Btg2 enhances retinoic acid-induced differentiation by modulating histone H4 methylation and acetylation

miR-103-3p Regulates the Proliferation and Differentiation of C2C12 Myoblasts by Targeting BTG2

Skeletal muscle, a vital and intricate organ, plays a pivotal role in maintaining overall body metabolism, facilitating movement, and supporting normal daily activities. An accumulating body of evidence suggests that microRNA (miRNA) holds a crucial role in orchestrating skeletal muscle growth. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to investigate the influence of miR-103-3p on myogenesis. In our study, the overexpression of miR-103-3p was found to stimulate proliferation while suppressing differentiation in C2C12 myoblasts. Conversely, the inhibition of miR-103-3p expression yielded contrasting effects. Through bioinformatics analysis, potential binding sites of miR-103-3p with the 3'UTR region of BTG anti-proliferative factor 2 (BTG2) were predicted. Subsequently, dual luciferase assays conclusively demonstrated BTG2 as the direct target gene of miR-103-3p. Further investigation into the role of BTG2 in C2C12 myoblasts unveiled that its overexpression impeded proliferation and encouraged differentiation in these cells. Notably, co-transfection experiments showcased that the overexpression of BTG2 could counteract the effects induced by miR-103-3p. In summary, our findings elucidate that miR-103-3p promotes proliferation while inhibiting differentiation in C2C12 myoblasts by targeting BTG2.

The Cxcr2+ subset of the S100a8+ gastric granylocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cell population (G-MDSC) regulates gastric pathology

Introduction

Gastric myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a prominent population that expands during gastric pre-neoplastic and neoplastic development in humans and mice. However, the heterogeneity of this population has circumvented the ability to study these cells or understand their functions. Aside from Schlafen-4+ (Slfn-4+) MDSCs in mouse studies, which constitute a subset of this population, limitations exist in characterizing the heterogeneity of the gastric CD11b+Ly6G+ population and targeting its different subsets. Here we identify S100a8 as a pan-specific marker for this population and utilize it to study the role of the S100a8+Cxcr2+ subset.

Methods

We profiled gastric CD11b+Ly6G+ versus CD11b+Ly6G- myeloid cells by transcriptomic and single-cell RNA sequencing. We identified S100a8 as a pan-specific marker of the gastric granulocytic MDSC (G-MDSC) population, and generated S100a8CreCxcr2flox/flox to study the effects of Cxcr2 knockdown.

Results

Following 6-months of Helicobacter felis infection, gastric CD11b+Ly6G+ G-MDSCs were highly enriched for the expression of S100a8, S100a9, Slfn4, Cxcr2, Irg1, Il1f9, Hcar2, Retnlg, Wfdc21, Trem1, Csf3R, Nlrp3, and Il1b. The expression of these distinct genes following 6mo H. felis infection marked heterogeneous subpopulations, but they all represented a subset of S100a8+ cells. S100a8 was identified as a pan-marker for CD11b+Ly6G+ cells arising in chronic inflammation, but not neutrophils recruited during acute gut infection. 6mo Helicobacter felis-infected S100a8CreCxcr2flox/flox mice exhibited worsened gastric metaplastic pathology than Cxcr2flox/flox mice, which was associated with dysregulated lipid metabolism and peroxidation.

Conclusion

S100a8 is a pan-specific marker that can be used to target gastric G-MDSC subpopulations, of which the Cxcr2+ subset regulates gastric immunopathology and associates with the regulation of lipid peroxidation.

Btg2 mutation induces renal injury and impairs blood pressure control in female rats

Hypertension (HTN) is a complex disease influenced by heritable genetic elements and environmental interactions. Dietary salt is among the most influential modifiable factors contributing to increased blood pressure (BP). It is well established that men and women develop BP impairment in different patterns and a recent emphasis has been placed on identifying mechanisms leading to the differences observed between the sexes in HTN development. The current work reported here builds on an extensive genetic mapping experiment which sought to identify genetic determinants of salt sensitive (SS) HTN using the Dahl SS rat. BTG anti-proliferation factor 2 (Btg2) was previously identified by our group as a candidate gene contributing to SS HTN in female rats. In the current study, Btg2 was mutated using TALEN targeted gene disruption on the SSBN congenic rat background. The Btg2 mutated rats exhibited impaired BP and proteinuria responses to a high salt diet compared to wild type rats. Differences in body weight, mutant pup viability, skeletal morphology, and adult nephron density suggest a potential role for Btg2 in developmental signaling pathways. Subsequent cell cycle gene expression assessment provides several additional signaling pathways that Btg2 may function through during salt handling in the kidney. The expression analysis also identified several potential upstream targets that can be explored to further isolate therapeutic approaches for SS HTN.

BTG2 Serves as a Potential Prognostic Marker and Correlates with Immune Infiltration in Lung Adenocarcinoma

Background

B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2) has been revealed to be involved in the occurrence and development of multiple cancers. However, the role of BTG2 in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is still ambiguous. Thus, this study aims to investigate the prognostic value of BTG2 and its correlation with immune infiltration in LUAD.

Methods

The expression of BTG2 in LUAD was analyzed using the TIMER and UALCAN databases. The correlations between BTG2 expression and clinicopathological factors were investigated using the UALCAN databases. The Kaplan–Meier plotter, GEPIA, and TCGA databases were employed to assess the prognostic value of BTG2. The STRING database and Cytoscape software were used to construct an interaction network and mine co-expression genes. The TISIDB database was examined for a correlation between BTG2 and driver genes in LUAD. Enrichment analysis of co-expressed genes and BTG2 was performed using the LinkedOmics database. Finally, the correlations between BTG2 and immune infiltrates were investigated using the TIMER, GEO, and TISIDB database.

Results

BTG2 was significantly downregulated in LUAD. The decreased expression of BTG2 in LUAD was significantly correlated with higher cancer stages and shorter duration of overall survival. The expressions of BTG2-related co-expression genes were associated with the prognosis in LUAD. The expression of BTG2 was closely associated with the mutations of TP53 and ROS1. Enrichment analysis revealed that BTG2 was significantly correlated with immune‐associated signaling pathways and function. In addition, the expression of BTG2 was found to be closely related to immune infiltration, multiple gene markers of immune cells, chemokines, and chemokine receptors.

Conclusion

Our findings have effectively demonstrated that BTG2 expression was downregulated in LUAD, indicating poor prognosis. Closely relating to immune cell infiltration, BTG2 may be a promising immune-related biomarker and molecular target for patients with LUAD.

Noninvasive Low-Frequency Pulsed Focused Ultrasound Therapy for Rheumatoid Arthritis in Mice

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common autoimmune disease characterized by chronic and progressive inflammation of the synovium. Focused ultrasound therapy is an increasingly attractive alternative for treating RA owing to its noninvasiveness; however, it remains unclear which immune subsets respond to ultrasound stimulation. In this study, we showed that spleen-targeted low-frequency pulsed focused ultrasound (LFPFU) effectively improved the severity of arthritis in an arthritis mouse model established in DBA/1J mice. Additionally, we performed in-depth immune profiling of spleen samples from RA mice, RA mice that underwent ultrasound therapy, and healthy controls using mass cytometry along with extensive antibody panels and identified the immune composition of 14 cell populations, including CD4 + /CD8 + T cells, B cells, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells. Moreover, multidimensional analysis according to cell-surface markers and phenotypes helped in identifying 4 and 5 cell subpopulations among T and myeloid cells, respectively, with 6 T cell subsets and 3 myeloid cell subsets responsive to ultrasound therapy among the 3 groups. Of these cell subsets, CD8 + T cell subsets showed a unique response to ultrasound stimulation in RA mice. Specifically, CD8 + T cells show a noticeable correlation with the degree of arthritis progression and could serve as an indicator for spleen-focused ultrasound-based therapy. Furthermore, single-cell RNA sequencing of spleen cells revealed the importance of T, B, and myeloid cell populations in the anti-inflammatory pathway. These results elucidated the unique cell subsets and transcriptome of splenic cells responsive to LFPFU and demonstrated the potential of spleen-focused ultrasound stimulation in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

A conserved motif in human BTG1 and BTG2 proteins mediates interaction with the poly(A) binding protein PABPC1 to stimulate mRNA deadenylation

Antiproliferative BTG/Tob proteins interact directly with the CAF1 deadenylase subunit of the CCR4-NOT complex. This binding requires the presence of two conserved motifs, boxA and boxB, characteristic of the BTG/Tob APRO domain. Consistently, these proteins were shown to stimulate mRNA deadenylation and decay in several instances. Two members of the family, BTG1 and BTG2, were reported further to associate with the protein arginine methyltransferase PRMT1 through a motif, boxC, conserved only in this subset of proteins. We recently demonstrated that BTG1 and BTG2 also contact the first RRM domain of the cytoplasmic poly(A) binding protein PABPC1. To decipher the mode of interaction of BTG1 and BTG2 with partners, we performed nuclear magnetic resonance experiments as well as mutational and biochemical analyses. Our data demonstrate that, in the context of an APRO domain, the boxC motif is necessary and sufficient to allow interaction with PABPC1 but, unexpectedly, that it is not required for BTG2 association with PRMT1. We show further that the presence of a boxC motif in an APRO domain endows it with the ability to stimulate deadenylation in cellulo and in vitro. Overall, our results identify the molecular interface allowing BTG1 and BTG2 to activate deadenylation, a process recently shown to be necessary for maintaining T-cell quiescence.

Therapeutic Use of Valproic Acid and All-Trans Retinoic Acid in Acute Myeloid Leukemia-Literature Review and Discussion of Possible Use in Relapse after Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation

Even though allogeneic stem cell transplantation is the most intensive treatment for acute myeloid leukemia (AML), chemo-resistant leukemia relapse is still one of the most common causes of death for these patients, as is transplant-related mortality, i.e., graft versus host disease, infections, and organ damage. These relapse patients are not always candidates for additional intensive therapy or re-transplantation, and many of them have decreased quality of life and shortened expected survival. The efficiency of azacitidine for treatment of posttransplant AML relapse has been documented in several clinical trials. Valproic acid is an antiepileptic fatty acid that exerts antileukemic activity through histone deacetylase inhibition. The combination of valproic acid and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) is well tolerated even by unfit or elderly AML patients, and low-toxicity chemotherapy (e.g., azacitidine) can be added to this combination. The triple combination of azacitidine, valproic acid, and ATRA may therefore represent a low-intensity and low-toxicity alternative for these patients. In the present review, we review and discuss the general experience with valproic acid/ATRA in AML therapy and we discuss its possible use in low-intensity/toxicity treatment of post-allotransplant AML relapse. Our discussion is further illustrated by four case reports where combined treatments with sequential azacitidine/hydroxyurea, valproic acid, and ATRA were used.

Deletion of B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2) alters the responses of glial cells in white matter to chronic cerebral hypoperfusion

BACKGROUND

Subcortical ischemic vascular dementia, one of the major subtypes of vascular dementia, is characterized by lacunar infarcts and white matter lesions caused by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. In this study, we used a mouse model of bilateral common carotid artery stenosis (BCAS) to investigate the role of B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2), an antiproliferation gene, in the white matter glial response to chronic cerebral hypoperfusion.

METHODS

Btg2-/- mice and littermate wild-type control mice underwent BCAS or sham operation. Behavior phenotypes were assessed by open-field test and Morris water maze test. Brain tissues were analyzed for the degree of white matter lesions and glial changes. To further confirm the effects of Btg2 deletion on proliferation of glial cells in vitro, BrdU incorporation was investigated in mixed glial cells derived from wild-type and Btg2-/- mice.

RESULTS

Relative to wild-type mice with or without BCAS, BCAS-treated Btg2-/- mice exhibited elevated spontaneous locomotor activity and poorer spatial learning ability. Although the severities of white matter lesions did not significantly differ between wild-type and Btg2-/- mice after BCAS, the immunoreactivities of GFAP, a marker of astrocytes, and Mac2, a marker of activated microglia and macrophages, in the white matter of the optic tract were higher in BCAS-treated Btg2-/- mice than in BCAS-treated wild-type mice. The expression level of Gfap was also significantly elevated in BCAS-treated Btg2-/- mice. In vitro analysis showed that BrdU incorporation in mixed glial cells in response to inflammatory stimulation associated with cerebral hypoperfusion was higher in Btg2-/- mice than in wild-type mice.

CONCLUSION

BTG2 negatively regulates glial cell proliferation in response to cerebral hypoperfusion, resulting in behavioral changes.

Prenatal androgen exposure causes a sexually dimorphic transgenerational increase in offspring susceptibility to anxiety disorders

If and how obesity and elevated androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affect their offspring's psychiatric health is unclear. Using data from Swedish population health registers, we showed that daughters of mothers with PCOS have a 78% increased risk of being diagnosed with anxiety disorders. We next generated a PCOS-like mouse (F₀) model induced by androgen exposure during late gestation, with or without diet-induced maternal obesity, and showed that the first generation (F₁) female offspring develop anxiety-like behavior, which is transgenerationally transmitted through the female germline into the third generation of female offspring (F₃) in the androgenized lineage. In contrast, following the male germline, F₃ male offspring (mF₃) displayed anxiety-like behavior in the androgenized and the obese lineages. Using a targeted approach to search for molecular targets within the amygdala, we identified five differentially expressed genes involved in anxiety-like behavior in F₃ females in the androgenized lineage and eight genes in the obese lineage. In mF₃ male offspring, three genes were dysregulated in the obese lineage but none in the androgenized lineage. Finally, we performed in vitro fertilization (IVF) using a PCOS mouse model of continuous androgen exposure. We showed that the IVF generated F₁ and F₂ offspring in the female germline did not develop anxiety-like behavior, while the F₂ male offspring (mF₂) in the male germline did. Our findings provide evidence that elevated maternal androgens in PCOS and maternal obesity may underlie the risk of a transgenerational transmission of anxiety disorders in children of women with PCOS.

The AAA+ATPase RUVBL2 is essential for the oncogenic function of c-MYB in acute myeloid leukemia

Subtype-specific leukemia oncogenes drive aberrant gene expression profiles that converge on common essential mediators to ensure leukemia self-renewal and inhibition of differentiation. The transcription factor c-MYB functions as one such mediator in a diverse range of leukemias. Here we show for the first time that transcriptional repression of myeloid differentiation associated c-MYB target genes in AML is enforced by the AAA+ ATPase RUVBL2. Silencing RUVBL2 expression resulted in increased binding of c-MYB to these loci and their transcriptional activation. RUVBL2 inhibition resulted in AML cell apoptosis and severely impaired disease progression of established AML in engrafted mice. In contrast, such inhibition had little impact on normal hematopoietic progenitor differentiation. These data demonstrate that RUVBL2 is essential for the oncogenic function of c-MYB in AML by governing inhibition of myeloid differentiation. They also indicate that targeting the control of c-MYB function by RUVBL2 is a promising approach to developing future anti-AML therapies.

Tumor suppressors BTG1 and BTG2: Beyond growth control

Since the identification of B‐cell translocation gene 1 (BTG1) and BTG2 as antiproliferation genes more than two decades ago, their protein products have been implicated in a variety of cellular processes including cell division, DNA repair, transcriptional regulation and messenger RNA stability. In addition to affecting differentiation during development and in the adult, BTG proteins play an important role in maintaining homeostasis under conditions of cellular stress. Genomic profiling of B‐cell leukemia and lymphoma has put BTG1 and BTG2 in the spotlight, since both genes are frequently deleted or mutated in these malignancies, pointing towards a role as tumor suppressors. Moreover, in solid tumors, reduced expression of BTG1 or BTG2 is often correlated with malignant cell behavior and poor treatment outcome. Recent studies have uncovered novel roles for BTG1 and BTG2 in genotoxic and integrated stress responses, as well as during hematopoiesis. This review summarizes what is currently known about the roles of BTG1 and BTG2 in these and other cellular processes. In addition, we will highlight the molecular mechanisms and biological consequences of BTG1 and BTG2 deregulation during cancer progression and elaborate on the potential clinical implications of these findings.

A multi-omic study reveals BTG2 as a reliable prognostic marker for early-stage non-small cell lung cancer

B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2) is a tumour suppressor protein known to be downregulated in several types of cancer. In this study, we investigated a potential role for BTG2 in early-stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) survival. We analysed BTG2 methylation data from 1230 early-stage NSCLC patients from five international cohorts, as well as gene expression data from 3038 lung cancer cases from multiple cohorts. Three CpG probes (cg01798157, cg06373167, cg23371584) that detected BTG2 hypermethylation in tumour tissues were associated with lower overall survival. The prognostic model based on methylation could distinguish patient survival in the four cohorts [hazard ratio (HR) range, 1.51-2.21] and the independent validation set (HR = 1.85). In the expression analysis, BTG2 expression was positively correlated with survival in each cohort (HR range, 0.28-0.68), which we confirmed with meta-analysis (HR = 0.61, 95% CI 0.54-0.68). The three CpG probes were all negatively correlated with BTG2 expression. Importantly, an integrative model of BTG2 methylation, expression and clinical information showed better predictive ability in the training set and validation set. In conclusion, the methylation and integrated prognostic signatures based on BTG2 are stable and reliable biomarkers for early-stage NSCLC. They may have new applications for appropriate clinical adjuvant trials and personalized treatments in the future.

PPARα-Target Gene Expression Requires TIS21/BTG2 Gene in Liver of the C57BL/6 Mice under Fasting Condition

The TIS21/BTG2/PC3 gene belongs to the antiproliferative gene (APRO) family and exhibits tumor suppressive activity. However, here we report that TIS21 controls lipid metabolism, rather than cell proliferation, under fasting condition. Using microarray analysis, whole gene expression changes were investigated in liver of TIS21 knockout (TIS21-KO) mice after 20 h fasting and compared with wild type (WT). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) target gene expression was almost absent in contrast to increased lipid synthesis in the TIS21-KO mice compared to WT mice. Immunohistochemistry with hematoxylin and eosin staining revealed that lipid deposition was focal in the TIS21-KO liver as opposed to the diffuse and homogeneous pattern in the WT liver after 24 h starvation. In addition, cathepsin E expression was over 10 times higher in the TIS21-KO liver than that in the WT, as opposed to the significant reduction of thioltransferase in both adult and fetal livers. At present, we cannot account for the role of cathepsin E. However, downregulation of glutaredoxin 2 thioltransferase expression might affect hypoxic damage in the TIS21-KO liver. We suggest that the TIS21/BTG2 gene might be essential to maintain energy metabolism and reducing power in the liver under fasting condition.

Neuropathic pain promotes adaptive changes in gene expression in brain networks involved in stress and depression

Neuropathic pain is a complex chronic condition characterized by various sensory, cognitive, and affective symptoms. A large percentage of patients with neuropathic pain are also afflicted with depression and anxiety disorders, a pattern that is also seen in animal models. Furthermore, clinical and preclinical studies indicate that chronic pain corresponds with adaptations in several brain networks involved in mood, motivation, and reward. Chronic stress is also a major risk factor for depression. We investigated whether chronic pain and stress affect similar molecular mechanisms and whether chronic pain can affect gene expression patterns that are involved in depression. Using two mouse models of neuropathic pain and depression [spared nerve injury (SNI) and chronic unpredictable stress (CUS)], we performed next-generation RNA sequencing and pathway analysis to monitor changes in gene expression in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and the periaqueductal gray (PAG). In addition to finding unique transcriptome profiles across these regions, we identified a substantial number of signaling pathway-associated genes with similar changes in expression in both SNI and CUS mice. Many of these genes have been implicated in depression, anxiety, and chronic pain in patients. Our study provides a resource of the changes in gene expression induced by long-term neuropathic pain in three distinct brain regions and reveals molecular connections between pain and chronic stress.

HDAC1, HDAC4, and HDAC9 Bind to PC3/Tis21/Btg2 and Are Required for Its Inhibition of Cell Cycle Progression and Cyclin D1 Expression

PC3/Tis21 is a transcriptional cofactor that inhibits proliferation in several cell types, including neural progenitors. Here, we report that PC3/Tis21 associates with HDAC1, HDAC4, and HDAC9 in vivo, in fibroblast cells. Furthermore, when HDAC1, HDAC4, or HDAC9 are silenced in fibroblasts or in a line of cerebellar progenitor cells, the ability of PC3/Tis21 to inhibit proliferation is significantly reduced. Overexpression of HDAC1, HDAC4, or HDAC9 in fibroblasts and in cerebellar precursor cells synergizes with PC3/Tis21 in inhibiting the expression of cyclin D1, a cyclin selectively inhibited by PC3/Tis21. Conversely, the depletion of HDAC1 or HDAC4 (but not HDAC9) in fibroblasts and in cerebellar precursor cells significantly impairs the ability of PC3/Tis21 to inhibit cyclin D1 expression. An analysis of HDAC4 deletion mutants shows that both the amino-terminal moiety and the catalytic domain of HDAC4 associate to PC3/Tis21, but neither alone is sufficient to potentiate the inhibition of cyclin D1 by PC3/Tis21. As a whole, our findings indicate that PC3/Tis21 inhibits cell proliferation in a way dependent on the presence of HDACs, in fibroblasts as well as in neural cells. Considering that several reports have demonstrated that HDACs can act as transcriptional corepressors on the cyclin D1 promoter, our data suggest that the association of PC3/Tis21 to HDACs is functional to recruit them to target genes, such as cyclin D1, for repression of their expression. J. Cell. Physiol. 232: 1696-1707, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Concerted action of histone methyltransferases G9a and PRMT-1 regulates PGC-1α-RIG-I axis in IFNγ treated glioma cells

IFNγ induced de-differentiation markers are negatively regulated by retinoic acid inducible gene (RIG-I) in glioma cells. In addition to RIG-I, IFNγ treatment increased H3K9me2; histone methyltransferases (HMTs) G9a and protein arginine methyltransferase-1 (PRMT-1) levels. While G9a inhibition further increased IFNγ induced RIG-I, PRMT-1 inhibition abrogated IFNγ elevated RIG-I levels. IFNγ induced Sp1 and NFκB served as negative regulators of RIG-I, with decreased occupancy of Sp1 and NFκB observed on the RIG-I promoter. A diminished H3K9Me2 enrichment was observed at the NFκB but not at Sp-1 binding site. IFNγ induced PPAR gamma coactivator-1 alpha (PGC-1α) positively regulated RIG-I; with PRMT-1 and G9a affecting PGC-1α in a counter-regulatory manner. These findings demonstrate how concerted action of HMTs aid PGC-1α driven RIG-I for the sustenance of glioma cells in a de-differentiated state.

Btg2 is a Negative Regulator of Cardiomyocyte Hypertrophy through a Decrease in Cytosolic RNA

Under hypertrophic stimulation, cardiomyocytes enter a hypermetabolic state and accelerate biomass accumulation. Although the molecular pathways that regulate protein levels are well-studied, the functional implications of RNA accumulation and its regulatory mechanisms in cardiomyocytes remain elusive. Here, we have elucidated the quantitative kinetics of RNA in cardiomyocytes through single cell imaging and c-Myc (Myc)-mediated hypermetabolic analytical model using cultured cardiomyocytes. Nascent RNA labeling combined with single cell imaging demonstrated that Myc protein significantly increased the amount of global RNA production per cardiomyocyte. Chromatin immunoprecipitation with high-throughput sequencing clarified that overexpressed Myc bound to a specific set of genes and recruits RNA polymerase II. Among these genes, we identified Btg2 as a novel target of Myc. Btg2 overexpression significantly reduced cardiomyocyte surface area. Conversely, shRNA-mediated knockdown of Btg2 accelerated adrenergic stimulus-induced hypertrophy. Using mass spectrometry analysis, we determined that Btg2 binds a series of proteins that comprise mRNA deadenylation complexes. Intriguingly, Btg2 specifically suppresses cytosolic, but not nuclear, RNA levels. Btg2 knockdown further enhances cytosolic RNA accumulation in cardiomyocytes under adrenergic stimulation, suggesting that Btg2 negatively regulates reactive hypertrophy by negatively regulating RNA accumulation. Our findings provide insight into the functional significance of the mechanisms regulating RNA levels in cardiomyocytes.

BTG2 bridges PABPC1 RNA-binding domains and CAF1 deadenylase to control cell proliferation

While BTG2 plays an important role in cellular differentiation and cancer, its precise molecular function remains unclear. BTG2 interacts with CAF1 deadenylase through its APRO domain, a defining feature of BTG/Tob factors. Our previous experiments revealed that expression of BTG2 promoted mRNA poly(A) tail shortening through an undefined mechanism. Here we report that the APRO domain of BTG2 interacts directly with the first RRM domain of the poly(A)-binding protein PABPC1. Moreover, PABPC1 RRM and BTG2 APRO domains are sufficient to stimulate CAF1 deadenylase activity in vitro in the absence of other CCR4–NOT complex subunits. Our results unravel thus the mechanism by which BTG2 stimulates mRNA deadenylation, demonstrating its direct role in poly(A) tail length control. Importantly, we also show that the interaction of BTG2 with the first RRM domain of PABPC1 is required for BTG2 to control cell proliferation.

BTG2 promotes mRNA poly(A) tail shortening and regulates cellular differentiation. Here, Stupfler et al. show that the BTG2 APRO domain interacts with PABPC1 RRM1, allowing the former to recruit and stimulate the poly(A) tail shortening activity of CAF1 deadenylase and to control cell proliferation.

Retinoids and motor neuron disease: Potential role in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is the most common neurodegenerative disease affecting motor neurons (MN). This fatal disease is characterized by progressive muscular atrophy and unfortunately it does not have an effective treatment. Although a small proportion of ALS cases have a familiar origin, the vast majority of them are thought to have a sporadic origin. Although the pathogenesis of ALS has not been fully elucidated, various disorders in different cellular functions such as gene expression, protein metabolism, axonal transport and glial cell disorders have been linked to MN degeneration. Among them, proteostasis is one of the best studied. Retinoids are vitamin A-derived substances that play a crucial role in embryogenesis, development, programmed cell death and other cellular functions. Retinoid agonists behave as transcription factors throughout the activation of the nuclear retinoid receptors. Several reports in the literature suggest that retinoids are involved in proteostasis regulation, by modulating its two major pathways, the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the autophagy-lysosome response. Additionally, there are some evidences for a role of retinoids themselves, in ALS pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss the importance of proteostasis disruption as a trigger for MN degeneration and the capability of retinoids to modulate it, as well as the potential therapeutic role of retinoids as a new therapy in ALS.

Retinoic acid signaling and neuronal differentiation

The identification of neurological symptoms caused by vitamin A deficiency pointed to a critical, early developmental role of vitamin A and its metabolite, retinoic acid (RA). The ability of RA to induce post-mitotic, neural phenotypes in various stem cells, in vitro, served as early evidence that RA is involved in the switch between proliferation and differentiation. In vivo studies have expanded this "opposing signal" model, and the number of primary neurons an embryo develops is now known to depend critically on the levels and spatial distribution of RA. The proneural and neurogenic transcription factors that control the exit of neural progenitors from the cell cycle and allow primary neurons to develop are partly elucidated, but the downstream effectors of RA receptor (RAR) signaling (many of which are putative cell cycle regulators) remain largely unidentified. The molecular mechanisms underlying RA-induced primary neurogenesis in anamniote embryos are starting to be revealed; however, these data have been not been extended to amniote embryos. There is growing evidence that bona fide RARs are found in some mollusks and other invertebrates, but little is known about their necessity or functions in neurogenesis. One normal function of RA is to regulate the cell cycle to halt proliferation, and loss of RA signaling is associated with dedifferentiation and the development of cancer. Identifying the genes and pathways that mediate cell cycle exit downstream of RA will be critical for our understanding of how to target tumor differentiation. Overall, elucidating the molecular details of RAR-regulated neurogenesis will be decisive for developing and understanding neural proliferation-differentiation switches throughout development.

Accumulation of cytolytic CD8+ T cells in B16-melanoma and proliferation of mature T cells in TIS21-knockout mice after T cell receptor stimulation

In vivo and in vitro effects of TIS21 gene on the mature T cell activation and antitumor activities were explored by employing MO5 melanoma orthograft and splenocytes isolated from the TIS21-knockout (KO)(2) mice. Proliferation and survival of mature T cells were significantly increased in the KO than the wild type (WT3)e cells, indicating that TIS21 inhibits the rate of mature T cell proliferation and its survival. In MO5 melanoma orthograft model, the KO mice recruited much more CD8(+) T cells into the tumors at around day 14 after tumor cell injection along with reduced tumor volumes compared with the WT. The increased frequency of granzyme B+ CD8+ T cells in splenocytes of the KO mice compared with the WT may account for antitumor-immunity of TIS21 gene in the melanoma orthograft. In contrast, reduced frequencies of CD107a+ CD8+ T cells in the splenocytes of KO mice may affect the loss of CD8+ T cell infiltration in the orthograft at around day 19. These results indicate that TIS21 exhibits antiproliferative and proapoptotic effects in mature T cells, and differentially affects the frequencies of granzyme B+ CD8+ T-cells and CD107a+ CD8+ T-cells, thus transiently regulating in vivo anti-tumor immunity.

Protein methylation and interaction with the antiproliferative gene, BTG2/TIS21/Pc3

The last one and half a decade witnessed an outstanding re-emergence of attention and remarkable progress in the field of protein methylation. In the present article, we describe the early discoveries in research and review the role protein methylation played in the biological function of the antiproliferative gene, BTG2/TIS21/PC3.

Histone H3K27 trimethylation inhibits H3 binding and function of SET1-like H3K4 methyltransferase complexes

Trimethylated histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) and H3K27 generally mark transcriptionally active and repressive chromatins, respectively. In most cell types, these two modifications are mutually exclusive, and this segregation is crucial for the regulation of gene expression. However, how this anticorrelation is achieved has not been fully understood. Here, we show that removal of the H3K27 trimethyl mark facilitates recruitment of SET1-like H3K4 methyltransferase complexes to their target genes by eliciting a novel interaction between histone H3 and two common subunits, WDR5 and RBBP5, of SET1-like complexes. Consistent with this result, H3K27 trimethylation destabilizes interactions of H3 with SET1-like complexes and antagonizes their ability to carry out H3K4 trimethylation of peptide (H3 residues 1 to 36), histone octamer, and mononucleosome substrates. Altogether, our studies reveal that H3K27 trimethylation of histone H3 represses a previously unrecognized interaction between H3 and SET1-like complexes. This provides an important mechanism that directs the anticorrelation between H3K4 and H3K27 trimethylation.

Early phase of plasticity-related gene regulation and SRF dependent transcription in the hippocampus

Hippocampal organotypic cultures are a highly reliable in vitro model for studying neuroplasticity: in this paper, we analyze the early phase of the transcriptional response induced by a 20 µM gabazine treatment (GabT), a GABA-Ar antagonist, by using Affymetrix oligonucleotide microarray, RT-PCR based time-course and chromatin-immuno-precipitation. The transcriptome profiling revealed that the pool of genes up-regulated by GabT, besides being strongly related to the regulation of growth and synaptic transmission, is also endowed with neuro-protective and pro-survival properties. By using RT-PCR, we quantified a time-course of the transient expression for 33 of the highest up-regulated genes, with an average sampling rate of 10 minutes and covering the time interval [10∶90] minutes. The cluster analysis of the time-course disclosed the existence of three different dynamical patterns, one of which proved, in a statistical analysis based on results from previous works, to be significantly related with SRF-dependent regulation (p-value<0.05). The chromatin immunoprecipitation (chip) assay confirmed the rich presence of working CArG boxes in the genes belonging to the latter dynamical pattern and therefore validated the statistical analysis. Furthermore, an in silico analysis of the promoters revealed the presence of additional conserved CArG boxes upstream of the genes Nr4a1 and Rgs2. The chip assay confirmed a significant SRF signal in the Nr4a1 CArG box but not in the Rgs2 CArG box.

Regulation of Btg2(/TIS21/PC3) expression via reactive oxygen species-protein kinase C-ΝFκΒ pathway under stress conditions

Human B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2), an ortholog of mouse TIS21 (12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate inducible sequence 21) and rat PC3 (Pheochromocytoma Cell 3), is a tumor suppressor gene that belongs to an antiproliferative gene family. Btg2 is involved in a variety of biological processes including cell growth, development, differentiation, senescence, and cell death and its expression is strongly regulated by p53. Recently, we have reported transient induction of Btg2 expression in response to oxidative damage; however, the regulatory mechanism was not explored. In the present study we revealed ΝFκΒ as the upstream mediator involved in Btg2 transcription in response to cell stress challenges such as serum deprivation and oxidative stress i.e. H2O2, TPA or doxorubicin treatments in several cell lines. We observed close interrelation between generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), enhanced IκBα degradation, nuclear translocation of ΝFκΒ (p65/RelA) and the significant increase of Btg2 expression independent of p53 status. ChIP analysis revealed an enrichment of RelA (p65) bound to the κB response element on Btg2 promoter in response to the cell stress challenges. Employing various inhibitors led to cytoplasmic accumulation of IκBα, decreased p65 nuclear translocation along with significant reduction of Btg2 expression. Generation of ROS was the common event mediating ΝFκΒ activation and Btg2 transcription. Furthermore, PKC activation was also found to be a critical factor mediating ROS-mediated signals to NFκB pathway that culminate on Btg2 regulation, and specifically PKC-δ was responsible for this regulation under oxidative stress. However, serum deprivation-associated ROS generation bypassed PKC activation for induction of Btg2 expression via NFκB activation. The present data imply that oxidative stress upregulates Btg2 expression via ROS-PKC-ΝFκΒ cascade, independent of p53 status that in turn could be involved in mediating various biological phenotypes depending on the cellular context.

B-cell translocation gene 2 positively regulates GLP-1-stimulated insulin secretion via induction of PDX-1 in pancreatic β-cells

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a potent glucoincretin hormone and an important agent for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Here we demonstrate that B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2) is a crucial regulator in GLP-1-induced insulin gene expression and insulin secretion via upregulation of pancreatic duodenal homeobox-1 (PDX-1) in pancreatic β-cells. GLP-1 treatment significantly increased BTG2, PDX-1 and insulin gene expression in pancreatic β-cells. Notably, adenovirus-mediated overexpression of BTG2 significantly elevated insulin secretion, as well as insulin and PDX-1 gene expression. Physical interaction studies showed that BTG2 is associated with increased PDX-1 occupancy on the insulin gene promoter via a direct interaction with PDX-1. Exendin-4 (Ex-4), a GLP-1 agonist, and GLP-1 in pancreatic β-cells increased insulin secretion through the BTG2–PDX-1–insulin pathway, which was blocked by endogenous BTG2 knockdown using a BTG2 small interfering RNA knockdown system. Finally, we revealed that Ex-4 and GLP-1 significantly elevated insulin secretion via upregulation of the BTG2–PDX-1 axis in pancreatic islets, and this phenomenon was abolished by endogenous BTG2 knockdown. Collectively, our current study provides a novel molecular mechanism by which GLP-1 positively regulates insulin gene expression via BTG2, suggesting that BTG2 has a key function in insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells.

Genetic control of adult neurogenesis: interplay of differentiation, proliferation and survival modulates new neurons function, and memory circuits

Within the hippocampal circuitry, the basic function of the dentate gyrus is to transform the memory input coming from the enthorinal cortex into sparse and categorized outputs to CA3, in this way separating related memory information. New neurons generated in the dentate gyrus during adulthood appear to facilitate this process, allowing a better separation between closely spaced memories (pattern separation). The evidence underlying this model has been gathered essentially by ablating the newly adult-generated neurons. This approach, however, does not allow monitoring of the integration of new neurons into memory circuits and is likely to set in motion compensatory circuits, possibly leading to an underestimation of the role of new neurons. Here we review the background of the basic function of the hippocampus and of the known properties of new adult-generated neurons. In this context, we analyze the cognitive performance in mouse models generated by us and others, with modified expression of the genes Btg2 (PC3/Tis21), Btg1, Pten, BMP4, etc., where new neurons underwent a change in their differentiation rate or a partial decrease of their proliferation or survival rate rather than ablation. The effects of these modifications are equal or greater than full ablation, suggesting that the architecture of circuits, as it unfolds from the interaction between existing and new neurons, can have a greater functional impact than the sheer number of new neurons. We propose a model which attempts to measure and correlate the set of cellular changes in the process of neurogenesis with the memory function.

Tis21 knock-out enhances the frequency of medulloblastoma in Patched1 heterozygous mice by inhibiting the Cxcl3-dependent migration of cerebellar neurons

A failure in the control of proliferation of cerebellar granule neuron precursor cells (GCPs), located in the external granular layer (EGL) of the cerebellum, gives rise to medulloblastoma. To investigate the process of neoplastic transformation of GCPs, we generated a new medulloblastoma model by crossing Patched1 heterozygous mice, which develop medulloblastomas with low frequency, with mice lacking the Tis21 gene. Overexpression of Tis21 is known to inhibit proliferation and trigger differentiation of GCPs; its expression decreases in human medulloblastomas. Double-knock-out mice show a striking increase in the frequency of medulloblastomas and hyperplastic EGL lesions, formed by preneoplastic GCPs. Tis21 deletion does not affect the proliferation of GCPs but inhibits their differentiation and, chiefly, their intrinsic ability to migrate outside the EGL. This defect of migration may represent an important step in medulloblastoma formation, as GCPs, remaining longer in the EGL proliferative niche, may become more prone to transformation. By genome-wide analysis, we identified the chemokine Cxcl3 as a target of Tis21. Cxcl3 is downregulated in Tis21-null GCPs of EGL and lesions; addition of Cxcl3 to cerebellar slices rescues the defective migration of Tis21-null GCPs and, remarkably, reduces the area of hyperplastic lesions. As Tis21 activates Cxcl3 transcription, our results suggest that Tis21 induces migration of GCPs through Cxcl3, which may represent a novel target for medulloblastoma therapy.

BTG2 loss and miR-21 upregulation contribute to prostate cell transformation by inducing luminal markers expression and epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Prostate cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death in men. Despite significant advances in prostate cancer diagnosis and management, the molecular events involved in the transformation of normal prostate cells into cancer cells have not been fully understood. It is generally accepted that prostate cancer derives from the basal compartment while expressing luminal markers. We investigated whether downregulation of the basal protein B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2) is implicated in prostate cancer transformation and progression. Here we show that BTG2 loss can shift normal prostate basal cells towards luminal markers expression, a phenotype also accompanied by the appearance of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) traits. We also show that the overexpression of microRNA (miR)-21 suppresses BTG2 levels and promotes the acquisition of luminal markers and EMT in prostate cells. Furthermore, by using an innovative lentiviral vector able to compete with endogenous mRNA through the overexpression of the 3'-untranslated region of BTG2, we demonstrate that in prostate tumor cells, the levels of luminal and EMT markers can be reduced by derepression of BTG2 from microRNA-mediated control. Finally, we show that the loss of BTG2 expression confers to non-tumorigenic prostate cells ability to grow in an orthotopic murine model, thus demonstrating the central role of BTG2 downregulaton in prostate cancer biology.

BTG2 suppresses cancer cell migration through inhibition of Src-FAK signaling by downregulation of reactive oxygen species generation in mitochondria

BTG2 is a tumor suppressor gene. It is frequently downregulated in human cancer tissues, and its loss is associated with cancer cell metastasis, suggesting that the suppression of BTG2 plays a critical role in cancer cell migration and invasion. Here, we report that re-expression of BTG2 decreased cell migration and invasion in A549 and PC3 cancer cells. Furthermore, BTG2 expression was correlated with downregulation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) Tyr576 and Tyr925 residues phosphorylation, while Tyr397 which is the autophosphorylation site was not influenced by BTG2 expression. c-Src phosphorylation which is the upstream of FAK was not influenced, whereas c-Src kinase activity was significantly decreased by BTG2 expression. BTG2 overexpression increased Src reduction state and inhibited reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by being localized in mitochondria. Mitochondria-target BTG2 also inhibited cell migration via downregulation of Src-FAK signaling. In conclusion, our study reveals that BTG2 negatively regulated cancer cell migration by inhibiting Src activity through downregulation of ROS generation in mitochondria.

Genome-wide identification of microRNA targets in human ES cells reveals a role for miR-302 in modulating BMP response

MicroRNAs are important regulators in many cellular processes, including stem cell self-renewal. Recent studies demonstrated their function as pluripotency factors with the capacity for somatic cell reprogramming. However, their role in human embryonic stem (ES) cells (hESCs) remains poorly understood, partially due to the lack of genome-wide strategies to identify their targets. Here, we performed comprehensive microRNA profiling in hESCs and in purified neural and mesenchymal derivatives. Using a combination of AGO cross-linking and microRNA perturbation experiments, together with computational prediction, we identified the targets of the miR-302/367 cluster, the most abundant microRNAs in hESCs. Functional studies identified novel roles of miR-302/367 in maintaining pluripotency and regulating hESC differentiation. We show that in addition to its role in TGF-β signaling, miR-302/367 promotes bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling by targeting BMP inhibitors TOB2, DAZAP2, and SLAIN1. This study broadens our understanding of microRNA function in hESCs and is a valuable resource for future studies in this area.

Impaired terminal differentiation of hippocampal granule neurons and defective contextual memory in PC3/Tis21 knockout mice

Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult hippocampus has been implicated in neural plasticity and memory, but the molecular mechanisms controlling the proliferation and differentiation of newborn neurons and their integration into the synaptic circuitry are still largely unknown. To investigate this issue, we have analyzed the adult hippocampal neurogenesis in a PC3/Tis21-null mouse model. PC3/Tis21 is a transcriptional co-factor endowed with antiproliferative and prodifferentiative properties; indeed, its upregulation in neural progenitors has been shown to induce exit from cell cycle and differentiation. We demonstrate here that the deletion of PC3/Tis21 causes an increased proliferation of progenitor cells in the adult dentate gyrus and an arrest of their terminal differentiation. In fact, in the PC3/Tis21-null hippocampus postmitotic undifferentiated neurons accumulated, while the number of terminally differentiated neurons decreased of 40%. As a result, PC3/Tis21-null mice displayed a deficit of contextual memory. Notably, we observed that PC3/Tis21 can associate to the promoter of Id3, an inhibitor of proneural gene activity, and negatively regulates its expression, indicating that PC3/Tis21 acts upstream of Id3. Our results identify PC3/Tis21 as a gene required in the control of proliferation and terminal differentiation of newborn neurons during adult hippocampal neurogenesis and suggest its involvement in the formation of contextual memories.

The Ccr4-NOT deadenylase subunits CNOT7 and CNOT8 have overlapping roles and modulate cell proliferation

Accurate gene expression requires the precise control of mRNA levels, which are determined by the relative rates of nuclear (pre-)mRNA synthesis and processing, and cytoplasmic mRNA turnover. A key step in mRNA degradation is the removal of the poly(A) tail, which involves several deadenylases including components of the Ccr4-Not complex. Here, we focused on the role of the human paralogues CNOT7 (hCaf1/Caf1a) and CNOT8 (hPop2/Caf1b/Calif), which possess deadenylase activity mediated by DEDD nuclease domains. We show that efficient proliferation requires both subunits, although combined knockdown of CNOT7 and CNOT8 further reduces cell proliferation indicating partial redundancy between these proteins. Interestingly, the function of CNOT7 in cell proliferation partly depends on its catalytic activity. On the other hand, the interaction between CNOT7 and BTG2, a member of the antiproliferative BTG/Tob family involved in transcription and mRNA decay appears less important for proliferation of MCF7 cells, suggesting that CNOT7 does not function solely in conjunction with BTG2. Further analysis of gene expression profiles of CNOT7 and/or CNOT8 knockdown cells underscores the partial redundancy between these subunits and suggests that regulation of several genes, including repression of the antiproliferative genes MSMB and PMP22, by the Ccr4-Not complex contributes to cell proliferation.

Regulation of leukemic cell differentiation and retinoid-induced gene expression by statins

There is emerging evidence that, beyond their cholesterol-lowering properties, statins exhibit important antileukemic effects in vitro and in vivo, but the precise mechanisms by which they generate such responses remain to be determined. We have previously shown that statins promote differentiation of acute promyelocytic leukemia cells and enhance generation of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA)-dependent antileukemic responses. We now provide evidence that statin-dependent leukemic cell differentiation requires engagement and activation of the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase kinase pathway. In addition, in experiments, to define the molecular targets and mediators of statin-induced differentiation, we found a remarkable effect of statins on ATRA-dependent gene transcription, evidenced by the selective induction of over 400 genes by the combination of atorvastatin and ATRA. Altogether, our studies identify novel statin molecular targets linked to differentiation, establish that statins modulate ATRA-dependent transcription, and suggest that combined use of statins with retinoids may provide a novel approach to enhance antileukemic responses in acute promyelocytic leukemia and possibly other leukemias.

Rapid effects of LH on gene expression in the mural granulosa cells of mouse periovulatory follicles

LH acts on periovulatory granulosa cells by activating the PKA pathway as well as other cell signaling cascades to increase the transcription of specific genes necessary for ovulation and luteinization. Collectively, these cell signaling responses occur rapidly (within minutes); however, presently no high throughput studies have reported changes before 4 h after the LH surge. To identify early response genes that are likely critical for initiation of ovulation and luteinization, mouse granulosa cells were collected before and 1 h after hCG. Fifty-seven gene transcripts were significantly (P<0.05) upregulated and three downregulated following hCG. Twenty-four of these transcripts were known to be expressed after the LH/hCG surge at later time points, while 36 were unknown to be expressed by periovulatory granulosa cells. Temporal expression of several transcripts, including the transcription factors Nr4a1, Nr4a2, Egr1, Egr2, Btg1, and Btg2, and the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like ligands Areg and Ereg, were analyzed by quantitative RT-PCR, and their putative roles in granulosa cell function are discussed. Epigen (Epgn), another member of the family of EGF-like ligands was identified for the first time in granulosa cells as rapidly induced by LH/hCG. We demonstrate that Epgn initiates cumulus expansion, similar to the other EGF-receptor ligands Areg and Ereg. These studies illustrate that a number of changes in gene expression occur in vivo in response to LH, and that many of the differentially expressed genes are transcription factors that we would predict in turn modulate granulosa cell gene expression to ultimately impact the processes of ovulation and luteinization.

PRMT1 and Btg2 regulates neurite outgrowth of Neuro2a cells

Neurite outgrowth is one of the crucial events in the formation of neural circuits. The majority of studies on neurite outgrowth have focused on signal transduction processes based on phosphorylation and acetylation; a few studies have suggested the involvement of other molecular mechanisms. Recent progress in understanding the nature of protein arginine N-methyltransferases (PRMTs) raises the possibility of the involvement of protein methylation accompanied by cell shape changes during neuronal differentiation. Here, we show that PRMT1 play a pivotal role in the neurite outgrowth of Neuro2a cells. Our results revealed that PRMT1 depletion specifically affected neurite outgrowth but not the physiological processes involved in cell growth and differentiation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Btg2, one of the PRMT1 binding partner, depletion down-regulated arginine methylation in the nucleus and inhibited neurite outgrowth. These results indicate that protein arginine methylation by PRMT1 in the nucleus is an important step in neuritogenesis.

Chemical and structural probing of the N-terminal residues encoded by FMR1 exon 15 and their effect on downstream arginine methylation

Exon 15 of the fragile X mental retardation protein gene (FMR1) is alternatively spliced into three variants. The amino acids encoded by the 5' end of the exon contain several regulatory determinants including phosphorylation sites and a potential conformational switch. Residues encoded by the 3' end of the exon specify FMRP's RGG box, an RNA binding domain that interacts with G-quartet motifs. Previous studies demonstrated that the exon 15-encoded N-terminal residues influence the extent of arginine methylation, independent of S 500 phosphorylation. In the present study we focus on the role the putative conformational switch plays in arginine methylation. Chemical and structural probing of Ex15 alternatively spliced variant proteins and several mutants leads to the following conclusions: Ex15c resides largely in a conformation that is refractory toward methylation; however, it can be methylated by supplementing extracts with recombinant PRMT1 or PRMT3. Protein modeling studies reveal that the RG-rich region is part of a three to four strand antiparallel beta-sheet, which in other RNA binding proteins functions as a platform for nucleic acid interactions. In the Ex15c variant the first strand of this sheet is truncated, and this significantly perturbs the side-chain conformations of the arginine residues in the RG-rich region. Mutating R 507 in the conformational switch to K also truncates the first strand of the beta-sheet, and corresponding decreases in in vitro methylation were found for this and R 507/R 544 and R 507/R 546 double mutants. These effects are not due to the loss of R 507 methylation as a conformational switch-containing peptide reacted under substrate excess and in methyl donor excess was not significantly methylated. Consistent with this, similar changes in beta-sheet structure and decreases in in vitro methylation were observed with a W 513-K mutant. These data support a novel model for FMRP arginine methylation and a role for conformational switch residues in arginine modification.

Mass spectrometry identifies and quantifies 74 unique histone H4 isoforms in differentiating human embryonic stem cells

Epigenetic regulation through chromatin is thought to play a critical role in the establishment and maintenance of pluripotency. Traditionally, antibody-based technologies were used to probe for specific posttranslational modifications (PTMs) present on histone tails, but these methods do not generally reveal the presence of multiple modifications on a single-histone tail (combinatorial codes). Here, we describe technology for the discovery and quantification of histone combinatorial codes that is based on chromatography and mass spectrometry. We applied this methodology to decipher 74 discrete combinatorial codes on the tail of histone H4 from human embryonic stem (ES) cells. Finally, we quantified the abundances of these codes as human ES cells undergo differentiation to reveal striking changes in methylation and acetylation patterns. For example, H4R3 methylation was observed only in the presence of H4K20 dimethylation; such context-specific patterning exemplifies the power of this technique.

Tissue-specific expression of B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2) and its function in T-cell immune responses in a transgenic mouse model

B-cell translocation gene 2 (BTG2) belongs to the anti-proliferative gene family. According to previous in vitro studies, BTG2 overexpression leads to delayed cell cycling. We investigated BTG2 expression during mouse ontogeny and its immune and circadian functions in this study. In situ hybridization showed that BTG2 was expressed at high levels in the central nervous system, liver, stomach, thymus, spleen, skin, adrenal gland, pituitary gland and salivary glands during embryonic days (E10-E17), postnatal days (P1 and P10) and adult stages. Expression was observed in organs and tissues from adult mice with and without a robust proliferation program. Thus, the gene might have important functions that are both related and unrelated to proliferation. BTG2 expression was induced after in vitro T-cell receptor stimulation in T cells using anti-CD3 antibodies. However, transgenic (Tg) mice with actin promoter-driven expression of BTG2 showed normal in vitro and in vivo T-cell responses, such as thymus development, T-cell activation marker expression, T-cell proliferation and migration, as well as in vivo delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions. Although BTG2 was expressed in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and pineal gland in the brain, BTG2 Tg mice had no abnormal circadian behavior. Our data on BTG2 expression during ontogeny provide useful clues for the further investigation of BTG2 function. Additional studies are warranted to examine its role in immune and other systems.