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Saleban M, Harris EL, Poulter JA. D-Type Cyclins in Development and Disease. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1445. [PMID: 37510349 PMCID: PMC10378862 DOI: 10.3390/genes14071445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
D-type cyclins encode G1/S cell cycle checkpoint proteins, which play a crucial role in defining cell cycle exit and progression. Precise control of cell cycle exit is vital during embryonic development, with defects in the pathways regulating intracellular D-type cyclins resulting in abnormal initiation of stem cell differentiation in a variety of different organ systems. Furthermore, stabilisation of D-type cyclins is observed in a wide range of disorders characterized by cellular over-proliferation, including cancers and overgrowth disorders. In this review, we will summarize and compare the roles played by each D-type cyclin during development and provide examples of how their intracellular dysregulation can be an underlying cause of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa Saleban
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Erica L Harris
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - James A Poulter
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
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2
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Torres-Guzmán R, Ganado MP, Mur C, Marugan C, Baquero C, Yang Y, Zeng Y, Bian H, Du J, de Dios A, Puig O, Lallena MJ. Continuous treatment with abemaciclib leads to sustained and efficient inhibition of breast cancer cell proliferation. Oncotarget 2022; 13:864-875. [PMID: 35813283 PMCID: PMC9255995 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.28249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Abemaciclib is an oral, selective cyclin-dependent kinase 4 & 6 inhibitor (CDK4 & 6i), approved for hormone receptor-positive (HR+), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (HER2–) advanced breast cancer (ABC) as monotherapy for endocrine refractory disease, and with endocrine therapy (ET) for initial treatment and after progression on ET. Abemaciclib has also shown clinical activity in combination with ET in patients with high risk early BC (EBC). Here, we examined the preclinical attributes of abemaciclib and other CDK4 & 6i using biochemical and cell-based assays. In vitro, abemaciclib preferentially inhibited CDK4 kinase activity versus CDK6, resulting in inhibition of cell proliferation in a panel of BC cell lines with higher average potency than palbociclib or ribociclib. Abemaciclib showed activity regardless of HER2 amplification and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3KCA) gene mutation status. In human bone marrow progenitor cells, abemaciclib showed lower impact on myeloid maturation than other CDK4 & 6i when tested at unbound concentrations similar to those observed in clinical trials. Continuous abemaciclib treatment provided profound inhibition of cell proliferation, and triggered senescence and apoptosis. These preclinical results support the unique efficacy and safety profile of abemaciclib observed in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Torres-Guzmán
- Discovery Chemistry Research and Technology, Eli Lilly and Company, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Cecilia Mur
- Discovery Chemistry Research and Technology, Eli Lilly and Company, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Marugan
- Discovery Chemistry Research and Technology, Eli Lilly and Company, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Baquero
- Discovery Chemistry Research and Technology, Eli Lilly and Company, Madrid, Spain
| | - Yanzhu Yang
- Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN 46225, USA
| | - Yi Zeng
- Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN 46225, USA
| | - Huimin Bian
- Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN 46225, USA
| | - Jian Du
- Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN 46225, USA
| | | | - Oscar Puig
- Eli Lilly and Company, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - María José Lallena
- Discovery Chemistry Research and Technology, Eli Lilly and Company, Madrid, Spain
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Syahirah R, Hsu AY, Deng Q. A curious case of cyclin‐dependent kinases in neutrophils. J Leukoc Biol 2022; 111:1057-1068. [PMID: 35188696 PMCID: PMC9035055 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2ru1021-573r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are terminally differentiated, short-lived white blood cells critical for innate immunity. Although cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are typically related to cell cycle progression, increasing evidence has shown that they regulate essential functions of neutrophils. This review highlights the roles of CDKs and their partners, cyclins, in neutrophils, outside of cell cycle regulation. CDK1-10 and several cyclins are expressed in neutrophils, albeit at different levels. Observed phenotypes associated with specific inhibition or genetic loss of CDK2 indicate its role in modulating neutrophil migration. CDK4 and 6 regulate neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation, while CDK5 regulates neutrophil degranulation. CDK7 and 9 are critical in neutrophil apoptosis, contributing to inflammation resolution. In addition to the CDKs that regulate mature neutrophil functions, cyclins are essential in hematopoiesis and granulopoiesis. The pivotal roles of CDKs in neutrophils present an untapped potential in targeting CDKs for treating neutrophil-dominant inflammatory diseases and understanding the regulation of the neutrophil life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramizah Syahirah
- Department of Biological Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette Indiana USA
| | - Alan Y. Hsu
- Department of Biological Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette Indiana USA
- Department of Pathology Harvard Medical School Boston Massachusetts USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine The Stem Cell Program, Boston Children's Hospital Boston Massachusetts USA
| | - Qing Deng
- Department of Biological Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette Indiana USA
- Purdue Institute of Inflammation Immunology and Infectious Disease, Purdue University West Lafayette Indiana USA
- Purdue University Center for Cancer Research, Purdue University West Lafayette Indiana USA
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A first-in-class CDK4 inhibitor demonstrates in vitro, ex-vivo and in vivo efficacy against ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol 2020; 159:827-838. [PMID: 32958271 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygyno.2020.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 6 (CDK4/6) are fundamental drivers of the cell cycle and are involved in the initiation and progression of various cancers. Deregulation of the CDK4/6-cyclin D-retinoblastoma (Rb) pathway is common in ovarian cancer and is associated with an aggressive phenotype and poor prognosis. Patients with advanced ovarian cancer whose tumor demonstrates Rb-positivity, a low expression of p16 and overexpression of cyclin D1 are most likely to benefit from CDK4/6 inhibition. MATERIALS AND METHOD Anti-proliferative activity and mechanistic investigations for CDDD2-94, employing palbociclib as comparator, were evaluated by MTT assay, cell cycle and apoptosis analysis, western blotting as well as senescence and colony formation assay. In vivo safety and efficacy studies were done in A2780 tumor-bearing nude mice. Combinations of CDDD2-94 with mTOR, MEK, PI3K or PARP inhibitors were evaluated in A2780 and OVCAR5 ovarian cancer cells. RESULTS Consistent with a CDK4-targeted mechanism, CDDD2-94 arrested the G1/G0 cell cycle, induced senescence and inhibited the proliferation of Rb-proficient ovarian cancer cells. CDDD2-94 exhibited synergistic anti-proliferative activities with mTOR, MEK, PI3K or PARP inhibitors. Importantly, unlike palbociclib which caused significant reductions in the number of lymphocytes and neutrophils, CDDD2-94 had little effect. CDDD2-94, as single agent and in combination with everolimus, delayed tumor growth and significantly increased survival of mice. CONCLUSION Given its high specificity in targeting CDK4 and excellent anti-tumor efficacy with low toxicity, CDDD2-94 has potential to be developed as a standalone agent or in combination with targeted therapeutics for the treatment of ovarian cancer.
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Palmer N, Kaldis P. Less-well known functions of cyclin/CDK complexes. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2020; 107:54-62. [PMID: 32386818 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are activated by cyclins, which play important roles in dictating the actions of CDK/cyclin complexes. Cyclin binding influences the substrate specificity of these complexes in addition to their susceptibility to inhibition or degradation. CDK/cyclin complexes are best known to promote cell cycle progression in the mitotic cell cycle but are also crucial for important cellular processes not strictly associated with cellular division. This chapter primarily explores the understudied topic of CDK/cyclin complex functionality during the DNA damage response. We detail how CDK/cyclin complexes perform dual roles both as targets of DNA damage checkpoint signaling as well as effectors of DNA repair. Additionally, we discuss the potential CDK-independent roles of cyclins in these processes and the impact of such roles in human diseases such as cancer. Our goal is to place the spotlight on these important functions of cyclins either acting as independent entities or within CDK/cyclin complexes which have attracted less attention in the past. We consider that this will be important for a more complete understanding of the intricate functions of cell cycle proteins in the DNA damage response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan Palmer
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), A⁎STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore, 138673, Republic of Singapore; National University of Singapore (NUS), Department of Biochemistry, Singapore, 117597, Republic of Singapore
| | - Philipp Kaldis
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB), A⁎STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore, 138673, Republic of Singapore; National University of Singapore (NUS), Department of Biochemistry, Singapore, 117597, Republic of Singapore; Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Clinical Research Centre (CRC), Box 50332, SE-202 13, Malmö, Sweden.
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6
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Petroni G, Formenti SC, Chen-Kiang S, Galluzzi L. Immunomodulation by anticancer cell cycle inhibitors. Nat Rev Immunol 2020; 20:669-679. [PMID: 32346095 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-020-0300-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cell cycle proteins that are often dysregulated in malignant cells, such as cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) and CDK6, have attracted considerable interest as potential targets for cancer therapy. In this context, multiple inhibitors of CDK4 and CDK6 have been developed, including three small molecules (palbociclib, abemaciclib and ribociclib) that are currently approved for the treatment of patients with breast cancer and are being extensively tested in individuals with other solid and haematological malignancies. Accumulating preclinical and clinical evidence indicates that the anticancer activity of CDK4/CDK6 inhibitors results not only from their ability to block the cell cycle in malignant cells but also from a range of immunostimulatory effects. In this Review, we discuss the ability of anticancer cell cycle inhibitors to modulate various immune functions in support of effective antitumour immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Petroni
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Silvia C Formenti
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA.,Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Selina Chen-Kiang
- Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Pathology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA. .,Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA. .,Caryl and Israel Englander Institute for Precision Medicine, New York, NY, USA. .,Department of Dermatology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA. .,Université de Paris, Paris, France.
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7
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Abstract
The mammalian cell cycle is driven by a complex of cyclins and their associated cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). Abnormal dysregulation of cyclin-CDK is a hallmark of cancer. D-type cyclins and their associated CDKs (CDK4 and CDK6) are key components of cell cycle machinery in driving G1 to S phase transition via phosphorylating and inactivating the retinoblastoma protein (RB). A body of evidence shows that the cyclin Ds-CDKs axis plays a critical role in cancer through various aspects, such as control of proliferation, senescence, migration, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. CDK4/6 dual-inhibitors show significant efficacy in pre-clinical or clinical cancer therapies either as single agents or in combination with hormone, chemotherapy, irradiation or immune treatments. Of note, as the associated partner of D-type cyclins, CDK6 shows multiple distinct functions from CDK4 in cancer. Depletion of the individual CDK may provide a therapeutic strategy for patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueliang Gao
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Gustavo W Leone
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States; Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Haizhen Wang
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States; Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States.
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Bonelli M, La Monica S, Fumarola C, Alfieri R. Multiple effects of CDK4/6 inhibition in cancer: From cell cycle arrest to immunomodulation. Biochem Pharmacol 2019; 170:113676. [PMID: 31647925 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2019.113676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Dysregulation of the cell cycle is a hallmark of cancer that leads to aberrant cellular proliferation. CDK4/6 are cyclin-dependent kinases activated in response to proliferative signaling, which induce RB hyper-phosphorylation and hence activation of E2F transcription factors, thus promoting cell cycle progression through the S phase. Pharmacologic inhibition of CDK4/6 by palbociclib, ribociclib, or abemaciclib has been showing promising activity in multiple cancers with the best results achieved in combination with other agents. Indeed, CDK4/6 inhibitors are currently approved in combination with endocrine therapy for the treatment of estrogen receptor-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative advanced or metastatic breast cancer. Moreover, a number of clinical trials are currently underway to test the efficacy of combining CDK4/6 inhibitors with different drugs not only in breast but also in other types of cancer. Beyond the inhibition of cell proliferation, CDK4/6 inhibitors have recently revealed new effects on cancer cells and on tumor microenvironment. In particular, it has been reported that these agents induce a senescent-like phenotype, impact on cell metabolism and exert both immunomodulatory and immunogenic effects. Here we describe recent data on the anti-tumor effects of CDK4/6 inhibitors as single agents or in combined therapies, focusing in particular on their metabolic and immunomodulatory activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara Bonelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy.
| | - Silvia La Monica
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy.
| | - Claudia Fumarola
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy.
| | - Roberta Alfieri
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy.
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Laphanuwat P, Jirawatnotai S. Immunomodulatory Roles of Cell Cycle Regulators. Front Cell Dev Biol 2019; 7:23. [PMID: 30863749 PMCID: PMC6399147 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2019.00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Core cell cycle regulators, including cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), cyclins, and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CKIs), are known for their well-characterized roles in cell division. Several recent studies have shed light on the roles of these proteins in immune modulation. The development and activation of cells in the immune system take place not only during embryonic development but throughout the life of a multicellular organism. Cell cycle regulators are involved in the development of immune cells, partly as the machinery controlling the expansion and differentiation of the populations of immune cells. In addition, these proteins serve non-cell cycle functions. In this review, we summarize the emerging roles of cell cycle regulators in modulating functions of the immune system and discuss how they may be exploited as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phatthamon Laphanuwat
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Siriraj Center of Research for Excellence for Systems Pharmacology, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Siwanon Jirawatnotai
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Siriraj Center of Research for Excellence for Systems Pharmacology, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Kim S, Tiedt R, Loo A, Horn T, Delach S, Kovats S, Haas K, Engstler BS, Cao A, Pinzon-Ortiz M, Mulford I, Acker MG, Chopra R, Brain C, di Tomaso E, Sellers WR, Caponigro G. The potent and selective cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 6 inhibitor ribociclib (LEE011) is a versatile combination partner in preclinical cancer models. Oncotarget 2018; 9:35226-35240. [PMID: 30443290 PMCID: PMC6219668 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.26215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinases 4 and 6 (CDK4/6) is associated with robust antitumor activity. Ribociclib (LEE011) is an orally bioavailable CDK4/6 inhibitor that is approved for the treatment of hormone receptor-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative advanced breast cancer, in combination with an aromatase inhibitor, and is currently being evaluated in several additional trials. Here, we report the preclinical profile of ribociclib. When tested across a large panel of kinase active site binding assays, ribociclib and palbociclib were highly selective for CDK4, while abemaciclib showed affinity to several other kinases. Both ribociclib and abemaciclib showed slightly higher potency in CDK4-dependent cells than in CDK6-dependent cells, while palbociclib did not show such a difference. Profiling CDK4/6 inhibitors in large-scale cancer cell line screens in vitro confirmed that RB1 loss of function is a negative predictor of sensitivity. We also found that routinely used cellular viability assays measuring adenosine triphosphate levels as a proxy for cell numbers underestimated the effects of CDK4/6 inhibition, which contrasts with assays that assess cell number more directly. Robust antitumor efficacy and combination benefit was detected when ribociclib was added to encorafenib, nazartinib, or endocrine therapies in patient-derived xenografts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunkyu Kim
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Ralph Tiedt
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Basel, Switzerland, USA
| | - Alice Loo
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Thomas Horn
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Scott Delach
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Steven Kovats
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kristy Haas
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - Alexander Cao
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Maria Pinzon-Ortiz
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Iain Mulford
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Michael G Acker
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Rajiv Chopra
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Christopher Brain
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Global Discovery Chemistry, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Emmanuelle di Tomaso
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - William R Sellers
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Giordano Caponigro
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Oncology Disease Area, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Ameratunga M, Kipps E, Okines AF, Lopez JS. To Cycle or Fight—CDK4/6 Inhibitors at the Crossroads of Anticancer Immunity. Clin Cancer Res 2018; 25:21-28. [DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-18-1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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12
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Lack of cyclin D3 induces skeletal muscle fiber-type shifting, increased endurance performance and hypermetabolism. Sci Rep 2018; 8:12792. [PMID: 30143714 PMCID: PMC6109157 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31090-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The mitogen-induced D-type cyclins (D1, D2 and D3) are regulatory subunits of the cyclin-dependent kinases CDK4 and CDK6 that drive progression through the G1 phase of the cell cycle. In skeletal muscle, cyclin D3 plays a unique function in controlling the proliferation/differentiation balance of myogenic progenitor cells. Here, we show that cyclin D3 also performs a novel function, regulating muscle fiber type-specific gene expression. Mice lacking cyclin D3 display an increased number of myofibers with higher oxidative capacity in fast-twitch muscle groups, primarily composed of myofibers that utilize glycolytic metabolism. The remodeling of myofibers toward a slower, more oxidative phenotype is accompanied by enhanced running endurance and increased energy expenditure and fatty acid oxidation. In addition, gene expression profiling of cyclin D3-/- muscle reveals the upregulation of genes encoding proteins involved in the regulation of contractile function and metabolic markers specifically expressed in slow-twitch and fast-oxidative myofibers, many of which are targets of MEF2 and/or NFAT transcription factors. Furthermore, cyclin D3 can repress the calcineurin- or MEF2-dependent activation of a slow fiber-specific promoter in cultured muscle cells. These data suggest that cyclin D3 regulates muscle fiber type phenotype, and consequently whole body metabolism, by antagonizing the activity of MEF2 and/or NFAT.
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13
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Sherr CJ, Sicinski P. The D-Type Cyclins: A Historical Perspective. D-TYPE CYCLINS AND CANCER 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-64451-6_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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14
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Abstract
Cancer is characterized by uncontrolled tumour cell proliferation resulting from aberrant activity of various cell cycle proteins. Therefore, cell cycle regulators are considered attractive targets in cancer therapy. Intriguingly, animal models demonstrate that some of these proteins are not essential for proliferation of non-transformed cells and development of most tissues. By contrast, many cancers are uniquely dependent on these proteins and hence are selectively sensitive to their inhibition. After decades of research on the physiological functions of cell cycle proteins and their relevance for cancer, this knowledge recently translated into the first approved cancer therapeutic targeting of a direct regulator of the cell cycle. In this Review, we focus on proteins that directly regulate cell cycle progression (such as cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)), as well as checkpoint kinases, Aurora kinases and Polo-like kinases (PLKs). We discuss the role of cell cycle proteins in cancer, the rationale for targeting them in cancer treatment and results of clinical trials, as well as the future therapeutic potential of various cell cycle inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Otto
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Piotr Sicinski
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
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15
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Kowalski K, Archacki R, Archacka K, Stremińska W, Paciorek A, Gołąbek M, Ciemerych MA, Brzoska E. Stromal derived factor-1 and granulocyte-colony stimulating factor treatment improves regeneration of Pax7-/- mice skeletal muscles. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2016; 7:483-96. [PMID: 27239402 PMCID: PMC4863826 DOI: 10.1002/jcsm.12092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The skeletal muscle has the ability to regenerate after injury. This process is mediated mainly by the muscle specific stem cells, that is, satellite cells. In case of extensive damage or under pathological conditions, such as muscular dystrophy, the process of muscle reconstruction does not occur properly. The aim of our study was to test whether mobilized stem cells, other than satellite cells, could participate in skeletal muscle reconstruction. METHODS Experiments were performed on wild-type mice and mice lacking the functional Pax7 gene, that is, characterized by the very limited satellite cell population. Gastrocnemius mice muscles were injured by cardiotoxin injection, and then the animals were treated by stromal derived factor-1 (Sdf-1) with or without granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) for 4 days. The muscles were subjected to thorough assessment of the tissue regeneration process using histological and in vitro methods, as well as evaluation of myogenic factors' expression at the transcript and protein levels. RESULTS Stromal derived factor-1 alone and Sdf-1 in combination with G-CSF significantly improved the regeneration of Pax7-/- skeletal muscles. The Sdf-1 and G-CSF treatment caused an increase in the number of mononucleated cells associated with muscle fibres. Further analysis showed that Sdf-1 and G-CSF treatment led to the rise in the number of CD34+ and Cxcr4+ cells and expression of Cxcr7. CONCLUSIONS Stromal derived factor-1 and G-CSF stimulated regeneration of the skeletal muscles deficient in satellite cells. We suggest that mobilized CD34+, Cxcr4+, and Cxcr7+ cells can efficiently participate in the skeletal muscle reconstruction and compensate for the lack of satellite cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamil Kowalski
- Department of Cytology, Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland
| | - Rafał Archacki
- Laboratory of Systems Biology, Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland
| | - Karolina Archacka
- Department of Cytology, Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland
| | | | - Anna Paciorek
- Department of Cytology, Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland
| | - Magdalena Gołąbek
- Department of Cytology, Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland
| | - Maria A Ciemerych
- Department of Cytology, Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland
| | - Edyta Brzoska
- Department of Cytology, Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland
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Sherr CJ, Beach D, Shapiro GI. Targeting CDK4 and CDK6: From Discovery to Therapy. Cancer Discov 2016; 6:353-67. [PMID: 26658964 PMCID: PMC4821753 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8290.cd-15-0894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 656] [Impact Index Per Article: 82.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Biochemical and genetic characterization of D-type cyclins, their cyclin D-dependent kinases (CDK4 and CDK6), and the polypeptide CDK4/6 inhibitor p16(INK4)over two decades ago revealed how mammalian cells regulate entry into the DNA synthetic (S) phase of the cell-division cycle in a retinoblastoma protein-dependent manner. These investigations provided proof-of-principle that CDK4/6 inhibitors, particularly when combined with coinhibition of allied mitogen-dependent signal transduction pathways, might prove valuable in cancer therapy. FDA approval of the CDK4/6 inhibitor palbociclib used with the aromatase inhibitor letrozole for breast cancer treatment highlights long-sought success. The newest findings herald clinical trials targeting other cancers. SIGNIFICANCE Rapidly emerging data with selective inhibitors of CDK4/6 have validated these cell-cycle kinases as anticancer drug targets, corroborating longstanding preclinical predictions. This review addresses the discovery of these CDKs and their regulators, as well as translation of CDK4/6 biology to positive clinical outcomes and development of rational combinatorial therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles J Sherr
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD. Department of Tumor Cell Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee.
| | - David Beach
- The Blizard Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, United Kingdom
| | - Geoffrey I Shapiro
- Early Drug Development Center, Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts.
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Su J, Zhou H, Tao Y, Guo J, Guo Z, Zhang S, Zhang Y, Huang Y, Tang Y, Dong Q, Hu R. G-CSF protects human brain vascular endothelial cells injury induced by high glucose, free fatty acids and hypoxia through MAPK and Akt signaling. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0120707. [PMID: 25849550 PMCID: PMC4388714 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) has been shown to play a neuroprotective role in ischemic stroke by mobilizing bone marrow (BM)-derived endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), promoting angiogenesis, and inhibiting apoptosis. Impairments in mobilization and function of the BM-derived EPCs have previously been reported in animal and human studies of diabetes where there is both reduction in the levels of the BM-derived EPCs and its ability to promote angiogenesis. This is hypothesized to account for the pathogenesis of diabetic vascular complications such as stroke. Here, we sought to investigate the effects of G-CSF on diabetes-associated cerebral vascular defect. We observed that pretreatment of the cultured human brain vascular endothelial cells (HBVECs) with G-CSF largely prevented cell death induced by the combination stimulus with high glucose, free fatty acids (FFA) and hypoxia by increasing cell viability, decreasing apoptosis and caspase-3 activity. Cell ultrastructure measured by transmission electron microscope (TEM) revealed that G-CSF treatment nicely reduced combination stimulus-induced cell apoptosis. The results from fluorescent probe Fluo-3/AM showed that G-CSF greatly suppressed the levels of intracellular calcium ions under combination stimulus. We also found that G-CSF enhanced the expression of cell cycle proteins such as human cell division cycle protein 14A (hCdc14A), cyclinB and cyclinE, inhibited p53 activity, and facilitated cell cycle progression following combination stimulus. In addition, activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2) and Akt, and deactivation of c-Jun N terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 were proved to be required for the pro-survival effects of G-CSF on HBVECs exposed to combination stimulus. Overall, G-CSF is capable of alleviating HBVECs injury triggered by the combination administration with high glucose, FFA and hypoxia involving the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and Akt signaling cascades. G-CSF may represent a promising therapeutic agent for diabetic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Su
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200011, China
| | - Houguang Zhou
- Department of Geriatric Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
- * E-mail: (HZ); (RH)
| | - Yinghong Tao
- Department of General Medicine, Ouyang Hospital, Hongkou District, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingchun Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032,China
| | - Zhuangli Guo
- Department of Emergency Neurology, the Affiliated Hospital of Medical College Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Shuo Zhang
- Department of Endocrine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Geriatric Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Yanyan Huang
- Department of Geriatric Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Yuping Tang
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Qiang Dong
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Renming Hu
- Department of Endocrine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
- * E-mail: (HZ); (RH)
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18
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De Luca G, Ferretti R, Bruschi M, Mezzaroma E, Caruso M. Cyclin D3 critically regulates the balance between self-renewal and differentiation in skeletal muscle stem cells. Stem Cells 2014; 31:2478-91. [PMID: 23897741 PMCID: PMC3963451 DOI: 10.1002/stem.1487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2013] [Revised: 05/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Satellite cells are mitotically quiescent myogenic stem cells resident beneath the basal lamina surrounding adult muscle myofibers. In response to injury, multiple extrinsic signals drive the entry of satellite cells into the cell cycle and then to proliferation, differentiation, and self-renewal of their downstream progeny. Because satellite cells must endure for a lifetime, their cell cycle activity must be carefully controlled to coordinate proliferative expansion and self-renewal with the onset of the differentiation program. In this study, we find that cyclin D3, a member of the family of mitogen-activated D-type cyclins, is critically required for proper developmental progression of myogenic progenitors. Using a cyclin D3-knockout mouse we determined that cyclin D3 deficiency leads to reduced myofiber size and impaired establishment of the satellite cell population within the adult muscle. Cyclin D3-null myogenic progenitors, studied ex vivo on isolated myofibers and in vitro, displayed impaired cell cycle progression, increased differentiation potential, and reduced self-renewal capability. Similarly, silencing of cyclin D3 in C2 myoblasts caused anticipated exit from the cell cycle and precocious onset of terminal differentiation. After induced muscle damage, cyclin D3-null myogenic progenitors exhibited proliferation deficits, a precocious ability to form newly generated myofibers and a reduced capability to repopulate the satellite cell niche at later stages of the regeneration process. These results indicate that cyclin D3 plays a cell-autonomous and nonredundant function in regulating the dynamic balance between proliferation, differentiation, and self-renewal that normally establishes an appropriate pool size of adult satellite cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia De Luca
- National Research Council, Institute of Cell Biology and Neurobiology, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Roma, Italy
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Abstract
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is the most common malignancy in children. Although it is now curable in 80-90% of cases, patients with T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) experience a higher frequency of induction failure and early relapse. Despite aggressive treatment approaches, including transplantation and new salvage regimens, most children with relapsed T-ALL will not be cured. As such, we are in need of new targeted therapies for the disease. Recent advances in the molecular characterization of T-ALL have uncovered a number of new therapeutic targets. This review will summarize recent advancements in the study of inhibiting the NOTCH1, PI3K-AKT, and Cyclin D3:CDK4/6 pathways as therapeutic strategies for T-ALL. We will focus on pre-clinical studies supporting the testing of small-molecule inhibitors targeting these proteins and the rationale of combination therapies. Moreover, epigenetic approaches to modulate T-ALL are rapidly emerging. Here, we will discuss the data supporting the role of bromodomain and extra-terminal bromodomain inhibitors in human T-ALL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Roti
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute , Boston, MA , USA ; Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital , Boston, MA , USA ; Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, University of Perugia , Perugia , Italy
| | - Kimberly Stegmaier
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute , Boston, MA , USA ; Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital , Boston, MA , USA ; Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge, MA , USA
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20
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Souza LR, Silva E, Calloway E, Kucuk O, Rossi M, McLemore ML. Genistein Protects Hematopoietic Stem Cells against G-CSF–Induced DNA Damage. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2014; 7:534-44. [DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-13-0295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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21
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Guo H, Sun F, Huang W, Liu Z, Zhang S, Zhou Q, Liang C. The effect of rhG-CSF on spleen transcriptome in mouse leukopenia model induced by cyclophosphamide. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2014; 36:114-23. [PMID: 24611752 DOI: 10.3109/08923973.2013.869696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT RhG-CSF significantly elevates the otherwise reduced numbers of leukocytes following chemotherapy. However, prior work has predominantly focused on the effect of rhG-CSF on the hematopoietic system, and few studies have focused on the immune system. OBJECTIVE We aimed to investigate the effect of rhG-CSF on the immune system transcriptome in a mouse leukopenia model that was induced by cyclophosphamide. MATERIALS AND METHODS A cyclophosphamide leukopenia model was established in C57BL/6 mice, which were randomly divided into a normal control group (CK), a cyclophosphamide model group (CY) and a rhG-CSF treatment group (rhG-CSF). After 3 d of rhG-CSF treatment, a mouse gene expression microarray enabled evaluation of changes in the transcriptome in the mouse spleen. RESULTS About 3552 differentially expressed genes occurred among the three experimental groups, of which 74.9% (2659) concentrated on three gene expression patterns. Gene ontology and pathway analysis of 2659 differential genes showed that early in treatment when leukocyte counts remained low, rhG-CSF recovered the transcription of genes that were related to DNA damage repair and metabolism of nucleotides and amino acids. By contrast, rhG-CSF inhibited the transcription of genes involved in transendothelial migration and endocytosis, and dampened the transcription of genes associated with cell proliferation as compared with the CY group. CONCLUSIONS Our study suggests that rhG-CSF recovered metabolism in immune cells, suppressed in vivo immune defense, and attenuated immune cell proliferation in a cyclophosphamide induced leukopenia model. Use of gene expression microarrays can macroscopically and systematically inform the mechanism of rhG-CSF on immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Guo
- Department of Cytobiology, Institute of Frontier Medical Sciences, Jilin University , Changchun , China
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22
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Loss of mTOR complex 1 induces developmental blockage in early T-lymphopoiesis and eradicates T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:3805-10. [PMID: 24567410 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1320265111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
mTOR is an evolutionarily conserved kinase that plays a critical role in sensing and responding to environmental determinants. Recent studies have shown that fine-tuning of the activity of mTOR complexes contributes to organogenesis and tumorigenesis. Although rapamycin, an allosteric mTOR inhibitor, is an effective immunosuppressant, the precise roles of mTOR complexes in early T-cell development remain unclear. Here we show that mTORC1 plays a critical role in the development of both early T-cell progenitors and leukemia. Deletion of Raptor, an essential component of mTORC1, produced defects in the earliest development of T-cell progenitors in vivo and in vitro. Deficiency of Raptor resulted in cell cycle abnormalities in early T-cell progenitors that were associated with instability of the Cyclin D2/D3-CDK6 complexes; deficiency of Rictor, an mTORC2 component, did not have the same effect, indicating that mTORC1 and -2 control T-cell development in different ways. In a model of myeloproliferative neoplasm and T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) evoked by Kras activation, Raptor deficiency dramatically inhibited the cell cycle in oncogenic Kras-expressing T-cell progenitors, but not myeloid progenitors, and specifically prevented the development of T-ALL. Although rapamycin treatment significantly prolonged the survival of recipient mice bearing T-ALL cells, rapamycin-insensitive leukemia cells continued to propagate in vivo. In contrast, Raptor deficiency in the T-ALL model resulted in cell cycle arrest and efficient eradication of leukemia. Thus, understanding the cell-context-dependent role of mTORC1 illustrates the potential importance of mTOR signals as therapeutic targets.
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23
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Choi YJ, Li X, Hydbring P, Sanda T, Stefano J, Christie AL, Signoretti S, Look AT, Kung AL, von Boehmer H, Sicinski P. The requirement for cyclin D function in tumor maintenance. Cancer Cell 2012; 22:438-51. [PMID: 23079655 PMCID: PMC3487466 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2012.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2012] [Revised: 06/24/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
D-cyclins represent components of cell cycle machinery. To test the efficacy of targeting D-cyclins in cancer treatment, we engineered mouse strains that allow acute and global ablation of individual D-cyclins in a living animal. Ubiquitous shutdown of cyclin D1 or inhibition of cyclin D-associated kinase activity in mice bearing ErbB2-driven mammary carcinomas triggered tumor cell senescence, without compromising the animals' health. Ablation of cyclin D3 in mice bearing Notch1-driven T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemias (T-ALL) triggered tumor cell apoptosis. Such selective killing of leukemic cells can also be achieved by inhibiting cyclin D associated kinase activity in mouse and human T-ALL models. Inhibition of cyclin D-kinase activity represents a highly-selective anticancer strategy that specifically targets cancer cells without significantly affecting normal tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Jong Choi
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Xiaoyu Li
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Per Hydbring
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Takaomi Sanda
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Joanna Stefano
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Amanda L. Christie
- Lurie Family Imaging Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Sabina Signoretti
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - A. Thomas Look
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Andrew L. Kung
- Lurie Family Imaging Center, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Harald von Boehmer
- Department of Cancer Immunology and AIDS, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Piotr Sicinski
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
- Correspondence:
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24
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Sawai C, Freund J, Oh P, Ndiaye-Lobry D, Bretz JC, Strikoudis A, Genesca L, Trimarchi T, Kelliher MA, Clark M, Soulier J, Chen-Kiang S, Aifantis I. Therapeutic targeting of the cyclin D3:CDK4/6 complex in T cell leukemia. Cancer Cell 2012; 22:452-65. [PMID: 23079656 PMCID: PMC3493168 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2012.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
D-type cyclins form complexes with cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK4/6) and promote cell cycle progression. Although cyclin D functions appear largely tissue specific, we demonstrate that cyclin D3 has unique functions in lymphocyte development and cannot be replaced by cyclin D2, which is also expressed during blood differentiation. We show that only combined deletion of p27(Kip1) and retinoblastoma tumor suppressor (Rb) is sufficient to rescue the development of Ccnd3(-/-) thymocytes. Furthermore, we show that a small molecule targeting the kinase function of cyclin D3:CDK4/6 inhibits both cell cycle entry in human T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) and disease progression in animal models of T-ALL. These studies identify unique functions for cyclin D3:CDK4/6 complexes and suggest potential therapeutic protocols for this devastating blood tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Sawai
- Department of Pathology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
| | - Jacquelyn Freund
- Department of Pathology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
| | - Philmo Oh
- Department of Pathology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
| | - Delphine Ndiaye-Lobry
- Department of Pathology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
| | - Jamieson C. Bretz
- Department of Pathology and Graduate Program in Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York NY 10065
| | - Alexandros Strikoudis
- Department of Pathology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
| | - Lali Genesca
- INSERM U944 and University Paris Diderot, Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Thomas Trimarchi
- Department of Pathology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
| | - Michelle A. Kelliher
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA
| | - Marcus Clark
- Department of Medicine, Section of Rheumatology and Gwen Knapp Center for Lupus Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Jean Soulier
- INSERM U944 and University Paris Diderot, Saint-Louis Hospital, Paris, France
| | - Selina Chen-Kiang
- Department of Pathology and Graduate Program in Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York NY 10065
| | - Iannis Aifantis
- Department of Pathology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016
- To Whom Correspondence Should Be Addressed: Dr. Iannis Aifantis, Howard Hughes Medical Institute and, Department of Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, 550 First Avenue, MSB 538, New York, NY 10016, , Phone: 212 263 5365
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25
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Sankaran VG, Ludwig LS, Sicinska E, Xu J, Bauer DE, Eng JC, Patterson HC, Metcalf RA, Natkunam Y, Orkin SH, Sicinski P, Lander ES, Lodish HF. Cyclin D3 coordinates the cell cycle during differentiation to regulate erythrocyte size and number. Genes Dev 2012; 26:2075-87. [PMID: 22929040 DOI: 10.1101/gad.197020.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have identified a genetic variant of moderate effect size at 6p21.1 associated with erythrocyte traits in humans. We show that this variant affects an erythroid-specific enhancer of CCND3. A Ccnd3 knockout mouse phenocopies these erythroid phenotypes, with a dramatic increase in erythrocyte size and a concomitant decrease in erythrocyte number. By examining human and mouse primary erythroid cells, we demonstrate that the CCND3 gene product cyclin D3 regulates the number of cell divisions that erythroid precursors undergo during terminal differentiation, thereby controlling erythrocyte size and number. We illustrate how cell type-specific specialization can occur for general cell cycle components-a finding resulting from the biological follow-up of unbiased human genetic studies.
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26
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Weng HY, Huang HL, Zhao PP, Zhou H, Qu LH. Translational repression of cyclin D3 by a stable G-quadruplex in its 5' UTR: implications for cell cycle regulation. RNA Biol 2012; 9:1099-109. [PMID: 22858673 DOI: 10.4161/rna.21210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
cyclin D3 (CCND3) is one of the three D-type cyclins that regulate the G1/S phase transition of the cell cycle. Expression of CCND3 is observed in nearly all proliferating cells; however, the presence of high levels of CCND3 has been linked to a poor prognosis for several types of cancer. Therefore, further mechanistic studies on the regulation of CCND3 expression are urgently needed to provide therapeutic implications. In this study, we report that a conserved RNA G-quadruplex-forming sequence (hereafter CRQ), located in the 5' UTR of mammalian CCND3 mRNA, is able to fold into an extremely stable, intramolecular, parallel G-quadruplex in vitro. The CRQ G-quadruplex dramatically reduces the activity of a reporter gene in human cell lines, but it has little impact on its mRNA level, indicating a translational repression. Moreover, the CRQ sequence in its natural context inhibits translation of CCND3. Disruption of the G-quadruplex structure by G/U-mutation or deletion results in an elevated expression of CCND3 and an increased phosphorylation of Rb, a downstream target of CCND3, which promotes progression of cells through the G1 phase. Our results add to the growing understanding of the regulation of CCND3 expression and provide a potential therapeutic target for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng-You Weng
- Key Laboratory of Gene Engineering of the Ministry of Education, State Key Laboratory for Biocontrol, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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27
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Matsumoto A, Nakayama KI. Role of key regulators of the cell cycle in maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2012; 1830:2335-44. [PMID: 22820018 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2012] [Revised: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are characterized by pluripotentiality and self-renewal ability. To maintain a supply of mature blood cells and to avoid HSC exhaustion during the life span of an organism, most HSCs remain quiescent, with only a limited number entering the cell cycle. SCOPE OF REVIEW The molecular mechanisms by which quiescence is maintained in HSCs are addressed, with recent genetic studies having provided important insight into the relation between the cell cycle activity and stemness of HSCs. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS The cell cycle is tightly regulated in HSCs by complex factors. Key regulators of the cell cycle in other cell types-including cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), the retinoblastoma protein family, the transcription factor E2F, and CDK inhibitors-also contribute to such regulation in HSCs. Most, but not all, of these regulators are necessary for maintenance of HSCs, with abnormal activation or suppression of the cell cycle resulting in HSC exhaustion. The cell cycle in HSCs is also regulated by external factors such as cytokines produced by niche cells as well as by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Studies of the cell cycle in HSCs may shed light on the pathogenesis of hematopoietic disorders, serve as a basis for the development of new therapeutic strategies for such disorders, prove useful for the expansion of HSCs in vitro as a possible replacement for blood transfusion, and provide insight into stem cell biology in general. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Biochemistry of Stem Cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akinobu Matsumoto
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
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Kreisel D, Sugimoto S, Tietjens J, Zhu J, Yamamoto S, Krupnick AS, Carmody RJ, Gelman AE. Bcl3 prevents acute inflammatory lung injury in mice by restraining emergency granulopoiesis. J Clin Invest 2010; 121:265-76. [PMID: 21157041 DOI: 10.1172/jci42596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2010] [Accepted: 10/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Granulocytes are pivotal regulators of tissue injury. However, the transcriptional mechanisms that regulate granulopoiesis under inflammatory conditions are poorly understood. Here we show that the transcriptional coregulator B cell leukemia/lymphoma 3 (Bcl3) limits granulopoiesis under emergency (i.e., inflammatory) conditions, but not homeostatic conditions. Treatment of mouse myeloid progenitors with G-CSF--serum concentrations of which rise under inflammatory conditions--rapidly increased Bcl3 transcript accumulation in a STAT3-dependent manner. Bcl3-deficient myeloid progenitors demonstrated an enhanced capacity to proliferate and differentiate into granulocytes following G-CSF stimulation, whereas the accumulation of Bcl3 protein attenuated granulopoiesis in an NF-κB p50-dependent manner. In a clinically relevant model of transplant-mediated lung ischemia reperfusion injury, expression of Bcl3 in recipients inhibited emergency granulopoiesis and limited acute graft damage. These data demonstrate a critical role for Bcl3 in regulating emergency granulopoiesis and suggest that targeting the differentiation of myeloid progenitors may be a therapeutic strategy for preventing inflammatory lung injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kreisel
- Department of Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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29
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Linkage of the potent leukemogenic activity of Meis1 to cell-cycle entry and transcriptional regulation of cyclin D3. Blood 2010; 115:4071-82. [PMID: 20237320 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2009-06-225573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
MEIS1 is a three-amino acid loop extension class homeodomain-containing homeobox (HOX) cofactor that plays key roles in normal hematopoiesis and leukemogenesis. Expression of Meis1 is rate-limiting in MLL-associated leukemias and potently interacts with Hox and NUP98-HOX genes in leukemic transformation to promote self-renewal and proliferation of hematopoietic progenitors. The oncogenicity of MEIS1 has been linked to its transcriptional activation properties. To further reveal the pathways triggered by Meis1, we assessed the function of a novel engineered fusion form of Meis1, M33-MEIS1, designed to confer transcriptional repression to Meis1 target genes that are otherwise up-regulated in normal and malignant hematopoiesis. Retroviral overexpression of M33-Meis1 resulted in the rapid and complete eradication of M33-Meis1-transduced normal and leukemic cells in vivo. Cell-cycle analysis showed that M33-Meis1 impeded the progression of cells from G(1)-to-S phase, which correlated with significant reduction of cyclin D3 levels and the inhibition of retinoblastoma (pRb) hyperphosphorylation. We identified cyclin D3 as a direct downstream target of MEIS1 and M33-MEIS1 and showed that the G(1)-phase accumulation and growth suppression induced by M33-Meis1 was partially relieved by overexpression of cyclin D3. This study provides strong evidence linking the growth-promoting activities of Meis1 to the cyclin D-pRb cell-cycle control pathway.
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GATA4 is a direct transcriptional activator of cyclin D2 and Cdk4 and is required for cardiomyocyte proliferation in anterior heart field-derived myocardium. Mol Cell Biol 2008; 28:5420-31. [PMID: 18591257 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00717-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The anterior heart field (AHF) comprises a population of mesodermal progenitor cells that are added to the nascent linear heart to give rise to the majority of the right ventricle, interventricular septum, and outflow tract in mammals and birds. The zinc finger transcription factor GATA4 functions as an integral member of the cardiac transcription factor network in the derivatives of the AHF. In addition to its role in cardiac differentiation, GATA4 is also required for cardiomyocyte replication, although the transcriptional targets of GATA4 required for proliferation have not been previously identified. In the present study, we disrupted Gata4 function exclusively in the AHF and its derivatives. Gata4 AHF knockout mice die by embryonic day 13.5 and exhibit hypoplasia of the right ventricular myocardium and interventricular septum and display profound ventricular septal defects. Loss of Gata4 function in the AHF results in decreased myocyte proliferation in the right ventricle, and we identified numerous cell cycle genes that are dependent on Gata4 by microarray analysis. We show that GATA4 is required for cyclin D2, cyclin A2, and Cdk4 expression in the right ventricle and that the Cyclin D2 and Cdk4 promoters are bound and activated by GATA4 via multiple consensus GATA binding sites in each gene's proximal promoter. These findings establish Cyclin D2 and Cdk4 as direct transcriptional targets of GATA4 and support a model in which GATA4 controls cardiomyocyte proliferation by coordinately regulating numerous cell cycle genes.
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Panopoulos AD, Watowich SS. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor: molecular mechanisms of action during steady state and 'emergency' hematopoiesis. Cytokine 2008; 42:277-88. [PMID: 18400509 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2008.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2007] [Revised: 02/14/2008] [Accepted: 03/03/2008] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Neutrophils are phagocytes whose principal function is to maintain anti-bacterial immunity. Neutrophils ingest and kill invading bacteria, releasing cytotoxic, chemotactic and inflammatory mediators at sites of infection. This serves to control the immediate host immune response and attract other cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, which are important for establishing long-term adaptive immunity. Neutrophils thus contribute to both the initiation and the maintenance of inflammation at sites of infection. Aberrant neutrophil activity is deleterious; suppressed responses can cause extreme susceptibility to infection while overactivation can lead to excessive inflammation and tissue damage. This review will focus on neutrophil regulation by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), the principal cytokine controlling neutrophil development and function. The review will emphasize the molecular aspects of G-CSF-driven granulopoiesis in steady state (healthy) conditions and during demand-driven or 'emergency' conditions elicited by infection or clinical administration of G-CSF. Understanding the molecular control of granulopoiesis will aid in the development of new approaches designed to treat disorders of neutrophil production and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athanasia D Panopoulos
- Department of Immunology and Center for Cancer Immunology Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, PO Box 301402, Unit 902, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Cellot S, Krosl J, Chagraoui J, Meloche S, Humphries RK, Sauvageau G. Sustained in vitro trigger of self-renewal divisions in Hoxb4hiPbx1(10) hematopoietic stem cells. Exp Hematol 2007; 35:802-16. [PMID: 17577929 PMCID: PMC2752385 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2007.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Factors that trigger and sustain self-renewal divisions in tissue stem cells remain poorly characterized. By modulating the levels of Hoxb4 and its co-factor Pbxl in primary hematopoietic cells (Hoxb4hiPbxl(10) cells), we report an in vitro expansion of mouse hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) by 105-fold over 2 weeks, with subsequent preservation of HSC properties. Clonal analyses of the hematopoietic system in recipients of expanded HSCs indicate that up to 70% of Hoxb4hiPbxl(10) stem cells present at initiation of culture underwent self-renewal in vitro. In this setting, Hoxb4 and its co-factor did not promote an increase in DNA synthesis, or a decrease in doubling time of Scal+Lin- cells when compared to controls. Q-PCR analyses further revealed a downregulation of Cdknlb (p27Kipl) and Mxdl (MadI) transcript levels in Hoxb4hiPbxl(l0) primitive cells, accompanied by a more subtle increase in c-myc and reduction in Ccnd3 (Cyclin D3). We thus put forward this strategy as an efficient in vitro HSC expansion tool, enabling a further step into the avenue of self-renewal molecular effectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Cellot
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics of Stem Cells, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), C.P. 6128 succursale Centre-Ville, Montréal, Québec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Jana Krosl
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics of Stem Cells, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), C.P. 6128 succursale Centre-Ville, Montréal, Québec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Jalila Chagraoui
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics of Stem Cells, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), C.P. 6128 succursale Centre-Ville, Montréal, Québec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Sylvain Meloche
- Signaling and Cell Growth, Institut de Recherche en Immunologie et Cancérologie (IRIC), C.P. 6128 succursale Centre-Ville, Montréal, Québec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Departments of Molecular Biology and Pharmacology, Université de Montréal
| | - R. Keith Humphries
- Terry Fox Laboratories, British Columbia Cancer Agency, Vancouver, British Columbia and Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia
| | - Guy Sauvageau
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics of Stem Cells, Institute for Research in Immunology and Cancer (IRIC), C.P. 6128 succursale Centre-Ville, Montréal, Québec H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Medicine and Division of Hematology and Leukemia Cell Bank of Quebec, Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Bibliography. Current world literature. Myositis and myopathies. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2007; 19:651-3. [PMID: 17917548 DOI: 10.1097/bor.0b013e3282f20347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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De Santa F, Albini S, Mezzaroma E, Baron L, Felsani A, Caruso M. pRb-dependent cyclin D3 protein stabilization is required for myogenic differentiation. Mol Cell Biol 2007; 27:7248-65. [PMID: 17709384 PMCID: PMC2168908 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.02199-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The expression of retinoblastoma (pRb) and cyclin D3 proteins is highly induced during the process of skeletal myoblast differentiation. We have previously shown that cyclin D3 is nearly totally associated with hypophosphorylated pRb in differentiated myotubes, whereas Rb-/- myocytes fail to accumulate the cyclin D3 protein despite normal induction of cyclin D3 mRNA. Here we report that pRb promotes cyclin D3 protein accumulation in differentiating myoblasts by preventing cyclin D3 degradation. We show that cyclin D3 displays rapid turnover in proliferating myoblasts, which is positively regulated through glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK-3beta)-mediated phosphorylation of cyclin D3 on Thr-283. We describe a novel interaction between pRb and cyclin D3 that maps to the C terminus of pRb and to a region of cyclin D3 proximal to the Thr-283 residue and provide evidence that the pRb-cyclin D3 complex formation in terminally differentiated myotubes hinders the access of GSK-3beta to cyclin D3, thus inhibiting Thr-283 phosphorylation. Interestingly, we observed that the ectopic expression of a stabilized cyclin D3 mutant in C2 myoblasts enhances muscle-specific gene expression; conversely, cyclin D3-null embryonic fibroblasts display impaired MyoD-induced myogenic differentiation. These results indicate that the pRb-dependent accumulation of cyclin D3 is functionally relevant to the process of skeletal muscle cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca De Santa
- CNR-Istituto di Neurobiologia e Medicina Molecolare, Fondazione S. Lucia, Via Fosso di Fiorano, 64-00143 Roma, Italy
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Myatt SS, Lam EWF. Promiscuous and lineage-specific roles of cell cycle regulators in haematopoiesis. Cell Div 2007; 2:6. [PMID: 17295909 PMCID: PMC1802072 DOI: 10.1186/1747-1028-2-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Accepted: 02/12/2007] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Haematopoietic cell number is maintained by a delicate balance between cell proliferation, differentiation and death. Gene knockout studies in mice have revealed the complex roles of cyclins, CDKs, and CDK inhibitors in regulating cell proliferation and differentiation in the haematopoietic system. These studies point to families of cell cycle regulators which display both redundant and unique roles within a lineage and developmental-stage specific manner. Moreover, the promiscuity of these cell cycle regulators is critical for haematopoietic cell proliferation and differentiation. In this review, we discuss the current evidence from mouse models that the complexity and multifarious nature of the haematopoietic system is critical for its form and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen S Myatt
- Cancer Research-UK labs, Department of Oncology, MRC Cyclotron Building, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - Eric W-F Lam
- Cancer Research-UK labs, Department of Oncology, MRC Cyclotron Building, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
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Bockstaele L, Coulonval K, Kooken H, Paternot S, Roger PP. Regulation of CDK4. Cell Div 2006; 1:25. [PMID: 17092340 PMCID: PMC1647274 DOI: 10.1186/1747-1028-1-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2006] [Accepted: 11/08/2006] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)4 is a master integrator that couples mitogenic and antimitogenic extracellular signals with the cell cycle. It is also crucial for many oncogenic transformation processes. In this overview, we address various molecular features of CDK4 activation that are critical but remain poorly known or debated, including the regulation of its association with D-type cyclins, its subcellular location, its activating Thr172-phosphorylation and the roles of Cip/Kip CDK "inhibitors" in these processes. We have recently identified the T-loop phosphorylation of CDK4, but not of CDK6, as a determining target for cell cycle control by extracellular factors, indicating that CDK4-activating kinase(s) might have to be reconsidered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Bockstaele
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Research (IRIBHM), Faculté de Médecine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Campus Erasme, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Katia Coulonval
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Research (IRIBHM), Faculté de Médecine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Campus Erasme, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Hugues Kooken
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Research (IRIBHM), Faculté de Médecine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Campus Erasme, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sabine Paternot
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Research (IRIBHM), Faculté de Médecine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Campus Erasme, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Pierre P Roger
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Research (IRIBHM), Faculté de Médecine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Campus Erasme, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium
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