins and other signalling molecules to recipient cells. To communicate the right message, it is essential to sort cargoes into EVs in a regulated and context-specific manner. In recent years, a wealth of lipidomic, proteomic and RNA sequencing studies have revealed that EV cargo composition differs depending upon the donor cell type, metabolic cues and disease states. Analyses of distinct cargo 'fingerprints' have uncovered mechanistic linkages between the activation of specific molecular pathways and cargo sorting. In addition, cell biology studies are beginning to reveal novel biogenesis mechanisms regulated by cellular context. Here, we review context-specific mechanisms of EV biogenesis and cargo sorting, focusing on how cell signalling and cell state influence which cellular components are ultimately targeted to EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Dixson
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - T Renee Dawson
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
- Center for Extracellular Vesicle Research, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Dolores Di Vizio
- Department of Surgery, Division of Cancer Biology and Therapeutics, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alissa M Weaver
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Center for Extracellular Vesicle Research, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, USA.
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
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12
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Massoumi H, Amin S, Soleimani M, Momenaei B, Ashraf MJ, Guaiquil VH, Hematti P, Rosenblatt MI, Djalilian AR, Jalilian E. Extracellular-Vesicle-Based Therapeutics in Neuro-Ophthalmic Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:9006. [PMID: 37240353 PMCID: PMC10219002 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24109006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been recognized as promising candidates for developing novel therapeutics for a wide range of pathologies, including ocular disorders, due to their ability to deliver a diverse array of bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, to recipient cells. Recent studies have shown that EVs derived from various cell types, including mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), retinal pigment epithelium cells, and endothelial cells, have therapeutic potential in ocular disorders, such as corneal injury and diabetic retinopathy. EVs exert their effects through various mechanisms, including promoting cell survival, reducing inflammation, and inducing tissue regeneration. Furthermore, EVs have shown promise in promoting nerve regeneration in ocular diseases. In particular, EVs derived from MSCs have been demonstrated to promote axonal regeneration and functional recovery in various animal models of optic nerve injury and glaucoma. EVs contain various neurotrophic factors and cytokines that can enhance neuronal survival and regeneration, promote angiogenesis, and modulate inflammation in the retina and optic nerve. Additionally, in experimental models, the application of EVs as a delivery platform for therapeutic molecules has revealed great promise in the treatment of ocular disorders. However, the clinical translation of EV-based therapies faces several challenges, and further preclinical and clinical studies are needed to fully explore the therapeutic potential of EVs in ocular disorders and to address the challenges for their successful clinical translation. In this review, we will provide an overview of different types of EVs and their cargo, as well as the techniques used for their isolation and characterization. We will then review the preclinical and clinical studies that have explored the role of EVs in the treatment of ocular disorders, highlighting their therapeutic potential and the challenges that need to be addressed for their clinical translation. Finally, we will discuss the future directions of EV-based therapeutics in ocular disorders. Overall, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art of EV-based therapeutics in ophthalmic disorders, with a focus on their potential for nerve regeneration in ocular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamed Massoumi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (H.M.)
- The Richard and Loan Hill Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
| | - Sohil Amin
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (H.M.)
| | - Mohammad Soleimani
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (H.M.)
| | - Bita Momenaei
- Wills Eye Hospital, Mid Atlantic Retina, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Mohammad Javad Ashraf
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (H.M.)
| | - Victor H. Guaiquil
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (H.M.)
| | - Peiman Hematti
- Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Mark I. Rosenblatt
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (H.M.)
| | - Ali R. Djalilian
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (H.M.)
| | - Elmira Jalilian
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (H.M.)
- The Richard and Loan Hill Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
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13
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Zheng H, Zhao H, Zhang W, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Ye B, Guo Q. Epstein-Barr virus immediate-early protein Zta mediates the proliferation and migration of HER2-overexpressing cancer cells. Arch Virol 2023; 168:150. [PMID: 37133552 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-023-05774-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus immediate-early protein Zta plays an active role in altering cellular gene expression, which may be fundamentally linked to the viral life cycle, cell cycle, cell growth, and differentiation. HER2 is associated with a wide variety of human cancers, and its knockdown significantly reverses the malignant features of HER2-positive cancers. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential role of Zta in regulating HER2 expression and phenotype changes of MDA-MB-453 cells. Our results indicate that ectopic expression of Zta resulted in downregulation of the HER2 protein in cancer cells (MDA-MB-453, SKBR-3, BT474, and SKOV-3). The Zta protein significantly decreased HER2 mRNA and protein expression in MDA-MB-453 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Mechanistically, Zta recognized and targeted the promoter of HER2 gene, reducing the transcriptional activity of the HER2 gene. Zta induced G0/G1 arrest of MDA-MB-453 cells, inhibiting their proliferation and migration activity. These data suggest that Zta may act as a transforming suppressor of the HER2 gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongling Zheng
- Department of Emergency, Jinan Children's Hospital, Jinan, 250022, People's Republic of China
| | - Haitao Zhao
- Department of Hematology, Binzhou People's Hospital, Binzhou, 256600, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Emergency, Jinan Children's Hospital, Jinan, 250022, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Emergency, Jinan Children's Hospital, Jinan, 250022, People's Republic of China
| | - Yun Zhang
- Department of Respiratory, Jinan Children's Hospital, Jinan, 250022, People's Republic of China
| | - Bing Ye
- Department of Emergency, Jinan Children's Hospital, Jinan, 250022, People's Republic of China.
| | - Qingwei Guo
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Jinan Children's Hospital, Jinan, 250022, People's Republic of China.
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14
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Sun Y, Sun F, Xu W, Qian H. Engineered Extracellular Vesicles as a Targeted Delivery Platform for Precision Therapy. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2023; 20:157-175. [PMID: 36637750 PMCID: PMC10070595 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-022-00503-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs)-based cell-free strategy has shown therapeutic potential in tissue regeneration. Due to their important roles in intercellular communications and their natural ability to shield cargos from degradation, EVs are also emerged as novel delivery vehicles for various bioactive molecules and drugs. Accumulating studies have revealed that EVs can be modified to enhance their efficacy and specificity for the treatment of many diseases. Engineered EVs are poised as the next generation of targeted delivery platform in the field of precision therapy. In this review, the unique properties of EVs are overviewed in terms of their biogenesis, contents, surface features and biological functions, and the recent advances in the strategies of engineered EVs construction are summarized. Additionally, we also discuss the potential applications of engineered EVs in targeted therapy of cancer and damaged tissues, and evaluate the opportunities and challenges for translating them into clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuntong Sun
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Medical Science and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Fengtian Sun
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Medical Science and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wenrong Xu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Medical Science and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hui Qian
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Medical Science and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, 301 Xuefu Road, Zhenjiang, 212013, Jiangsu, China.
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15
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York SB, Hurwitz SN, Liu X, Meckes DG. Ceramide-dependent trafficking of Epstein-Barr virus LMP1 to small extracellular vesicles. Virology 2023; 581:128-138. [PMID: 36958217 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2023.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a human herpesvirus that is associated with a multitude of cancers. The primary EBV oncogene latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) is secreted from infected cancer cells in small extracellular vesicles (EVs). Additionally, the tetraspanin protein CD63 forms a complex with LMP1 and CD63 can be trafficked to EVs through a ceramide-dependent manner. Therefore, we hypothesize that ceramide is required for efficient packaging of LMP1 into small EVs. Following treatment with the neutral sphingomyelinase inhibitor GW4869, LMP1 cellular localization was disrupted and immunoblotting of EV lysates revealed a significant reduction in extracellular LMP1. NTA of EVs from the LCLs treated with GW4869 demonstrated a significant decrease in particle secretion. Additionally, ceramide inhibition resulted in enhanced LMP1-mediated NFkB activation in EV producing cells. Taken together, these data reveal a critical role for the lipid ceramide in LMP1 exosomal trafficking and the oncogenic signaling properties of the viral protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara B York
- Florida State University College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA.
| | - Stephanie N Hurwitz
- Florida State University College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Xia Liu
- Florida State University College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - David G Meckes
- Florida State University College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
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16
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Awasthi P, Dwivedi M, Kumar D, Hasan S. Insights into intricacies of the Latent Membrane Protein-1 (LMP-1) in EBV-associated cancers. Life Sci 2023; 313:121261. [PMID: 36493876 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2022.121261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Numerous lymphomas, carcinomas, and other disorders have been associated with Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) infection. EBV's carcinogenic potential can be correlated to latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), which is essential for fibroblast and primary lymphocyte transformation. LMP1, a transmembrane protein with constitutive activity, belongs to the tumour necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily. LMP1 performs number of role in the life cycle of EBV and the pathogenesis by interfering with, reprogramming, and influencing a vast range of host cellular activities and functions that are getting well-known but still poorly understood. LMP1, pleiotropically perturbs, reprograms and balances a wide range of various processes of cell such as extracellular vesicles, epigenetics, ubiquitin machinery, metabolism, cell proliferation and survival, and also promotes oncogenic transformation, angiogenesis, anchorage-independent cell growth, metastasis and invasion, tumour microenvironment. By the help of various experiments, it is proven that EBV-encoded LMP1 activates multiple cell signalling pathways which affect antigen presentation, cell-cell interactions, chemokine and cytokine production. Therefore, it is assumed that LMP1 may perform majorly in EBV associated malignancies. For the development of novel techniques toward targeted therapeutic applications, it is essential to have a complete understanding of the LMP1 signalling landscape in order to identify potential targets. The focus of this review is on LMP1-interacting proteins and related signalling processes. We further discuss tactics for using the LMP1 protein as a potential therapeutic for cancers caused by the EBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prankur Awasthi
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow 226028, India
| | - Manish Dwivedi
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow 226028, India
| | - Dhruv Kumar
- School of Health Sciences and Technology, UPES University Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Saba Hasan
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow 226028, India.
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17
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Chen L, Xie W, Wu K, Meng Y, He Y, Cai J, Jiang Y, Zhao Q, Yang Y, Zhang M, Lu M, Lin S, Liang L, Zhang Z. Continuous nutrient supply culture strategy controls multivesicular endosomes pathway and anti-photo-aging miRNA cargo loading of extracellular vesicles. J Tissue Eng 2023; 14:20417314231197604. [PMID: 37674933 PMCID: PMC10478562 DOI: 10.1177/20417314231197604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicle (EV) therapy recently had shown significant efficacy in various diseases. Serum starvation culture (SC) is one of the most widely used methods for collecting EVs. However, SC may cause inadvertent effects and eventually dampen the therapeutic potential of EVs. Therefore, we developed a novel method for EV collection, continuous nutrient supply culture (CC), which can provide an optimal condition for mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) by continuously supplying essential nutrients to MSCs. By comparing with SC strategy, we revealed that CC could maintain CC-MSCs in a normal autophagy and apoptotic state, which reduced the shunting of EV precursors in cells and useless information material carried by EVs. In CC-MSCs, the expression levels of endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) and targeting GTPase27 (Rab27) were upregulated compared to those in SC-MSCs. Besides, we analyzed the membrane transport efficiency of EV formation, which demonstrated the CC strategy could promote the formation of EV precursors and the release of EVs. In addition, miRNA analysis revealed that CC-EVs were enriched with anti-chronic inflammatory factors, which could inhibit the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) pathway, mitigate chronic inflammation, and effectively repair skin photo-aging damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihao Chen
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Weihan Xie
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Keke Wu
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuan Meng
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yijun He
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiawei Cai
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuan Jiang
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Qi Zhao
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yixi Yang
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Minru Zhang
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Manping Lu
- Yue Dong Hospital District of Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Meizhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Shaozhang Lin
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lin Liang
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiyong Zhang
- Translational Research Centre of Regenerative Medicine and 3D Printing of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangdong Province Engineering Research Center for Biomedical Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Medical Technology and Related Equipment Research for Spinal Injury Treatment, City Key Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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18
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The exosome: a review of current therapeutic roles and capabilities in human reproduction. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2023; 13:473-502. [PMID: 35980542 PMCID: PMC9794547 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01225-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are nano-vesicles (30-150 nm) which may be useful as therapeutic delivery vehicles and as diagnostic biomarkers. Exosomes are produced naturally within the human body and therefore are not prone to immunogenicity effects which would otherwise destroy unelicited foreign bodies. Clinically, they have been regarded as ideal candidates for applications relating to biomarker developments for the early detection of different diseases. Furthermore, exosomes may be of interest as potential drug delivery vehicles, which may improve factors such as bioavailability of loaded molecular cargo, side effect profiles, off-target effects, and pharmacokinetics of drug molecules. In this review, the therapeutic potential of exosomes and their use as clinical biomarkers for early diagnostics will be explored, alongside exosomes as therapeutic delivery vehicles. This review will evaluate techniques for cargo loading, and the capacity of loaded exosomes to improve various reproductive disease states. It becomes important, therefore, to consider factors such as loading efficiency, loading methods, cell viability, exosomal sources, exosome isolation, and the potential therapeutic benefits of exosomes. Issues related to targeted drug delivery will also be discussed. Finally, the variety of therapeutic cargo and the application of appropriate loading methods is explored, in the context of establishing clinical utility. Exosomes have more recently been widely accpeted as potential tools for disease diagnostics and the targeted delivery of certain therapeutic molecules-and in due time exosomes will be utilised more commonly within the clinical setting. Specifically, exosomal biomarkers can be identified and related to various detrimental conditions which occur during pregnancy. Considering, this review will explore the potential future of exosomes as both diagnostic tools and therapeutic delivery vehicles to treat related conditions, including the challenges which exist towards incorporating exosomes within the clinical environment to benefit patients.
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Mahmoudvand S, Shokri S, Nakhaie M, Jalilian FA, Mehri-Ghahfarrokhi A, Yarani R, Shojaeian A. Small extracellular vesicles as key players in cancer development caused by human oncogenic viruses. Infect Agent Cancer 2022; 17:58. [DOI: 10.1186/s13027-022-00471-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Exosomes are the smallest group of extracellular vesicles in size from 30 to 150 nm, surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane, and originate from multivesicular bodies secreted by different types of cells, such as virus-infected cells. The critical role of exosomes is information transfer among cells, representing a unique way for intercellular communication via a load of many kinds of molecules, including various signaling proteins and nucleic acids. In this review, we aimed to comprehensively investigate the role of exosomes in promoting human oncogenic viruses-associated cancers.
Methods
Our search was conducted for published researches between 2000 and 2022 by using several international databases includeing Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science as well as Google scholar. We also reviewed additional evidence from relevant published articles.
Results
It has been shown that exosomes can create the conditions for viral spread in viral infections. Exosome secretion in a human tumor virus can switch on the cell signaling pathways by transferring exosome-encapsulated molecules, including viral oncoproteins, signal transduction molecules, and virus-encoded miRNAs, into various cells.
Conclusion
Given the role of exosomes in viruses-associated cancers, they can also be considered as molecular targets in diagnosis and treatment.
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20
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Sen A, Enriquez J, Rao M, Glass M, Balachandran Y, Syed S, Twist CJ, Weinberg K, Boyd SD, Bernstein D, Trickey AW, Gratzinger D, Tan B, Lapasaran MG, Robien MA, Brown M, Armstrong B, Desai D, Mazariegos G, Chin C, Fishbein TM, Venick RS, Tekin A, Zimmermann H, Trappe RU, Anagnostopoulos I, Esquivel CO, Martinez OM, Krams SM. Host microRNAs are decreased in pediatric solid-organ transplant recipients during EBV+ Post-transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder. Front Immunol 2022; 13:994552. [PMID: 36304469 PMCID: PMC9595046 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.994552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) is a serious complication of solid organ transplantation. Predisposing factors include primary Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, reactivation of EBV in recipient B cells, and decreased T cell immunity due to immunosuppression. In our previous studies EBV infection was demonstrated to markedly alter the expression of host B cell microRNA (miR). Specifically, miR-194 expression was uniquely suppressed in EBV+ B cell lines from PTLD patients and the 3’untranslated region of IL-10 was determined to be targeted by miR-194. Although EBV has been shown to regulate host miR expression in B cell lymphoma cell lines, the expression of miRs in the circulation of patients with EBV-associated PTLD has not been studied. The objective of this study was to determine if changes in miR expression are associated with EBV+ PTLD. In this study, we have shown that miR-194 is significantly decreased in EBV+PTLD tumors and that additional miRs, including miRs-17, 19 and 106a are also reduced in EBV+PTLD as compared to EBV-PTLD. We quantitated the levels of miRs-17, 19, 106a, 155, and 194 in the plasma and extracellular vesicles (EV; 50-70 nm as determined by nanoparticle tracking analysis) from pediatric recipients of solid organ transplants with EBV+ PTLD+ that were matched 1:2 with EBV+ PTLD- pediatric transplant recipients as part of the NIH-sponsored Clinical Trials in Organ Transplantation in Children, (CTOTC-06) study. Levels of miRs-17, 19, 106a, and 194 were reduced in the plasma and extracellular vesicles (EV) of EBV+ PTLD+ group compared to matched controls, with miRs-17 (p = 0.034; plasma), miRs-19 (p = 0.029; EV) and miR-106a (p = 0.007; plasma and EV) being significantly reduced. Similar levels of miR-155 were detected in the plasma and EV of all pediatric SOT recipients. Importantly, ~90% of the cell-free miR were contained within the EV supporting that EBV+ PTLD tumor miR are detected in the circulation and suggesting that EVs, containing miRs, may have the potential to target and regulate cells of the immune system. Further development of diagnostic, mechanistic and potential therapeutic uses of the miRs in PTLD is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayantika Sen
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Jeanna Enriquez
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Mahil Rao
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Marla Glass
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Yarl Balachandran
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Sharjeel Syed
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Clare J. Twist
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Kenneth Weinberg
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Scott D. Boyd
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Daniel Bernstein
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Amber W. Trickey
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Dita Gratzinger
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Brent Tan
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Mary Gay Lapasaran
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Mark A. Robien
- Division of Allergy Immunity Transplantation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Merideth Brown
- Division of Allergy Immunity Transplantation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Brian Armstrong
- Rho Federal Systems Division, Rho, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Dev Desai
- Division of Surgical Transplantation, University of Texas (UT) Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - George Mazariegos
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC) Children’s Hospital, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Clifford Chin
- Department of Pediatrics and Cincinnati Children’s Hospital, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Thomas M. Fishbein
- Departments of Surgery and Pediatrics, MedStar Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Robert S. Venick
- Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Akin Tekin
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Heiner Zimmermann
- Department of Internal Medicine II: Hematology and Oncology, DIAKO Ev. Diakoniekrankenhaus, Bremen, Germany
| | - Ralf U. Trappe
- Department of Internal Medicine II: Hematology and Oncology, DIAKO Ev. Diakoniekrankenhaus, Bremen, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine II: Hematology and Oncology , University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany
- Department of Pathology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Carlos O. Esquivel
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Olivia M. Martinez
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Sheri M. Krams
- Department of Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Sheri M. Krams,
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21
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The roles of DNA methylation on the promotor of the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) gene and the genome in patients with EBV-associated diseases. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:4413-4426. [PMID: 35763069 PMCID: PMC9259528 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-12029-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 06/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is an oncogenic virus that is closely associated with several malignant and lymphoproliferative diseases. Studies have shown that the typical characteristic of EBV-associated diseases is aberrant methylation of viral DNA and the host genome. EBV gene methylation helps EBV escape from immune monitoring and persist in host cells. EBV controls viral gene promoter methylation by hijacking host epigenetic machinery to regulate the expression of viral genes. EBV proteins also interact with host epigenetic regulatory factors to mediate the methylation of the host’s important tumour suppressor gene promoters, thereby participating in the occurrence of tumorigenesis. Since epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation, are reversible in nature, drugs that target DNA methylation can be developed for epigenetic therapy against EBV-associated tumours. Various methylation modes in the host and EBV genomes may also be of diagnostic and prognostic value. This review summarizes the regulatory roles of DNA methylation on the promotor of EBV gene and host genome in EBV-associated diseases, proposes the application prospect of DNA methylation in early clinical diagnosis and treatment, and provides insight into methylation-based strategies against EBV-associated diseases. Key points • Methylation of both the host and EBV genomes plays an important role in EBV-associateddiseases. • The functions of methylation of the host and EBV genomes in the occurrence and development of EBV-associated diseases are diverse. • Methylation may be a therapeutic target or biomarker in EBV-associated diseases.
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22
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Shah PS, Beesabathuni NS, Fishburn AT, Kenaston MW, Minami SA, Pham OH, Tucker I. Systems Biology of Virus-Host Protein Interactions: From Hypothesis Generation to Mechanisms of Replication and Pathogenesis. Annu Rev Virol 2022; 9:397-415. [PMID: 35576593 PMCID: PMC10150767 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-virology-100520-011851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
As obligate intracellular parasites, all viruses must co-opt cellular machinery to facilitate their own replication. Viruses often co-opt these cellular pathways and processes through physical interactions between viral and host proteins. In addition to facilitating fundamental aspects of virus replication cycles, these virus-host protein interactions can also disrupt physiological functions of host proteins, causing disease that can be advantageous to the virus or simply a coincidence. Consequently, unraveling virus-host protein interactions can serve as a window into molecular mechanisms of virus replication and pathogenesis. Identifying virus-host protein interactions using unbiased systems biology approaches provides an avenue for hypothesis generation. This review highlights common systems biology approaches for identification of virus-host protein interactions and the mechanistic insights revealed by these methods. We also review conceptual innovations using comparative and integrative systems biology that can leverage global virus-host protein interaction data sets to more rapidly move from hypothesis generation to mechanism. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Virology, Volume 9 is September 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya S Shah
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, California, USA; .,Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Nitin S Beesabathuni
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Adam T Fishburn
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, California, USA;
| | - Matthew W Kenaston
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, California, USA;
| | - Shiaki A Minami
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Oanh H Pham
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, California, USA;
| | - Inglis Tucker
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, California, USA;
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23
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Edelmann MJ, Kima PE. Current understanding of extracellular vesicle homing/tropism. ZOONOSES (BURLINGTON, MASS.) 2022; 2:14. [PMID: 35601996 PMCID: PMC9121623 DOI: 10.15212/zoonoses-2022-0004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed packets released from cells that can transfer bioactive molecules from cell to cell without direct contact with the target cells. This transfer of molecules can activate consequential processes in the recipient cells, including cell differentiation and migration that maintain tissue homeostasis or promote tissue pathology. One controversial aspect of the EV's biology that holds therapeutic promise is their capacity to engage defined cells at specific sites. On the one hand, persuasive studies have shown that EVs express surface molecules that ensure their tissue localization and enable cell-specific interactions, as demonstrated using in vitro and in vivo analyses. Therefore, this feature of EV biology is under investigation in translational studies to control malignancies and deliver chemicals and bioactive molecules to combat several diseases. On the other hand, some studies have shown that EVs fail to traffic in hosts in a targeted manner, which questions the potential role of EVs as vehicles for drug delivery and their capacity to serve as cell-free biomodulators. In this review, the biology of EV homing/tropism in mammalian hosts is discussed, and the biological characteristics that may result in their controversial characteristics are brought to the fore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariola J Edelmann
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Peter E Kima
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
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24
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Shan Y, Zhou P, Zhou Q, Yang L. Extracellular Vesicles in the Progression and Therapeutic Resistance of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:2289. [PMID: 35565418 PMCID: PMC9101631 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14092289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is an epithelial malignancy largely associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, which is frequently reported in east and southeast Asia. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) originate from the endosome or plasma membrane, which plays a critical role in tumor pathogenesis for their character of cell-cell communication and its cargos, including proteins, RNA, and other molecules that can target recipient cells and affect their progression. To date, numerous studies have indicated that EVs have crucial significance in the progression, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance of NPC. In this review, we not only summarize the interaction of NPC cells and the tumor microenvironment (TME) through EVs, but also explain the role of EVs in radiation and drug resistance of NPC, which poses a severe threat to cancer therapy. Therefore, EVs may show great potential as biomarkers in the early diagnosis of interfered targets of NPC therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunhan Shan
- Department of Oncology, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (Y.S.); (P.Z.); (Q.Z.)
- Cancer Research Institute, School of Basic Medicine Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha 410013, China
| | - Peijun Zhou
- Department of Oncology, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (Y.S.); (P.Z.); (Q.Z.)
- Cancer Research Institute, School of Basic Medicine Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Qin Zhou
- Department of Oncology, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (Y.S.); (P.Z.); (Q.Z.)
| | - Lifang Yang
- Department of Oncology, Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China; (Y.S.); (P.Z.); (Q.Z.)
- Cancer Research Institute, School of Basic Medicine Science, Central South University, Changsha 410078, China
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25
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Ma Y, Li J, Dong H, Yang Z, Zhou L, Xu P. PML Body Component Sp100A Restricts Wild-Type Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Infection. J Virol 2022; 96:e0027922. [PMID: 35353002 PMCID: PMC9044927 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00279-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sp100 (speckled protein 100 kDa) is a constituent component of nuclear structure PML (promyelocytic leukemia) bodies, playing important roles in mediating intrinsic and innate immunity. The Sp100 gene encodes four isoforms with distinct roles in the transcriptional regulation of both cellular and viral genes. Since Sp100 is a primary intranuclear target of infected-cell protein 0 (ICP0), an immediate early E3 ligase encoded by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), previous investigations attempting to analyze the functions of individual Sp100 variants during HSV-1 infection mostly avoided using a wild-type virus. Therefore, the role of Sp100 under natural infection by HSV-1 remains to be clarified. Here, we reappraised the antiviral capacity of four Sp100 isoforms during infection by a nonmutated HSV-1, examined the molecular behavior of the Sp100 protein in detail, and revealed the following intriguing observations. First, Sp100 isoform A (Sp100A) inhibited wild-type HSV-1 propagation in HEp-2, Sp100-/-, and PML-/- cells. Second, endogenous Sp100 is located in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. During HSV-1 infection, the nuclear Sp100 level decreased drastically upon the detection of ICP0 in the same subcellular compartment, but cytosolic Sp100 remained stable. Third, transfected Sp100A showed subcellular localizations similar to those of endogenous Sp100 and matched the protein size of endogenous cytosolic Sp100. Fourth, HSV-1 infection induced increased secretion of endogenous Sp100 and ectopically expressed Sp100A, which copurified with extracellular vesicles (EVs) but not infectious virions. Fifth, the Sp100A level in secreting cells positively correlated with its level in EVs, and EV-associated Sp100A restricted HSV-1 in recipient cells. IMPORTANCE Previous studies show that the PML body component Sp100 protein is immediately targeted by ICP0 of HSV-1 in the nucleus during productive infection. Therefore, extensive studies investigating the interplay of Sp100 isoforms with HSV-1 were conducted using a mutant virus lacking ICP0 or in the absence of infection. The role of Sp100 variants during natural HSV-1 infection remains blurry. Here, we report that Sp100A potently and independently inhibited wild-type HSV-1 and that during HSV-1 infection, cytosolic Sp100 remained stable and was increasingly secreted into the extracellular space, in association with EVs. Furthermore, the Sp100A level in secreting cells positively correlated with its level in EVs and the anti-HSV-1 potency of these EVs in recipient cells. In summary, this study implies an active antiviral role of Sp100A during wild-type HSV-1 infection and reveals a novel mechanism of Sp100A to restrict HSV-1 through extracellular communications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilei Ma
- Centre for Infection and Immunity Studies, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Jingjing Li
- Centre for Infection and Immunity Studies, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Hongchang Dong
- Centre for Infection and Immunity Studies, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhaoxin Yang
- Centre for Infection and Immunity Studies, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Lingyue Zhou
- Centre for Infection and Immunity Studies, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Pei Xu
- Centre for Infection and Immunity Studies, School of Medicine, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
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Galindo A, Javier-Reyna R, García-Rivera G, Bañuelos C, Chávez-Munguía B, Salazar-Villatoro L, Orozco E. EhVps23, an ESCRT-I Member, Is a Key Factor in Secretion, Motility, Phagocytosis and Tissue Invasion by Entamoeba histolytica. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:835654. [PMID: 35360117 PMCID: PMC8964110 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.835654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The EhVps23 protein, an orthologue of the yeast Vps23 and the mammalian TSG101 proteins, is the single member of the ESCRT-I complex of Entamoeba histolytica identified and characterized until now. EhVps23 actively participates in vesicular trafficking and phagocytosis, which influence several cellular events. In this paper, we investigated the role of EhVps23 in virulence-related functions, including the invasive capacity of trophozoites, using transfected trophozoites. Trophozoites overexpressing the EhVps23 protein (Neo-EhVps23) presented helical arrangements in the cytoplasm, similar to the ones formed by EhVps32 for scission of vesicles. By confocal and transmission electron microscopy, EhVps23 was detected in multivesicular bodies, vesicles, and the extracellular space. It was secreted in vesicles together with other proteins, including the EhADH adhesin. Probably, these vesicles carry molecules that participate in the prey capture or in cell-cell communication. Mass spectrometry of precipitates obtained using α-EhVps23 antibodies, evidenced the presence of proteins involved in motility, phagocytosis, vesicular trafficking and secretion. The study of cellular functions, revealed that Neo-EhVps23 trophozoites exhibit characteristics similar to those described for mammalian transformed cells: they grew 50% faster than the control; presented a significant higher rate of phagocytosis, and migrated five-fold faster than the control, in concordance with the low rate of migration exhibited by Ehvps23-knocked down trophozoites. In addition, Neo-EhVps23 trophozoites produced dramatic liver abscesses in experimental animals. In conclusion, our results showed that EhVps23 overexpression gave to the trophozoites characteristics that resemble cancer cells, such as increased cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. The mutant that overexpresses EhVps23 can be a good study model to explore different events related to the transformation of malignant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ausencio Galindo
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Rosario Javier-Reyna
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Guillermina García-Rivera
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Cecilia Bañuelos
- Programa Transdisciplinario en Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico para la Sociedad, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Bibiana Chávez-Munguía
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Lizbeth Salazar-Villatoro
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Esther Orozco
- Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Esther Orozco,
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Kalamvoki M, Norris V. A Defective Viral Particle Approach to COVID-19. Cells 2022; 11:302. [PMID: 35053418 PMCID: PMC8774189 DOI: 10.3390/cells11020302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has caused a pandemic resulting in millions of deaths worldwide. While multiple vaccines have been developed, insufficient vaccination combined with adaptive mutations create uncertainty for the future. Here, we discuss novel strategies to control COVID-19 relying on Defective Interfering Particles (DIPs) and related particles that arise naturally during an infection. Our intention is to encourage and to provide the basis for the implementation of such strategies by multi-disciplinary teams. We therefore provide an overview of SARS-CoV-2 for a multi-disciplinary readership that is specifically tailored to these strategies, we identify potential targets based on the current knowledge of the properties and functions of coronaviruses, and we propose specific strategies to engineer DIPs and other interfering or therapeutic nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Kalamvoki
- Department of Microbiology, Molecular Genetics and Immunology, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Vic Norris
- Laboratory of Microbiology Signals and Microenvironment, University of Rouen, 76821 Mont Saint Aignan, France;
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28
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Chen W, Xie Y, Wang T, Wang L. New insights into Epstein‑Barr virus‑associated tumors: Exosomes (Review). Oncol Rep 2021; 47:13. [PMID: 34779497 PMCID: PMC8600424 DOI: 10.3892/or.2021.8224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is endemic worldwide and is associated with a number of human tumors. EBV-associated tumors have unique mechanisms of tumorigenesis. EBV encodes multiple oncogenic molecules that can be loaded into exosomes released by EBV+ tumor cells to mediate intercellular communication. Moreover, different EBV+ tumor cells secrete exosomes that act on various target cells with various biological functions. In addition to oncogenicity, EBV+ exosomes have potential immunosuppressive effects. Investigating EBV+ exosomes could identify the role of EBV in tumorigenesis and progression. The present review summarized advances in studies focusing on exosomes and the functions of EBV+ exosomes derived from different EBV-associated tumors. EBV+ exosomes are expected to become a new biomarker for disease diagnosis and prognosis. Therefore, exosome-targeted therapy displays potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Chen
- Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Yao Xie
- Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Tingting Wang
- Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
| | - Lin Wang
- Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, P.R. China
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New Look of EBV LMP1 Signaling Landscape. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13215451. [PMID: 34771613 PMCID: PMC8582580 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13215451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) infection is associated with various lymphomas and carcinomas as well as other diseases in humans. The transmembrane protein LMP1 plays versatile roles in EBV life cycle and pathogenesis, by perturbing, reprograming, and regulating a large range of host cellular mechanisms and functions, which have been increasingly disclosed but not fully understood so far. We summarize recent research progress on LMP1 signaling, including the novel components LIMD1, p62, and LUBAC in LMP1 signalosome and LMP1 novel functions, such as its induction of p62-mediated selective autophagy, regulation of metabolism, induction of extracellular vehicles, and activation of NRF2-mediated antioxidative defense. A comprehensive understanding of LMP1 signal transduction and functions may allow us to leverage these LMP1-regulated cellular mechanisms for clinical purposes. Abstract The Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) principal oncoprotein Latent Membrane Protein 1 (LMP1) is a member of the Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor (TNFR) superfamily with constitutive activity. LMP1 shares many features with Pathogen Recognition Receptors (PRRs), including the use of TRAFs, adaptors, and kinase cascades, for signal transduction leading to the activation of NFκB, AP1, and Akt, as well as a subset of IRFs and likely the master antioxidative transcription factor NRF2, which we have gradually added to the list. In recent years, we have discovered the Linear UBiquitin Assembly Complex (LUBAC), the adaptor protein LIMD1, and the ubiquitin sensor and signaling hub p62, as novel components of LMP1 signalosome. Functionally, LMP1 is a pleiotropic factor that reprograms, balances, and perturbs a large spectrum of cellular mechanisms, including the ubiquitin machinery, metabolism, epigenetics, DNA damage response, extracellular vehicles, immune defenses, and telomere elongation, to promote oncogenic transformation, cell proliferation and survival, anchorage-independent cell growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis and invasion, as well as the development of the tumor microenvironment. We have recently shown that LMP1 induces p62-mediated selective autophagy in EBV latency, at least by contributing to the induction of p62 expression, and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) production. We have also been collecting evidence supporting the hypothesis that LMP1 activates the Keap1-NRF2 pathway, which serves as the key antioxidative defense mechanism. Last but not least, our preliminary data shows that LMP1 is associated with the deregulation of cGAS-STING DNA sensing pathway in EBV latency. A comprehensive understanding of the LMP1 signaling landscape is essential for identifying potential targets for the development of novel strategies towards targeted therapeutic applications.
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Granato M. Nanotechnology Frontiers in γ-Herpesviruses Treatments. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111407. [PMID: 34768838 PMCID: PMC8583734 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV) and Kaposi’s sarcoma associated-herpesvirus (KSHV) are γ-herpesviruses that belong to the Herpesviridae family. EBV infections are linked to the onset and progression of several diseases, such as Burkitt lymphoma (BL), nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), and lymphoproliferative malignancies arising in post-transplanted patients (PTDLs). KSHV, an etiologic agent of Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS), displays primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) and multicentric Castleman disease (MCD). Many therapeutics, such as bortezomib, CHOP cocktail medications, and natural compounds (e.g., quercetin or curcumin), are administrated to patients affected by γ-herpesvirus infections. These drugs induce apoptosis and autophagy, inhibiting the proliferative and cell cycle progression in these malignancies. In the last decade, many studies conducted by scientists and clinicians have indicated that nanotechnology and nanomedicine could improve the outcome of several treatments in γ-herpesvirus-associated diseases. Some drugs are entrapped in nanoparticles (NPs) expressed on the surface area of polyethylene glycol (PEG). These NPs move to specific tissues and exert their properties, releasing therapeutics in the cell target. To treat EBV- and KSHV-associated diseases, many studies have been performed in vivo and in vitro using virus-like particles (VPLs) engineered to maximize antigen and epitope presentations during immune response. NPs are designed to improve therapeutic delivery, avoiding dissolving the drugs in toxic solvents. They reduce the dose-limiting toxicity and reach specific tissue areas. Several attempts are ongoing to synthesize and produce EBV vaccines using nanosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Granato
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Roma, RM, Italy
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31
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Abstract
The transmission of information between tumor cells and other cell types in the tumor microenvironment plays an important role in tumor metastasis and is critically modulated by exosomes and other mediators. Tumor-derived exosomes can promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition, angiogenesis, immune escape, formation of the pre-metastatic microenvironment, and transmission of drug-resistant molecules, thereby promoting tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. Integrins are important regulatory molecules on exosomes that can locate metastatic cells at the initial stage of metastasis and show good organotropism. This fact suggests that a clear understanding of the roles of exosomal integrins will be beneficial for future clinical applications. Follow-up studies on exosomes using continuously updated purification techniques and identification methods are extremely important. In addition to their potential as cancer biomarkers, exosomes also provide new research directions for precision medicine. Currently, exosomes have potential value in disease treatment and provide clinicians with more meaningful judgment standards.
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Hamdan Y, Mazini L, Malka G. Exosomes and Micro-RNAs in Aging Process. Biomedicines 2021; 9:968. [PMID: 34440172 PMCID: PMC8393989 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9080968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are the main actors of intercellular communications and have gained great interest in the new cell-free regenerative medicine. These nanoparticles are secreted by almost all cell types and contain lipids, cytokines, growth factors, messenger RNA, and different non-coding RNA, especially micro-RNAs (mi-RNAs). Exosomes' cargo is released in the neighboring microenvironment but is also expected to act on distant tissues or organs. Different biological processes such as cell development, growth and repair, senescence, migration, immunomodulation, and aging, among others, are mediated by exosomes and principally exosome-derived mi-RNAs. Moreover, their therapeutic potential has been proved and reinforced by their use as biomarkers for disease diagnostics and progression. Evidence has increasingly shown that exosome-derived mi-RNAs are key regulators of age-related diseases, and their involvement in longevity is becoming a promising issue. For instance, mi-RNAs such as mi-RNA-21, mi-RNA-29, and mi-RNA-34 modulate tissue functionality and regeneration by targeting different tissues and involving different pathways but might also interfere with long life expectancy. Human mi-RNAs profiling is effectively related to the biological fluids that are reported differently between young and old individuals. However, their underlying mechanisms modulating cell senescence and aging are still not fully understood, and little was reported on the involvement of mi-RNAs in cell or tissue longevity. In this review, we summarize exosome biogenesis and mi-RNA synthesis and loading mechanism into exosomes' cargo. Additionally, we highlight the molecular mechanisms of exosomes and exosome-derived mi-RNA regulation in the different aging processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Loubna Mazini
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Université Mohammed VI Polytechnique, Lot 660 Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir 3150, Morocco; (Y.H.); (G.M.)
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Cone AS, Yuan X, Sun L, Duke LC, Vreones MP, Carrier AN, Kenyon SM, Carver SR, Benthem SD, Stimmell AC, Moseley SC, Hike D, Grant SC, Wilber AA, Olcese JM, Meckes DG. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles ameliorate Alzheimer's disease-like phenotypes in a preclinical mouse model. Theranostics 2021; 11:8129-8142. [PMID: 34373732 PMCID: PMC8344012 DOI: 10.7150/thno.62069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible neurodegenerative disorder that affects more than 44 million people worldwide. Despite the high disease burden, there is no effective treatment for people suffering from AD. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent stromal cells that have been widely studied due to their therapeutic potential. However, administration of cells has been found to have a multitude of limitations. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from MSCs have been studied as a therapeutic candidate, as they exhibit similar immunoprotective and immunomodulatory abilities as the host human MSCs. Methods: To test the potential therapeutic effects of MSC EVs, human bone-marrow derived MSCs were grown in three-dimensional (3D) cell culture, and small EVs were harvested using differential ultracentrifugation. These small EVs were given to non-transgenic (NT) or 5XFAD (5 familial Alzheimer's disease mutations) mice intranasally (IN) every 4 days for 4 months. The mice were then required to perform a variety of behavioral assays to measure changes in learning and memory. Afterwards, immunohistochemistry was performed on brain slices to measure amyloid beta (Aβ) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) levels. Results: The data revealed that 5XFAD mice that received hMSC-EV treatment behaved significantly better in cognitive tests than saline treated 5XFAD mice, with no significant change between EV-treated 5XFAD mice and NT mice. Additionally, we found lower Aβ plaque load in the hippocampus of the EV-treated mice. Finally, less colocalization between GFAP and Aβ plaques was found in the brain of EV-treated mice compared to saline. Conclusions: Taken together, these data suggest that IN administration of MSC-derived EVs can slow down AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allaura S. Cone
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Xuegang Yuan
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Florida A&M University and Florida State University College of Engineering, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
- The National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, USA
| | - Li Sun
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Leanne C. Duke
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Michael P. Vreones
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Allison N. Carrier
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Stephanie M. Kenyon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Spencer R. Carver
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Sarah D. Benthem
- Department of Neuroscience, Florida State University College of Psychology, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Alina C. Stimmell
- Department of Neuroscience, Florida State University College of Psychology, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Shawn C. Moseley
- The National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, USA
| | - David Hike
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Florida A&M University and Florida State University College of Engineering, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
- The National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, USA
| | - Samuel C. Grant
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Florida A&M University and Florida State University College of Engineering, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
- The National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, USA
| | - Aaron A. Wilber
- Department of Neuroscience, Florida State University College of Psychology, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - James M. Olcese
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - David G. Meckes
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
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Kimura H, Okuno Y, Sato Y, Watanabe T, Murata T. Deletion of Viral microRNAs in the Oncogenesis of Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Lymphoma. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:667968. [PMID: 34305835 PMCID: PMC8297563 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.667968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), which encodes >80 genes and nearly 50 non-coding RNAs, is a double-stranded DNA virus. EBV is associated with various types of lymphomas and lymphoproliferative disorders not only of B-cell but also T/NK-cell origin. However, the oncogenic mechanism remains poorly understood, including the EBV receptors expressed on T/NK cells, relationship of EBV with host genes, and epigenetic regulation of EBV and host genes. The roles of host and viral non-coding RNAs during tumorigenesis have been elucidated. EBV encodes at least 49 mature microRNAs (miRNAs), of which 44 are located in BamHI-A rightward transcripts (BARTs) region, and the remaining five are located in BamHI-H rightward fragment 1. BART miRNAs modulate cell differentiation, proliferation, apoptosis, and the cell cycle, and they are considered positive regulators of oncogenesis. We and others have recently reported that EBV-positive lymphomas frequently possess large deletions in BART miRNA clusters, suggesting that some viral miRNAs have suppressive effects on oncogenesis, and that deletion of these miRNAs may aid lymphoma formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Kimura
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yusuke Okuno
- Medical Genomics Center, Nagoya University Hospital, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Sato
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan.,PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Japan
| | - Takahiro Watanabe
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Takayuki Murata
- Department of Virology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan.,Department of Virology and Parasitology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Japan
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35
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Gurunathan S, Kang MH, Qasim M, Khan K, Kim JH. Biogenesis, Membrane Trafficking, Functions, and Next Generation Nanotherapeutics Medicine of Extracellular Vesicles. Int J Nanomedicine 2021; 16:3357-3383. [PMID: 34040369 PMCID: PMC8140893 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s310357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous group of membrane-limited vesicles and multi-signal messengers loaded with biomolecules. Exosomes and ectosomes are two different types of EVs generated by all cell types. Their formation depends on local microdomains assembled in endocytic membranes for exosomes and in the plasma membrane for ectosomes. Further, EV release is a fundamental process required for intercellular communication in both normal physiology and pathological conditions to transmit/exchange bioactive molecules to recipient cells and the extracellular environment. The unique structure and composition of EVs enable them to serve as natural nanocarriers, and their physicochemical properties and biological functions can be used to develop next-generation nano and precision medicine. Knowledge of the cellular processes that govern EVs biology and membrane trafficking is essential for their clinical applications. However, in this rapidly expanding field, much remains unknown regarding EV origin, biogenesis, cargo sorting, and secretion, as well as EV-based theranostic platform generation. Hence, we present a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in biogenesis, membrane trafficking, and functions of EVs, highlighting the impact of nanoparticles and oxidative stress on EVs biogenesis and release and finally emphasizing the role of EVs as nanotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangiliyandi Gurunathan
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Korea
| | - Min-Hee Kang
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Korea
| | - Muhammad Qasim
- Center of Bioengineering and Nanomedicine, Department of Food Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand
| | - Khalid Khan
- Science and Technology KPK, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Jin-Hoi Kim
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, Korea
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36
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Zapatero-Belinchón FJ, Carriquí-Madroñal B, Gerold G. Proximity labeling approaches to study protein complexes during virus infection. Adv Virus Res 2021; 109:63-104. [PMID: 33934830 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cellular compartmentalization of proteins and protein complex formation allow cells to tightly control biological processes. Therefore, understanding the subcellular localization and interactions of a specific protein is crucial to uncover its biological function. The advent of proximity labeling (PL) has reshaped cellular proteomics in infection biology. PL utilizes a genetically modified enzyme that generates a "labeling cloud" by covalently labeling proteins in close proximity to the enzyme. Fusion of a PL enzyme to a specific antibody or a "bait" protein of interest in combination with affinity enrichment mass spectrometry (AE-MS) enables the isolation and identification of the cellular proximity proteome, or proxisome. This powerful methodology has been paramount for the mapping of membrane or membraneless organelles as well as for the understanding of hard-to-purify protein complexes, such as those of transmembrane proteins. Unsurprisingly, more and more infection biology research groups have recognized the potential of PL for the identification of host-pathogen interactions. In this chapter, we introduce the enzymes commonly used for PL labeling as well as recent promising advancements and summarize the major achievements in organelle mapping and nucleic acid PL. Moreover, we comprehensively describe the research on host-pathogen interactions using PL, giving special attention to studies in the field of virology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco José Zapatero-Belinchón
- Department of Biochemistry & Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany; Institute for Experimental Virology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture Between the Medical School Hannover and the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Hannover, Germany; Department of Clinical Microbiology, Virology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden; Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine (WCMM), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Belén Carriquí-Madroñal
- Department of Biochemistry & Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany; Institute for Experimental Virology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture Between the Medical School Hannover and the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Hannover, Germany
| | - Gisa Gerold
- Department of Biochemistry & Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses (RIZ), University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany; Institute for Experimental Virology, TWINCORE, Centre for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, a Joint Venture Between the Medical School Hannover and the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Hannover, Germany; Department of Clinical Microbiology, Virology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden; Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine (WCMM), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
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37
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Luo Y, Liu Y, Wang C, Gan R. Signaling pathways of EBV-induced oncogenesis. Cancer Cell Int 2021; 21:93. [PMID: 33549103 PMCID: PMC7868022 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-021-01793-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is closely associated with multiple human cancers. EBV-associated cancers are mainly lymphomas derived from B cells and T cells (Hodgkin lymphoma, Burkitt lymphoma, NK/T-cell lymphoma, and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD)) and carcinomas derived from epithelial cells (nasopharyngeal carcinoma and gastric carcinoma). EBV can induce oncogenesis in its host cell by activating various signaling pathways, such as nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), phosphoinositide-3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT), Janus kinase/signal transducer and transcription activator (JAK/STAT), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), and Wnt/β-catenin, which are regulated by EBV-encoded proteins and noncoding RNA. In this review, we focus on the oncogenic roles of EBV that are mediated through the aforementioned signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Luo
- Cancer Research Institute, Medical School, University of South China, Chang Sheng Xi Avenue 28, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yitong Liu
- Cancer Research Institute, Medical School, University of South China, Chang Sheng Xi Avenue 28, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengkun Wang
- Cancer Research Institute, Medical School, University of South China, Chang Sheng Xi Avenue 28, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Runliang Gan
- Cancer Research Institute, Medical School, University of South China, Chang Sheng Xi Avenue 28, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, People's Republic of China.
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Munroe ME, Anderson JR, Gross TF, Stunz LL, Bishop GA, James JA. Epstein-Barr Functional Mimicry: Pathogenicity of Oncogenic Latent Membrane Protein-1 in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Autoimmunity. Front Immunol 2021; 11:606936. [PMID: 33613527 PMCID: PMC7886997 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.606936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and other autoimmune diseases are propelled by immune dysregulation and pathogenic, disease-specific autoantibodies. Autoimmunity against the lupus autoantigen Sm is associated with cross-reactivity to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA-1). Additionally, EBV latent membrane protein-1 (LMP1), initially noted for its oncogenic activity, is an aberrantly active functional mimic of the B cell co-stimulatory molecule CD40. Mice expressing a transgene (Tg) for the mCD40-LMP1 hybrid molecule (containing the cytoplasmic tail of LMP1) have mild autoantibody production and other features of immune dysregulation by 2-3 months of age, but no overt autoimmune disease. This study evaluates whether exposure to the EBV molecular mimic, EBNA-1, stimulates antigen-specific and concurrently-reactive humoral and cellular immunity, as well as lupus-like features. After immunization with EBNA-1, mCD40-LMP1 Tg mice exhibited enhanced, antigen-specific, cellular and humoral responses compared to immunized WT congenic mice. EBNA-1 specific proliferative and inflammatory cytokine responses, including IL-17 and IFN-γ, were significantly increased (p<0.0001) in mCD40-LMP1 Tg mice, as well as antibody responses to amino- and carboxy-domains of EBNA-1. Of particular interest was the ability of mCD40-LMP1 to drive EBNA-1 associated molecular mimicry with the lupus-associated autoantigen, Sm. EBNA-1 immunized mCD40-LMP1 Tg mice exhibited enhanced proliferative and cytokine cellular responses (p<0.0001) to the EBNA-1 homologous epitope PPPGRRP and the Sm B/B' cross-reactive sequence PPPGMRPP. When immunized with the SLE autoantigen Sm, mCD40-LMP1 Tg mice again exhibited enhanced cellular and humoral immune responses to both Sm and EBNA-1. Cellular immune dysregulation with EBNA-1 immunization in mCD40-LMP1 Tg mice was accompanied by enhanced splenomegaly, increased serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine levels, and elevated anti-dsDNA and antinuclear antibody (ANA) levels (p<0.0001 compared to mCD40 WT mice). However, no evidence of immune-complex glomerulonephritis pathology was noted, suggesting that a combination of EBV and genetic factors may be required to drive lupus-associated renal disease. These data support that the expression of LMP1 in the context of EBNA-1 may interact to increase immune dysregulation that leads to pathogenic, autoantigen-specific lupus inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa E. Munroe
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Jourdan R. Anderson
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Timothy F. Gross
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | - Laura L. Stunz
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States
| | - Gail A. Bishop
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States
- Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States
- Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States
- Iowa City VA Medical Center, Iowa City, IA, United States
| | - Judith A. James
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
- Department of Medicine and Pathology, Oklahoma University Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
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Bebelman MP, Janssen E, Pegtel DM, Crudden C. The forces driving cancer extracellular vesicle secretion. Neoplasia 2021; 23:149-157. [PMID: 33321449 PMCID: PMC7744813 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2020.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
The discovery that cancer cells discharge vast quantities of extracellular vesicles (EVs), underscored the explosion of the EV field. A large body of evidence now supports their onco-functionality in an array of contexts; stromal crosstalk, immune evasion, metastatic site priming, and drug resistance - justifying therapeutic intervention. The current bottleneck is a lack of clear understanding of why and how EV biogenesis ramps up in cancer cells, and hence where exactly avenues for intervention may reside. We know that EVs also play an array of physiological roles, therefore effective anticancer inhibition requires a target distinct enough from physiology to achieve efficacy. Taking the perspective that EV upregulation may be a consequence of the tumor landscape, we examine classic mutational events and tumor characteristics for EV regulators. All the while, aiming to illuminate topics worth further research in therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten P Bebelman
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eline Janssen
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - D Michiel Pegtel
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Caitrin Crudden
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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