Protein kinase B/Akt acts via glycogen synthase kinase 3 to regulate recycling of alpha v beta 3 and alpha 5 beta 1 integrins

AKT kinases as therapeutic targets

AKT, or protein kinase B, is a central node of the PI3K signaling pathway that is pivotal for a range of normal cellular physiologies that also underlie several pathological conditions, including inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, overgrowth syndromes, and neoplastic transformation. These pathologies, notably cancer, arise if either the activity of AKT or its positive or negative upstream or downstream regulators or effectors goes unchecked, superimposed on by its intersection with a slew of other pathways. Targeting the PI3K/AKT pathway is, therefore, a prudent countermeasure. AKT inhibitors have been tested in many clinical trials, primarily in combination with other drugs. While some have recently garnered attention for their favorable profile, concern over resistance and off-target effects have continued to hinder their widespread adoption in the clinic, mandating a discussion on alternative modes of targeting. In this review, we discuss isoform-centric targeting that may be more effective and less toxic than traditional pan-AKT inhibitors and its significance for disease prevention and treatment, including immunotherapy. We also touch on the emerging mutant- or allele-selective covalent allosteric AKT inhibitors (CAAIs), as well as indirect, novel AKT-targeting approaches, and end with a briefing on the ongoing quest for more reliable biomarkers predicting sensitivity and response to AKT inhibitors, and their current state of affairs.

NUAK1 governs centrosome replication in pancreatic cancer via MYPT1/PP1β and GSK3β-dependent regulation of PLK4

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-related kinase NUAK1 (NUAK family SNF1-like kinase 1) has emerged as a potential vulnerability in MYC-dependent cancer but the biological roles of NUAK1 in different settings are poorly characterised, and the spectrum of cancer types that exhibit a requirement for NUAK1 is unknown. Unlike canonical oncogenes, NUAK1 is rarely mutated in cancer and appears to function as an obligate facilitator rather than a cancer driver per se. Although numerous groups have developed small-molecule NUAK inhibitors, the circumstances that would trigger their use and the unwanted toxicities that may arise as a consequence of on-target activity are thus undetermined. Reasoning that MYC is a key effector of RAS pathway signalling and the GTPase KRAS is almost uniformly mutated in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), we investigated whether this cancer type exhibits a functional requirement for NUAK1. Here, we show that high NUAK1 expression is associated with reduced overall survival in PDAC and that inhibition or depletion of NUAK1 suppresses growth of PDAC cells in culture. We identify a previously unknown role for NUAK1 in regulating accurate centrosome duplication and show that loss of NUAK1 triggers genomic instability. The latter activity is conserved in primary fibroblasts, raising the possibility of undesirable genotoxic effects of NUAK1 inhibition.

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) classes: From cell signaling to endocytic recycling and autophagy

Lipid signaling is defined as any biological signaling action in which a lipid messenger binds to a protein target, converting its effects to specific cellular responses. In this complex biological pathway, the family of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) represents a pivotal role and affects many aspects of cellular biology from cell survival, proliferation, and migration to endocytosis, intracellular trafficking, metabolism, and autophagy. While yeasts have a single isoform of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), mammals possess eight PI3K types divided into three classes. The class I PI3Ks have set the stage to widen research interest in the field of cancer biology. The aberrant activation of class I PI3Ks has been identified in 30-50% of human tumors, and activating mutations in PIK3CA is one of the most frequent oncogenes in human cancer. In addition to indirect participation in cell signaling, class II and III PI3Ks primarily regulate vesicle trafficking. Class III PI3Ks are also responsible for autophagosome formation and autophagy flux. The current review aims to discuss the original data obtained from international research laboratories on the latest discoveries regarding PI3Ks-mediated cell biological processes. Also, we unravel the mechanisms by which pools of the same phosphoinositides (PIs) derived from different PI3K types act differently.

SAMHD1-induced endosomal FAK signaling promotes human renal clear cell carcinoma metastasis by activating Rac1-mediated lamellipodia protrusion

Human sterile α motif and HD domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) has deoxyribonucleoside triphosphohydrolase (dNTPase) activity that allows it to defend against human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV-1) infections and regulate the cell cycle. Although SAMHD1 mutations have been identified in various cancer types, their role in cancer is unclear. Here, we aimed to investigate the oncogenic role of SAMHD1 in human clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC), particularly as a core molecule promoting cancer cell migration. We found that SAMHD1 participated in endocytosis and lamellipodia formation. Mechanistically, SAMHD1 contributed to the formation of the endosomal complex by binding to cortactin. Thereafter, SAMHD1-stimulated endosomal focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signaling activated Rac1, which promoted lamellipodia formation on the plasma membrane and enhanced the motility of ccRCC cells. Finally, we observed a strong correlation between SAMHD1 expression and the activation of FAK and cortactin in tumor tissues obtained from patients with ccRCC. In brief, these findings reveal that SAMHD1 is an oncogene that plays a pivotal role in ccRCC cell migration through the endosomal FAK-Rac1 signaling pathway.

Caveolae couple mechanical stress to integrin recycling and activation

Cells are subjected to multiple mechanical inputs throughout their lives. Their ability to detect these environmental cues is called mechanosensing, a process in which integrins play an important role. During cellular mechanosensing, plasma membrane (PM) tension is adjusted to mechanical stress through the buffering action of caveolae; however, little is known about the role of caveolae in early integrin mechanosensing regulation. Here, we show that Cav1KO fibroblasts increase adhesion to FN-coated beads when pulled with magnetic tweezers, as compared to wild type fibroblasts. This phenotype is Rho-independent and mainly derived from increased active β1-integrin content on the surface of Cav1KO fibroblasts. Florescence recovery after photobleaching analysis and endocytosis/recycling assays revealed that active β1-integrin is mostly endocytosed through the clathrin independent carrier/glycosylphosphatidyl inositol (GPI)-enriched endocytic compartment pathway and is more rapidly recycled to the PM in Cav1KO fibroblasts, in a Rab4 and PM tension-dependent manner. Moreover, the threshold for PM tension-driven β1-integrin activation is lower in Cav1KO mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) than in wild type MEFs, through a mechanism dependent on talin activity. Our findings suggest that caveolae couple mechanical stress to integrin cycling and activation, thereby regulating the early steps of the cellular mechanosensing response.

The Synergistic Effects of Pyrotinib Combined With Adriamycin on HER2-Positive Breast Cancer

Pyrotinib (PYR) is a pan-HER kinase inhibitor that inhibits signaling via the RAS/RAF/MEK/MAPK and PI3K/AKT pathways. In this study, we aimed to investigate the antitumor efficacy of pyrotinib combined with adriamycin (ADM) and explore its mechanisms on HER2⁺ breast cancer. We investigated the effects of PYR and ADM on breast cancer in vitro and in vivo. MTT assay, Wound-healing, and transwell invasion assays were used to determine the effects of PYR, ADM or PYR combined with ADM on cell proliferation, migration, and invasion of SK-BR-3 and AU565 cells in vitro. Cell apoptosis and cycle were detected through flow cytometry. In vivo, xenograft models were established to test the effect of PYR, ADM, or the combined therapy on the nude mice. Western blotting was performed to assess the expression of Akt, p-Akt, p-65, p-p65, and FOXC1. The results indicated that PYR and ADM significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of SK-BR-3 and AU565 cells, and the inhibitory rate of the combination group was higher than each monotherapy group. PYR induced G1 phase cell-cycle arrest, while ADM induced G2 phase arrest, while the combination group induced G2 phase arrest. The combined treatment showed synergistic anticancer activities. Moreover, PYR significantly downregulated the expression of p-Akt, p-p65, and FOXC1. In clinical settings, PYR also exerts satisfactory efficacy against breast cancer. These findings suggest that the combination of PYR and ADM shows synergistic effects both in vitro and in vivo. PYR suppresses the proliferation, migration, and invasion of breast cancers through down-regulation of the Akt/p65/FOXC1 pathway.

Non-Canonical Wnt Signaling Regulates Cochlear Outgrowth and Planar Cell Polarity via Gsk3β Inhibition

During development, sensory hair cells (HCs) in the cochlea assemble a stereociliary hair bundle on their apical surface with planar polarized structure and orientation. We have recently identified a non-canonical, Wnt/G-protein/PI3K signaling pathway that promotes cochlear outgrowth and coordinates planar polarization of the HC apical cytoskeleton and alignment of HC orientation across the cochlear epithelium. Here, we determined the involvement of the kinase Gsk3β and the small GTPase Rac1 in non-canonical Wnt signaling and its regulation of the planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway in the cochlea. We provided the first in vivo evidence for Wnt regulation of Gsk3β activity via inhibitory Ser9 phosphorylation. Furthermore, we carried out genetic rescue experiments of cochlear defects caused by blocking Wnt secretion. We showed that cochlear outgrowth was partially rescued by genetic ablation of Gsk3β but not by expression of stabilized β-catenin; while PCP defects, including hair bundle polarity and junctional localization of the core PCP proteins Fzd6 and Dvl2, were partially rescued by either Gsk3β ablation or constitutive activation of Rac1. Our results identify Gsk3β and likely Rac1 as downstream components of non-canonical Wnt signaling and mediators of cochlear outgrowth, HC planar polarity, and localization of a subset of core PCP proteins in the cochlea.

Integrins protect sensory neurons in models of paclitaxel-induced peripheral sensory neuropathy

Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is a major side effect from cancer treatment with no known method for prevention or cure in clinics. CIPN often affects unmyelinated nociceptive sensory terminals. Despite the high prevalence, molecular and cellular mechanisms that lead to CIPN are still poorly understood. Here, we used a genetically tractable Drosophila model and primary sensory neurons isolated from adult mouse to examine the mechanisms underlying CIPN and identify protective pathways. We found that chronic treatment of Drosophila larvae with paclitaxel caused degeneration and altered the branching pattern of nociceptive neurons, and reduced thermal nociceptive responses. We further found that nociceptive neuron-specific overexpression of integrins, which are known to support neuronal maintenance in several systems, conferred protection from paclitaxel-induced cellular and behavioral phenotypes. Live imaging and superresolution approaches provide evidence that paclitaxel treatment causes cellular changes that are consistent with alterations in endosome-mediated trafficking of integrins. Paclitaxel-induced changes in recycling endosomes precede morphological degeneration of nociceptive neuron arbors, which could be prevented by integrin overexpression. We used primary dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neuron cultures to test conservation of integrin-mediated protection. We show that transduction of a human integrin β-subunit 1 also prevented degeneration following paclitaxel treatment. Furthermore, endogenous levels of surface integrins were decreased in paclitaxel-treated mouse DRG neurons, suggesting that paclitaxel disrupts recycling in vertebrate sensory neurons. Altogether, our study supports conserved mechanisms of paclitaxel-induced perturbation of integrin trafficking and a therapeutic potential of restoring neuronal interactions with the extracellular environment to antagonize paclitaxel-induced toxicity in sensory neurons.

RGD-Binding Integrins Revisited: How Recently Discovered Functions and Novel Synthetic Ligands (Re-)Shape an Ever-Evolving Field

Integrins have been extensively investigated as therapeutic targets over the last decades, which has been inspired by their multiple functions in cancer progression, metastasis, and angiogenesis as well as a continuously expanding number of other diseases, e.g., sepsis, fibrosis, and viral infections, possibly also Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Although integrin-targeted (cancer) therapy trials did not meet the high expectations yet, integrins are still valid and promising targets due to their elevated expression and surface accessibility on diseased cells. Thus, for the future successful clinical translation of integrin-targeted compounds, revisited and innovative treatment strategies have to be explored based on accumulated knowledge of integrin biology. For this, refined approaches are demanded aiming at alternative and improved preclinical models, optimized selectivity and pharmacological properties of integrin ligands, as well as more sophisticated treatment protocols considering dose fine-tuning of compounds. Moreover, integrin ligands exert high accuracy in disease monitoring as diagnostic molecular imaging tools, enabling patient selection for individualized integrin-targeted therapy. The present review comprehensively analyzes the state-of-the-art knowledge on the roles of RGD-binding integrin subtypes in cancer and non-cancerous diseases and outlines the latest achievements in the design and development of synthetic ligands and their application in biomedical, translational, and molecular imaging approaches. Indeed, substantial progress has already been made, including advanced ligand designs, numerous elaborated pre-clinical and first-in-human studies, while the discovery of novel applications for integrin ligands remains to be explored.

Quantitative Analysis of Integrin Trafficking

The last two decades of research into integrin trafficking has revealed fascinating insight into the function of integrin receptors, particularly in the context of cell invasion and migration in cancer. Deregulation in the trafficking pathways of integrin receptors contributes to a variety of pathological conditions including cancer, and in fact, altered endocytic trafficking of these receptors has been shown to drive transformation and tumor progression. Being able to experimentally measure integrin internalization, recycling and cell surface levels are vital for determining the role integrins play in health and disease. Surface-labeling based endocytic trafficking assays provide a way to experimentally measure changes in the rate of internalization of cell surface proteins, and the recycling of internalized proteins back to the cell surface, with high accuracy. This chapter will focus on quantitative approaches based on cell surface biotinylation and capture ELISA to measure endocytosis, recycling, and cell surface levels of integrin receptors.

The Roles of Integrin α5β1 in Human Cancer

Cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix has important roles in tissue integrity and human health. Integrins are heterodimeric cell surface receptors that are composed by two non-covalently linked alpha and beta subunits that mainly participate in the interaction of cell-cell adhesion and cell-extracellular matrix and regulate cell motility, adhesion, differentiation, migration, proliferation, etc. In mammals, there have been eighteen α subunits and 8 β subunits and so far 24 distinct types of αβ integrin heterodimers have been identified in humans. Integrin α5β1, also known as the fibronectin receptor, is a heterodimer with α5 and β1 subunits and has emerged as an essential mediator in many human carcinomas. Integrin α5β1 alteration is closely linked to the progression of several types of human cancers, including cell proliferation, angiogenesis, tumor metastasis, and cancerogenesis. In this review, we will introduce the functions of integrin α5β1 in cancer progression and also explore its regulatory mechanisms. Additionally, the potential clinical applications as a target for cancer imaging and therapy are discussed. Collectively, the information reviewed here may increase the understanding of integrin α5β1 as a potential therapeutic target for cancer.

Akt1 and Akt2 Isoforms Play Distinct Roles in Regulating the Development of Inflammation and Fibrosis Associated with Alcoholic Liver Disease

Akt kinase isoforms (Akt1, Akt2, and Akt3) have generally been thought to play overlapping roles in phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-mediated-signaling. However, recent studies have suggested that they display isoform-specific roles in muscle and fat. To determine whether such isoform-specificity is observed with respect to alcoholic liver disease (ALD) progression, we examined the role of Akt1, Akt2, and Akt3 in hepatic inflammation, and pro-fibrogenic proliferation and migration using Kupffer cells, hepatic stellate cells (HSC), and hepatocytes in an ethanol and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced two-hit model in vitro and in vivo. We determined that siRNA-directed silencing of Akt2, but not Akt1, significantly suppressed cell inflammatory markers in HSC and Kupffer cells. Although both Akt1 and Akt2 inhibited cell proliferation in HSC, only Akt2 inhibited cell migration. Both Akt1 and Akt2, but not Akt3, inhibited fibrogenesis in hepatocytes and HSC. In addition, our in vivo results show that administration of chronic ethanol, binge ethanol and LPS (EBL) in wild-type C57BL/6 mice activated all three Akt isoforms with concomitant increases in activated forms of phosphoinositide dependent kinase-1 (PDK1), mammalian target-of-rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2), and PI3K, resulting in upregulation in expression of inflammatory, proliferative, and fibrogenic genes. Moreover, pharmacological blocking of Akt2, but not Akt1, inhibited EBL-induced inflammation while blocking of both Akt1 and Akt2 inhibited pro-fibrogenic marker expression and progression of fibrosis. Our findings indicate that Akt isoforms play unique roles in inflammation, cell proliferation, migration, and fibrogenesis during EBL-induced liver injury. Thus, close attention must be paid when targeting all Akt isoforms as a therapeutic intervention.

CKAP4 Regulates Cell Migration via the Interaction with and Recycling of Integrin

Cytoskeleton-associated protein 4 (CKAP4) is an endoplasmic reticulum protein that is also present in the cell surface membrane, where it acts as a receptor for Dickkopf1 (DKK1). In this study, we found that CKAP4 interacts with β1 integrin and controls the recycling of α5β1 integrin independently of DKK1. In S2-CP8 cells, knockdown of CKAP4 but not DKK1 enlarged the size of cell adhesion sites and enhanced cell adhesion to fibronectin, resulting in decreased cell migration. When CKAP4 was depleted, the levels of α5 but not β1 integrin were increased in the cell surface membrane. A similar phenotype was observed in other cells expressing low levels of DKK1. In S2-CP8 cells, α5 integrin was trafficked with β1 integrin and CKAP4 to the lysosome or recycled with β1 integrin. In CKAP4-depleted cells, the internalization of α5β1 integrin was unchanged, but its recycling was upregulated. Knockdown of sorting nexin 17 (SNX17), a mediator of integrin recycling, abrogated the increased α5 integrin levels caused by CKAP4 knockdown. CKAP4 bound to SNX17, and its knockdown enhanced the recruitment of α5β1 integrin to SNX17. These results suggest that CKAP4 suppresses the recycling of α5β1 integrin and coordinates cell adhesion sites and migration independently of DKK1.

PI3K-AKT-mTOR and NFκB Pathways in Ovarian Cancer: Implications for Targeted Therapeutics

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy in the United States, with an estimated 22,530 new cases and 13,980 deaths in 2019. Recent studies have indicated that the phosphoinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), as well as the nuclear factor-κ light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) pathways are highly mutated and/or hyper-activated in a majority of ovarian cancer patients, and are associated with advanced grade and stage disease and poor prognosis. In this review, we will investigate PI3K/AKT/mTOR and their interconnection with NFκB pathway in ovarian cancer cells.

Clinicohistopathological implications of phosphoserine 9 glycogen synthase kinase-3β/ β-catenin in urinary bladder cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Aberrant activation of phosphorylated form of glycogen synthase kinase-3β [pS9GSK-3β (Serine 9 phosphorylation)] is known to trigger Wnt/β-catenin signal cascade but its clinicohistopathological implications in bladder carcinogenesis remain unknown.

AIM

To investigate the diagnostic and prognostic relevance of expressions of pS9GSK-3β, β-catenin and its target genes in the pathobiology of bladder cancer.

METHODS

Bladder tumor tissues from ninety patients were analyzed for quantitative expression and cellular localization of pS9GSK-3β by immunohistochemical (IHC) staining. Real time-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and IHC were done to check the expression of β-catenin, Cyclin D1, Snail and Slug at transcriptome and protein level respectively. Clinicohistopathological variables were obtained from histology reports, follow up and OPD visits of patients. Expressions of the markers were statistically correlated with these variables to determine their significance in clinical setting. Results were analysed using SPSS 20.0 software.

RESULTS

Aberrant (low or no membranous/high nuclear/high cytoplasmic) expression of pS9GSK-3β was noted in 51% patients and found to be significantly associated with tumor stage and tumor grade (P = 0.01 and 0.04; Mann Whitney U test). Thirty one percent tumors exhibited aberrant co-expression of pS9GSK-3β and β–catenin proteins and showed strong statistical association with tumor stage, tumor type, smoking/tobacco chewing status (P = 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04, Mann-Whitney U test) and shorter overall survival probabilities of patients (P = 0.02; Kaplan Meier test). Nuclear immunostaining of Cyclin D1 in tumors with altered pS9GSK-3β/β–catenin showed relevance with tumor stage, grade and type.

CONCLUSION

β–catenin and pS9GSK-3β proteins are identified as markers of diagnostic/prognostic significance in disease pathogenesis. Observed histopathological association of Cyclin D1 identifies it as marker of potential relevance in tumors with altered pS9GSK-3β/β-catenin.

Enhancer Domains in Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumor Regulate KIT Expression and Are Targetable by BET Bromodomain Inhibition

Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) is a mesenchymal neoplasm characterized by activating mutations in the related receptor tyrosine kinases KIT and PDGFRA. GIST relies on expression of these unamplified receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) genes through a large enhancer domain, resulting in high expression levels of the oncogene required for tumor growth. Although kinase inhibition is an effective therapy for many patients with GIST, disease progression from kinase-resistant mutations is common and no other effective classes of systemic therapy exist. In this study, we identify regulatory regions of the KIT enhancer essential for KIT gene expression and GIST cell viability. Given the dependence of GIST upon enhancer-driven expression of RTKs, we hypothesized that the enhancer domains could be therapeutically targeted by a BET bromodomain inhibitor (BBI). Treatment of GIST cells with BBIs led to cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis, and cell death, with unique sensitivity in GIST cells arising from attenuation of the KIT enhancer domain and reduced KIT gene expression. BBI treatment in KIT-dependent GIST cells produced genome-wide changes in the H3K27ac enhancer landscape and gene expression program, which was also seen with direct KIT inhibition using a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI). Combination treatment with BBI and TKI led to superior cytotoxic effects in vitro and in vivo, with BBI preventing tumor growth in TKI-resistant xenografts. Resistance to select BBI in GIST was attributable to drug efflux pumps. These results define a therapeutic vulnerability and clinical strategy for targeting oncogenic kinase dependency in GIST. SIGNIFICANCE: Expression and activity of mutant KIT is essential for driving the majority of GIST neoplasms, which can be therapeutically targeted using BET bromodomain inhibitors.

The impact of receptor recycling on the exocytosis of αvβ3 integrin targeted gold nanoparticles

Among the diverse factors that may influence the therapeutic outcomes, the exocytosis of targeted drug delivery systems (TDDS) and its relationship with the corresponding receptor receive little attentions. In this study, cRGDfK modified gold nanoparticles (cRGDfK-PEG-AuNPs) were synthesized, and their cellular transportation including endocytosis and exocytosis, as well as the potential relations with αvβ3 integrin were carefully studied. The results showed that the enhanced and fast internalization of cRGDfK-PEG-AuNPs into U87 cells was associated with the high expression level of αvβ3 integrin. Importantly, the significant exocytosis of cRGDfK-PEG-AuNPs, but not the PEG conjugated gold nanoparticles (PEG-AuNPs), was found under the in vivo-simulated serum containing conditions. Interestingly, the exocytosis kinetics of nanoparticles was demonstrated to be tightly related with the recycling of the αvβ3 integrin, although the exocytosis of cRGDfK-PEG-AuNPs slightly lagged behind the receptor recycling. In effect, our findings uncover a new underlying behavior of receptor mediated TDDS and have implication for their rational design and application in the future.

Glycogen synthase kinase 3β inhibition enhances Notch1 recycling

The Notch signaling pathway is essential throughout development and remains active into adulthood, where it performs a critical role in tissue homeostasis. The fact that defects in signaling can lead to malignancy illustrates the need to control Notch activity tightly. GSK3β is an established regulator of the Notch signaling pathway, although its mechanism of action remains unclear. Given the emerging role for GSK3β in receptor trafficking, we tested the idea that GSK3β controls signaling by regulating Notch transport. Consistent with published reports, we find that GSK3β inhibition enhances Notch1 signaling activity. Immunolocalization analysis reveals that Notch1 localization within a tubulovesicular compartment is altered when GSK3β activity is disrupted. We also find that receptor cell surface levels increase following acute GSK3β inhibition. This is followed by elevated Notch intra-cellular domain (NICD) production and a corresponding increase in signaling activity. Moreover, Notch transport assays reveal that receptor recycling rates increase when GSK3β activity is inhibited. Collectively, results presented here support a model where GSK3β regulates signaling by controlling postendocytic transport of Notch1. Given that GSK3β activity is suppressed following stimulation by multiple signal transduction pathways, our findings also suggest that cells can modulate Notch1 activity in response to extracellular signals by mobilizing Notch1 from endosomal stores.

RhoB controls the Rab11-mediated recycling and surface reappearance of LFA-1 in migrating T lymphocytes

The regulation of cell adhesion and motility is complex and requires the intracellular trafficking of integrins to and from sites of cell adhesion, especially in fast-moving cells such as leukocytes. The Rab family of guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) is essential for vesicle transport, and vesicles mediate intracellular integrin trafficking. We showed that RhoB regulates the vesicular transport of the integrin LFA-1 along the microtubule network in migrating T lymphocytes. Impairment in RhoB function resulted in the accumulation of both LFA-1 and the recycling endosomal marker Rab11 at the rear of migrating T lymphocytes and decreased the association between these molecules. T lymphocytes lacking functional RhoB exhibited impaired recycling and subsequently decreased surface amounts of LFA-1, leading to reduced T cell adhesion and migration mediated by the cell adhesion molecule ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule-1). We propose that vesicle-associated RhoB is a regulator of the Rab11-mediated recycling of LFA-1 to the cell surface, an event that is necessary for T lymphocyte motility.

α6 and β1 Integrin Heterodimer Mediates Schwann Cell Interactions with Axons and Facilitates Axonal Regeneration after Peripheral Nerve Injury

Several isoforms of integrin subunits are expressed in Schwann cells and mediate Schwann cell interactions with axons. Here, we identify α6 and β1 integrins as heterodimeric proteins expressed in Schwann cells and define their functions in axonal regeneration. α6 and β1 integrins are induced in Schwann cells in the sciatic nerve after a crush injury, and the blocking of integrin activity by siRNA expression and by treatment with anti-integrin antibodies attenuates Schwann cell contact with cultured neurons and decreases neurite outgrowth. After nerve transection, the levels of α6 and β1 integrins in the distal nerve stump are lower than those in the corresponding nerve area after a crush injury. Schwann cells prepared from the distal nerves 7 days after transection are less supportive of neurite outgrowth in co-cultured neurons than those prepared from the nerves 7 days after a crush injury. When the transected nerves are reconnected after a delay of 1 to 2 weeks, the induced levels of α6 and β1 integrins in the reconnected distal nerves are significantly reduced compared to those in the nerves after a crush injury. These changes correlate with retarded axonal regeneration in animals that have experienced nerve transections and delayed coaptation, which implies an attenuated Schwann cell capacity to support axonal regeneration due to delayed Schwann cell contact with axons. The present data suggest that α6 and β1 integrins induced in Schwann cells after nerve injury may play a role in mediating Schwann cell interactions with axons and promote axonal regeneration.

AKT/PKB Signaling: Navigating the Network

The Ser and Thr kinase AKT, also known as protein kinase B (PKB), was discovered 25 years ago and has been the focus of tens of thousands of studies in diverse fields of biology and medicine. There have been many advances in our knowledge of the upstream regulatory inputs into AKT, key multifunctional downstream signaling nodes (GSK3, FoxO, mTORC1), which greatly expand the functional repertoire of AKT, and the complex circuitry of this dynamically branching and looping signaling network that is ubiquitous to nearly every cell in our body. Mouse and human genetic studies have also revealed physiological roles for the AKT network in nearly every organ system. Our comprehension of AKT regulation and functions is particularly important given the consequences of AKT dysfunction in diverse pathological settings, including developmental and overgrowth syndromes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, and neurological disorders. There has also been much progress in developing AKT-selective small molecule inhibitors. Improved understanding of the molecular wiring of the AKT signaling network continues to make an impact that cuts across most disciplines of the biomedical sciences.

KCa1.1 channels regulate β1-integrin function and cell adhesion in rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes

Large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel (KCa1.1; BK, Slo1, MaxiK, KCNMA1) is the predominant potassium channel expressed at the plasma membrane of rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes (RA-FLSs) isolated from the synovium of patients with RA. It is a critical regulator of RA-FLS migration and invasion and therefore represents an attractive target for the therapy of RA. However, the molecular mechanisms by which KCa1.1 regulates RA-FLS invasiveness have remained largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that KCa1.1 regulates RA-FLS adhesion through controlling the plasma membrane expression and activation of β₁ integrins, but not α₄, α₅, or α₆ integrins. Blocking KCa1.1 disturbs calcium homeostasis, leading to the sustained phosphorylation of Akt and the recruitment of talin to β₁ integrins. Interestingly, the pore-forming α subunit of KCa1.1 coimmunoprecipitates with β₁ integrins, suggesting that this physical association underlies the functional interaction between these molecules. Together, these data outline a new signaling mechanism by which KCa1.1 regulates β₁-integrin function and therefore invasiveness of RA-FLSs.-Tanner, M. R., Pennington, M. W., Laragione, T., Gulko, P. S., Beeton, C. KCa1.1 channels regulate β₁-integrin function and cell adhesion in rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes.

PHLPP negatively regulates cell motility through inhibition of Akt activity and integrin expression in pancreatic cancer cells

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is currently the fourth leading cause for cancer-related mortality. Malignant progression of pancreatic cancer depends not only on rapid proliferation of tumor cells but also on increased cell motility. In this study, we showed that increased PHLPP expression significantly reduced the rate of migration in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells whereas knockdown of PHLPP had the opposite effect. In addition, cell motility at the individual cell level was negatively regulated by PHLPP as determined using time-lapse imaging. Interestingly, the expression of β1 and β4 integrin proteins were decreased in PHLPP overexpressing cells and increased in PHLPP knockdown cells whereas the mRNA levels of integrin were not altered by changes in PHLPP expression. In determining the molecular mechanism underlying PHLPP-mediated regulation of integrin expression, we found that inhibition of lysosome activity rescued integrin expression in PHLPP overexpressing cells, thus suggesting that PHLPP negatively controls cell motility by inhibiting Akt activity to promote lysosome-dependent degradation of integrins. Functionally, the increased cell migration observed in PHLPP knockdown cells was effectively blocked by the neutralizing antibodies against β1 or β4 integrin. Taken together, our study identified a tumor suppressor role of PHLPP in suppressing cell motility by negatively regulating integrin expression in pancreatic cancer cells.

AKT in cancer: new molecular insights and advances in drug development

The phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K)-AKT pathway is one of the most commonly dysregulated pathways in all of cancer, with somatic mutations, copy number alterations, aberrant epigenetic regulation and increased expression in a number of cancers. The carefully maintained homeostatic balance of cell division and growth on one hand, and programmed cell death on the other, is universally disturbed in tumorigenesis, and downstream effectors of the PI3K-AKT pathway play an important role in this disturbance. With a wide array of downstream effectors involved in cell survival and proliferation, the well-characterized direct interactions of AKT make it a highly attractive yet elusive target for cancer therapy. Here, we review the salient features of this pathway, evidence of its role in promoting tumorigenesis and recent progress in the development of therapeutic agents that target AKT.

Endocytic Trafficking of Integrins in Cell Migration

Integrins are a family of heterodimeric receptors that bind to components of the extracellular matrix and influence cellular processes as varied as proliferation and migration. These effects are achieved by tight spatiotemporal control over intracellular signalling pathways, including those that mediate cytoskeletal reorganisation. The ability of integrins to bind to ligands is governed by integrin conformation, or activity, and this is widely acknowledged to be an important route to the regulation of integrin function. Over the last 15 years, however, the pathways that regulate endocytosis and recycling of integrins have emerged as major players in controlling integrin action, and studying integrin trafficking has revealed fresh insight into the function of this fascinating class of extracellular matrix receptors, in particular in the context of cell migration and invasion. Here, we review our current understanding of the contribution of integrin trafficking to cell motility.

Synthetic Lethality in PTEN-Mutant Prostate Cancer Is Induced by Combinatorial PI3K/Akt and BCL-XL Inhibition

The bone-conserved metastatic phenotype of prostate cancer is a prototype of nonrandom metastatic behavior. Adhesion of prostate cancer cells to fibronectin via the integrin α5 (ITGA5) has been proposed as a candidate bone marrow niche localization mechanism. We hypothesized that the mechanisms whereby ITGA5 regulates the adhesion-mediated survival of prostate cancer cells will define novel therapeutic approaches. ITGA5 shRNA reduced expression of BCL-2 family members and induced apoptosis in PC-3 cells. In these PTEN-mutant cells, pharmacologic inhibition of the PI3K signaling pathway in combination with ITGA5 knockdown enhanced apoptosis. Chemical parsing studies with BH3 mimetics indicated that PI3K/Akt inhibition in combination with BCL-X_L-specific inhibition induces synergistic apoptosis specifically in PTEN-mutant prostate cancer cells, whereas single-agent PI3K/Akt inhibitors did not. Given the importance of PTEN loss in the progression of prostate and other cancers, synthetic lethality induced by combinatorial PI3K/Akt and BCL-X_L inhibition represents a valuable therapeutic strategy.

IMPLICATIONS

Activation of the PI3K pathway through PTEN loss represents a major molecular pathway in the progression of prostate and other cancers. This study defines a synthetic lethal therapeutic combination with significant translational potential.

OVERVIEW

Synthetic lethality in PTEN-mutant prostate cancer cells with combined PI3K/Akt and BCL-X_L inhibition. PTEN-mutant prostate cancer cells expressing ITGA5 bind to fibronectin in the putative bone marrow niche and transduce survival signals to BCL-X_L Additional PTEN-regulated signals independent of the PI3K/Akt pathway likely feed into the BCL-X_L-regulated survival program to explain synthetic lethality observed with the combination.Visual Overview: http://mcr.aacrjournals.org/content/early/2016/12/02/1541-7786.MCR-16-0202/F1.large.jpg. Mol Cancer Res; 14(12); 1176-81. ©2016 AACR.

Nitric oxide increases the migratory activity of non-small cell lung cancer cells via AKT-mediated integrin αv and β1 upregulation

BACKGROUND

Previously, nitric oxide (NO) has been found to affect the metastatic behavior of various types of cancer. In addition, it has been found that alterations in integrin expression may have profound effects on cancer cell survival and migration. Here, we aimed at assessing the effects of non-toxic concentrations of NO on human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells, including the expression of integrins and the migration of these cells.

METHODS

The cytotoxic and proliferative effects of NO on human NSCLC-derived H460, H292 and H23 cells were tested by MTT assay. The migration capacities of these cells was evaluated by wound healing and transwell migration assays. The expression of integrins and migration-associated proteins was determined by Western blot analyses.

RESULTS

We found that NO treatment caused a significant increase in the expression of integrin αv and β1 in all three NSCLC-derived cell lines tested. Known migration-associated proteins acting downstream of these integrins, including focal adhesion kinase (FAK), active RhoA (Rho-GTP) and active cell division control 42 (Cdc42-GTP), were found to be significantly activated in response to NO. In addition, we found that NO-treated cells showed an increased motility and that this motility was associated with a significant increase in the number of filopodia per cell. We also found that NO-treated cells exhibited increased active protein kinase G (PKG), protein kinase B (AKT) and FAK expression levels. Using a pharmacological approach, we found that the integrin-modulating effect of NO is most likely brought about by a PKG/AKT-dependent mechanism, since the observed changes in integrin expression were abolished by AKT inhibitors, but not by FAK inhibitors.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest a novel role of NO in the regulation of integrin expression and, concomitantly, the migratory capacity of NSCLC cells.

Repression of GSK3 restores NK cell cytotoxicity in AML patients

Natural killer cells from acute myeloid leukaemia patients (AML-NK) show a dramatic impairment in cytotoxic activity. The exact reasons for this dysfunction are not fully understood. Here we show that the glycogen synthase kinase beta (GSK3β) expression is elevated in AML-NK cells. Interestingly, GSK3 overexpression in normal NK cells impairs their ability to kill AML cells, while genetic or pharmacological GSK3 inactivation enhances their cytotoxic activity. Mechanistic studies reveal that the increased cytotoxic activity correlates with an increase in AML-NK cell conjugates. GSK3 inhibition promotes the conjugate formation by upregulating LFA expression on NK cells and by inducing ICAM-1 expression on AML cells. The latter is mediated by increased NF-κB activation in response to TNF-α production by NK cells. Finally, GSK3-inhibited NK cells show significant efficacy in human AML mouse models. Overall, our work provides mechanistic insights into the AML-NK dysfunction and a potential NK cell therapy strategy.

Natural killer cells of acute myeloid leukaemia patients lack cytotoxic activity. Here the authors show that these cells have elevated GSK3β, and that its inhibition prolongs survival of mice transplanted with human AML and stimulates NK cytotoxicity via increased adhesion of NK cells to their targets.

FAK, talin and PIPKIγ regulate endocytosed integrin activation to polarize focal adhesion assembly

Integrin endocytic recycling is critical for cell migration, yet how recycled integrins assemble into new adhesions is unclear. By synchronizing endocytic disassembly of focal adhesions (FAs), we find that recycled integrins reassemble FAs coincident with their return to the cell surface and dependent on Rab5 and Rab11. Unexpectedly, endocytosed integrins remained in an active but unliganded state in endosomes. FAK and Src kinases co-localized with endocytosed integrin and were critical for FA reassembly by regulating integrin activation and recycling, respectively. FAK sustained the active integrin conformation by maintaining talin association with Rab11 endosomes in a type I phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase (PIPKIγ)-dependent manner. In migrating cells, endocytosed integrins reassembled FAs polarized towards the leading edge, and this polarization required FAK. These studies identify unanticipated roles for FA proteins in maintaining endocytosed integrin in an active conformation. We propose that the conformational memory of endocytosed integrin enhances polarized reassembly of FAs to enable directional cell migration.

Pressure Combined with Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury Induces Deep Tissue Injury via Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in a Rat Pressure Ulcer Model

Pressure ulcer is a complex and significant health problem in long-term bedridden patients, and there is currently no effective treatment or efficient prevention method. Furthermore, the molecular mechanisms and pathogenesis contributing to the deep injury of pressure ulcers are unclear. The aim of the study was to explore the role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and Akt/GSK3β signaling in pressure ulcers. A model of pressure-induced deep tissue injury in adult Sprague-Dawley rats was established. Rats were treated with 2-h compression and subsequent 0.5-h release for various cycles. After recovery, the tissue in the compressed regions was collected for further analysis. The compressed muscle tissues showed clear cellular degenerative features. First, the expression levels of ER stress proteins GRP78, CHOP, and caspase-12 were generally increased compared to those in the control. Phosphorylated Akt and phosphorylated GSK3β were upregulated in the beginning of muscle compression, and immediately significantly decreased at the initiation of ischemia-reperfusion injury in compressed muscles tissue. These data show that ER stress may be involved in the underlying mechanisms of cell degeneration after pressure ulcers and that the Akt/GSK3β signal pathway may play an important role in deep tissue injury induced by pressure and ischemia/reperfusion.

MIG6 Is MEK Regulated and Affects EGF-Induced Migration in Mutant NRAS Melanoma

Activating mutations in NRAS are frequent driver events in cutaneous melanoma. NRAS is a GTP-binding protein, whose most well-characterized downstream effector is RAF leading to activation of MEK-ERK1/2 signaling. While there are no FDA-approved targeted therapies for melanoma patients with a primary mutation in NRAS, one form of targeted therapy that has been explored is MEK inhibition. In clinical trials, MEK inhibitors have shown disappointing efficacy in mutant NRAS patients, the reasons for which are unclear. To explore the effects of MEK inhibitors in mutant NRAS melanoma, we utilized a high-throughput reverse-phase protein array (RPPA) platform to identify signaling alterations. RPPA analysis of phospho-proteomic changes in mutant NRAS melanoma in response to trametinib indicated a compensatory increase in AKT signaling and decreased expression of mitogen-inducible gene 6 (MIG6), a negative regulator of EGFR/ERBB receptors. MIG6 expression did not alter the growth or survival properties of mutant NRAS melanoma cells. Rather, we identified a role for MIG6 as a negative regulator of EGF-induced signaling and cell migration and invasion. In MEK inhibited cells, further depletion of MIG6 increased migration and invasion, whereas MIG6 expression decreased these properties. Therefore, a decrease in MIG6 may promote the migration and invasiveness of MEK-inhibited mutant NRAS melanoma especially in response to EGF stimulation.

Roles of glucose transporter-1 and the phosphatidylinositol 3‑kinase/protein kinase B pathway in cancer radioresistance (review)

The mechanisms underlying cancer radioresistance remain unclear. Several studies have found that increased glucose transporter‑1 (GLUT‑1) expression is associated with radioresistance. Recently, the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) pathway was reported to be involved in the control of GLUT‑1 trafficking and activity. Activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway may itself be associated with cancer radioresistance. Thus, increasing attention has been devoted to the effects of modifying the expression of GLUT‑1 and the PI3K/Akt pathway on the increase in the radiosensitivity of cancer cells. This review discusses the importance of the association between elevated expression of GLUT‑1 and activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway in the development of radioresistance in cancer.

Nanotetrac targets integrin αvβ3 on tumor cells to disorder cell defense pathways and block angiogenesis

The extracellular domain of integrin αvβ3 contains a receptor for thyroid hormone and hormone analogs. The integrin is amply expressed by tumor cells and dividing blood vessel cells. The proangiogenic properties of thyroid hormone and the capacity of the hormone to promote cancer cell proliferation are functions regulated nongenomically by the hormone receptor on αvβ3. An L-thyroxine (T4) analog, tetraiodothyroacetic acid (tetrac), blocks binding of T4 and 3,5,3'-triiodo-L-thyronine (T3) by αvβ3 and inhibits angiogenic activity of thyroid hormone. Covalently bound to a 200 nm nanoparticle that limits its activity to the cell exterior, tetrac reformulated as Nanotetrac has additional effects mediated by αvβ3 beyond the inhibition of binding of T4 and T3 to the integrin. These actions of Nanotetrac include disruption of transcription of cell survival pathway genes, promotion of apoptosis by multiple mechanisms, and interruption of repair of double-strand deoxyribonucleic acid breaks caused by irradiation of cells. Among the genes whose expression is suppressed by Nanotetrac are EGFR, VEGFA, multiple cyclins, catenins, and multiple cytokines. Nanotetrac has been effective as a chemotherapeutic agent in preclinical studies of human cancer xenografts. The low concentrations of αvβ3 on the surface of quiescent nonmalignant cells have minimized toxicity of the agent in animal studies.

Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli inhibits recycling endosome function and trafficking of surface receptors

Enteropathogenic and enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EPEC/EHEC) manipulate many cell processes by injecting effector proteins from the bacteria into the host cell via a Type III secretion system. In this paper we report that the effector protein EspG disrupts recycling endosome function. In particular, we found that following transferrin binding and endocytosis EspG reduces recycling of the transferrin receptor (TfR), the prototypical recycling protein, from an intracellular location to the cell surface, resulting in an accumulation of TfR within the cell. The surface levels of three receptors [TfR, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and β1 integrin] were tested and found to be reduced dependent on EspG translocation. Furthermore, disruption of recycling endosome function and the reduced surface presentation of receptors was dependent on the previously reported RabGAP activity and ARF binding ability of EspG. This paper therefore supports the previous hypothesis that EspG acts as an enzyme scaffold perturbing cell signalling events, in this case altering recycling endosome function and cell surface receptor levels during infection.

Αvβ3-integrin-mediated adhesion is regulated through an AAK1L- and EHD3-dependent rapid-recycling pathway

Protein transport through the endosome is critical for maintaining proper integrin cell surface integrin distribution to support cell adhesion, motility and viability. Here we employ a live-cell imaging approach to evaluate the relationship between integrin function and transport through the early endosome. We discovered that two early endosome factors, AAK1L and EHD3, are critical for αvβ3-integrin-mediated cell adhesion in HeLa cells. siRNA-mediated depletion of either factor delays short-loop β3 integrin recycling from the early endosome back to the cell surface. Total internal reflection fluorescence-based colocalization analysis reveals that β3 integrin transits AAK1L- and EHD3-positive endosomes near the cell surface, a subcellular location consistent with a rapid-recycling role for both factors. Moreover, structure-function analysis reveals that AAK1L kinase activity, as well as its C-terminal domain, is essential for cell adhesion maintenance. Taken together, these data reveal an important role for AAK1L and EHD3 in maintaining cell viability and adhesion by promoting αvβ3 integrin rapid recycling from the early endosome.

Intracellular trafficking of integrins in cancer cells

Integrins are heterodimeric cell surface receptors, which principally mediate the interaction between cells and their extracellular microenvironments. Because of their pivotal roles in cancer proliferation, survival, invasion and metastasis, integrins have been recognized as promising targets for cancer treatment. As is the case with other receptors, the localization of integrins on the cell surface has provided opportunities to block their functions by various inhibitory monoclonal antibodies. A number of small molecule agents blocking integrin-ligand binding have also been established, and some such agents are currently on the market or in clinical trials for some diseases including cancer. This review exclusively focuses on another strategy for cancer therapy, which comes from the obligate localization of integrins on the cell surface; targeting the intracellular trafficking of integrins. A number of studies have shown the essential roles of integrin trafficking in hallmarks of cancer, such as activation of oncogenic signaling pathways as well as acquisition of invasiveness. Recent findings have shown that increased integrin recycling activity is associated with some types of gain-of-function mutations of p53, a common feature of diverse types of cancers, which also indicates that targeting integrin recycling could be widely applicable and effective against many cancers. We also discuss possible therapeutic contexts where integrin trafficking can be effectively targeted, and what molecular interfaces may hopefully be druggable.

Nuclear monomeric integrin αv in cancer cells is a coactivator regulated by thyroid hormone

Thyroid hormone induces tumor cell and blood vessel cell proliferation via a cell surface receptor on heterodimeric integrin αvβ3. We investigated the role of thyroid hormone-induced internalization of nuclear integrin αv monomer. Physiological concentration of thyroxine (free T4, 10(-10) M), but not 3,5,3'-triiodo-l-thyronine (T3), induced cellular internalization and nuclear translocation of integrin αv monomer in human non-small-cell lung cancer (H522) and ovarian carcinoma (OVCAR-3) cells. T4 did not complex with integrin αv monomer during its internalization. The αv monomer was phosphorylated by activated ERK1/2 when it heterodimerized with integrin β3 in vitro. Nuclear αv complexed with transcriptional coactivator proteins, p300 and STAT1, and with corepressor proteins, NCoR and SMRT. Nuclear αv monomer in T4-exposed cells, but not integrin β3, bound to promoters of specific genes that have important roles in cancer cells, including estrogen receptor-α, cyclooxygenase-2, hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, and thyroid hormone receptor β1 in chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. In summary, monomeric αv is a novel coactivator regulated from the cell surface by thyroid hormone for the expression of genes involved in tumorigenesis and angiogenesis. This study also offers a mechanism for modulation of gene expression by thyroid hormone that is adjunctive to the nuclear hormone receptor (TR)-T3 pathway.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta regulates Snail and β-catenin expression during Fas-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in gastrointestinal cancer

Fas signalling has been shown to induce the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to promote gastrointestinal (GI) cancer metastasis, but its mechanism of action is still unknown. The effects of Fas-ligand (FasL) treatment and inhibition of Fas signalling on GI cancer cells were tested using invasion assay, immunofluorescence, immunoblot, Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR), quantitative Real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), immunoprecipitation and luciferase reporter assay. Immunohistochemistry was used to analyse the EMT-associated molecules in GI cancer specimens. FasL treatment inhibited E-cadherin transcription by upregulation of Snail in GI cancer cells. The nuclear expression and transcriptional activity of Snail and β-catenin were increased by inhibitory phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β) at Ser9 by FasL-induced extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling. Snail associated with β-catenin in the nucleus and, thus, increased β-catenin transcriptional activity. Evaluation of human GI cancer specimens showed that the expression of FasL, phospho-GSK-3β, Snail and β-catenin increase during GI cancer progression. An EMT phenotype was shown to correlate with an advanced cancer stage, and a non-EMT phenotype significantly correlated with a better prognosis. Collectively, these data indicate that GSK-3β regulates Snail and β-catenin expression during Fas-induced EMT in gastrointestinal cancer.

An aptamer-siRNA chimera silences the eukaryotic elongation factor 2 gene and induces apoptosis in cancers expressing αvβ3 integrin

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) silence gene expression by triggering the sequence-specific degradation of mRNAs, but the targeted delivery of such reagents remains challenging and a significant obstacle to therapeutic applications. One promising approach is the use of RNA aptamers that bind tumor-associated antigens to achieve the delivery of siRNAs to tumor cells displaying specific antigens. Wholly RNA-based constructs are advantageous because they are inexpensive to synthesize and their immunogenicity is low. We therefore joined an aptamer-recognizing alpha V and integrin beta 3 (αvβ3) integrin to a siRNA that targets eukaryotic elongation factor 2 and achieved for the first time the targeted delivery of a siRNA to tumor cells expressing αvβ3 integrin, causing the inhibition of cell proliferation and the induction of apoptosis specifically in tumor cells. The impact of our results on the development of therapeutic aptamer-siRNA constructs is discussed.

TβRIII/β-arrestin2 regulates integrin α5β1 trafficking, function, and localization in epithelial cells

The type III TGF-β receptor (TβRIII) is a ubiquitous co-receptor for TGF-β superfamily ligands with roles in suppressing cancer progression, in part through suppressing cell motility. Here we demonstrate that TβRIII promotes epithelial cell adhesion to fibronectin in a β-arrestin2 dependent and TGF-β/BMP independent manner by complexing with active integrin α5β1, and mediating β-arrestin2-dependent α5β1 internalization and trafficking to nascent focal adhesions. TβRIII-mediated integrin α5β1 trafficking regulates cell adhesion and fibronectin fibrillogenesis in epithelial cells, as well as α5 localization in breast cancer patients. We further demonstrate that increased TβRIII expression correlates with increased α5 localization at sites of cell-cell adhesion in breast cancer patients, while higher TβRIII expression is a strong predictor of overall survival in breast cancer patients. These data support a novel, clinically relevant role for TβRIII in regulating integrin α5 localization, reveal a novel crosstalk mechanism between the integrin and TGF-β superfamily signaling pathways and identify β-arrestin2 as a regulator of α5β1 trafficking.

Regulation of integrin trafficking, cell adhesion, and cell migration by WASH and the Arp2/3 complex

WASH is a nucleation-promoting factor for the Arp2/3 complex that is implicated in multiple endocytic trafficking pathways including receptor recycling, cargo degradation, and retromer-mediated receptor retrieval. We sought to examine whether WASH plays an important role in trafficking of specialized cargo molecules such as integrins, for which trafficking is highly regulated during cell migration. We observed that subdomains of early/sorting endosomes associated with dynamic WASH and filamentous actin, and α5-integrins trafficked through this population of endosomes. Depletion of WASH caused accumulation of α5-integrins in intracellular compartments, reduction of α5-integrin localization at focal adhesions, and reduction in focal adhesion number. Transport of α5-integrins from internal endocytic structures to focal adhesions was disrupted upon WASH depletion or Arp2/3 complex inhibition. Furthermore, WASH-depleted cells displayed greatly reduced affinity for specific extracellular matrix proteins including fibronectin and impaired cell spreading ability. Interestingly, the reduced adhesion capacity of WASH-depleted cells resulted in their migrating more rapidly than control cells in wound healing assays. Our results define a requirement for WASH, Arp2/3 complex, and actin in specialized trafficking of integrins. These findings highlight a role for actin dynamics in influencing cell adhesion and migration via endocytic trafficking of integrins, in addition to the well-established role of actin in plasma membrane dynamics and contractility. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Molecular mechanisms underlying adhesion and migration of hematopoietic stem cells

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is the most powerful treatment modality for a large number of hematopoietic malignancies, including leukemia. Successful hematopoietic recovery after transplantation depends on homing of hematopoietic stem cells to the bone marrow and subsequent lodging of those cells in specific niches in the bone marrow. Migration of hematopoietic stem cells to the bone marrow is a highly regulated process that requires correct regulation of the expression and activity of various molecules including chemoattractants, selectins and integrins. This review will discuss recent studies that have extended our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying adhesion, migration and bone marrow homing of hematopoietic stem cells.

Regulation of endothelial cell morphogenesis by the protein kinase D (PKD)/glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3)β pathway

Vascular morphogenesis is a key process for development, reproduction, and pathogenesis. Thus understanding the mechanisms of this process is of pathophysiological importance. Despite the fact that collagen I is the most abundant and potent promorphogenic molecule known, the molecular mechanisms by which this protein regulates endothelial cell tube morphogenesis are still unclear. Here we provide strong evidence that collagen I induces tube morphogenesis by inhibiting glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β). Further mechanistic studies revealed that GSK3β activity is regulated by protein kinase D (PKD). PKD inhibited GSK3β activity, which was required for collagen I-induced endothelial tube morphogenesis. We also found that GSK3β regulated trafficking of integrin α(2)β(1) in a Rab11-dependent manner. Taken together, our studies highlight the important role of PKD in the regulation of collagen I-induced vascular morphogenesis and show that it is mediated by the modulation of GSK3β activity and integrin α(2)β(1) trafficking.

Akt1 mediates prostate cancer cell microinvasion and chemotaxis to metastatic stimuli via integrin β₃ affinity modulation

Background:

Activation of Akt and increased expression of integrin β₃ are the two most important changes that have been linked to the attainment of metastatic potential by prostate cancer cells. However, a direct link between Akt activity and inside-out activation of integrin β₃ in mediating prostate cancer cell metastatic properties is not established.

Methods:

Using functional and biochemical approaches, we examined the role of Akt1 in the affinity modulation of integrin β₃ in prostate cancer cells.

Results:

Although expression of murine TRAMP and human PC3 cells with constitutively active Akt1 (CA-Akt1) enhanced their affinity for integrin α_vβ₃ specific ligands and motility on various extracellular matrix proteins, the reverse was observed with the expression of dominant-negative Akt1 (DN-Akt1). Although enhanced motility and transendothelial migration of CA-Akt1-expressing cells were blunted by co-expression with DN-integrin β₃ or upon pre-treatment with integrin β₃-blocking antibodies (LM 609), impaired motility and transendothelial migration of DN-Akt1-expressing cells were rescued by pre-treatment of prostate cancer cells with integrin β₃-activating antibodies, AP7.4.

Conclusion:

Our data is the first to demonstrate a link between Akt1 activity and affinity modulation of integrin β₃ in the regulation of prostate cancer cell motility, transendothelial migration and chemotaxis to metastatic stimuli.

Synthetic immunomodulatory peptide IDR-1002 enhances monocyte migration and adhesion on fibronectin

Regulation of the immune system by immunomodulatory agents, such as the synthetic innate defense regulator (IDR) peptides, has been proposed as a potential strategy to strengthen host immune responses against infection. IDR peptides confer protection in vivo against a range of bacterial infections and have been developed as components of single-dose vaccine adjuvants due to their ability to modulate innate immunity, correlating with an increased recruitment of monocytes to sites of infection or immunization. However, the mechanisms by which IDR peptides augment monocyte recruitment remain poorly defined. Anti-infective peptide IDR-1002 was demonstrated here to lack direct monocyte chemoattractive activity yet enhance, by up to 5-fold, the ability of human monocytes to migrate on fibronectin towards chemokines. This effect correlated with an increased adhesion of monocytes and THP-1 cells to fibronectin by IDR-1002 and other IDR peptides and the adhesion of THP-1 cells to fibronectin occurred in a β(1)-integrin-dependent manner, corresponding with an increased activation of β(1)-integrins and the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway. PI3K- and Akt-specific inhibitors abrogated IDR-1002-induced adhesion and activation of β(1)-integrins, whereas p38 and MEK1 inhibitors did not affect, or moderately inhibited, adhesion, respectively. Furthermore, IDR-1002 enhancement of monocyte migration towards chemokines and activation of β(1)-integrins was abrogated in the presence of PI3K- and Akt-specific inhibitors. In summary, IDR-1002 enhanced monocyte migration on fibronectin through promotion of β(1)-integrin-mediated interactions regulated by the PI3K-Akt pathway, revealing a mechanism by which IDR-1002 promotes monocyte recruitment.

The clathrin adaptor Dab2 recruits EH domain scaffold proteins to regulate integrin β1 endocytosis

Endocytic adaptor proteins facilitate cargo recruitment and clathrin-coated pit nucleation. The prototypical clathrin adaptor AP2 mediates cargo recruitment, maturation, and scission of the pit by binding cargo, clathrin, and accessory proteins, including the Eps-homology (EH) domain proteins Eps15 and intersectin. However, clathrin-mediated endocytosis of some cargoes proceeds efficiently in AP2-depleted cells. We found that Dab2, another endocytic adaptor, also binds to Eps15 and intersectin. Depletion of EH domain proteins altered the number and size of clathrin structures and impaired the endocytosis of the Dab2- and AP2-dependent cargoes, integrin β1 and transferrin receptor, respectively. To test the importance of Dab2 binding to EH domain proteins for endocytosis, we mutated the EH domain-binding sites. This mutant localized to clathrin structures with integrin β1, AP2, and reduced amounts of Eps15. Of interest, although integrin β1 endocytosis was impaired, transferrin receptor internalization was unaffected. Surprisingly, whereas clathrin structures contain both Dab2 and AP2, integrin β1 and transferrin localize in separate pits. These data suggest that Dab2-mediated recruitment of EH domain proteins selectively drives the internalization of the Dab2 cargo, integrin β1. We propose that adaptors may need to be bound to their cargo to regulate EH domain proteins and internalize efficiently.

Regulation of integrin endocytic recycling and chemotactic cell migration by syntaxin 6 and VAMP3 interaction

Integrins are the primary receptors of cells adhering to the extracellular matrix, and play key roles in various cellular processes including migration, proliferation and survival. The expression and distribution of integrins at the cell surface is controlled by endocytosis and recycling. The present study examines the function of syntaxin 6 (STX6), a t-SNARE located in the trans-Golgi network, in integrin trafficking. STX6 is overexpressed in many types of human cancer. We show that depletion of STX6 inhibits chemotactic cell migration and the delivery of the laminin receptor α3β1 integrin to the cell surface, whereas STX6 overexpression stimulates chemotactic cell migration, integrin delivery, and integrin-initiated activation of focal adhesion kinase. These data indicate that STX6 plays a rate-limiting role in cell migration and integrin trafficking. In STX6-depleted cells, α3β1 integrin is accumulated in recycling endosomes that contain the v-SNARE VAMP3. Importantly, we show that STX6 and VAMP3 form a v-/t-SNARE complex, VAMP3 is required in α3β1 integrin delivery to the cell surface, and endocytosed α3β1 integrin traffics to both VAMP3 and STX6 compartments. Collectively, our data suggest a new integrin trafficking pathway in which endocytosed integrins are transported from VAMP3-containing recycling endosomes to STX6-containing trans-Golgi network before being recycled to the plasma membrane.