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Murugan AK, Grieco M, Tsuchida N. RAS mutations in human cancers: Roles in precision medicine. Semin Cancer Biol 2019; 59:23-35. [PMID: 31255772 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2019.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Ras proteins play a crucial role as a central component of the cellular networks controlling a variety of signaling pathways that regulate growth, proliferation, survival, differentiation, adhesion, cytoskeletal rearrangements and motility of a cell. Almost, 4 decades passed since Ras research was started and ras genes were originally discovered as retroviral oncogenes. Later on, mutations of the human RAS genes were linked to tumorigenesis. Genetic analyses found that RAS is one of the most deregulated oncogenes in human cancers. In this review, we summarize the pioneering works which allowed the discovery of RAS oncogenes, the finding of frequent mutations of RAS in various human cancers, the role of these mutations in tumorigenesis and mutation-activated signaling networks. We further describe the importance of RAS mutations in personalized or precision medicine particularly in molecular targeted therapy, as well as their use as diagnostic and prognostic markers as therapeutic determinants in human cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avaniyapuram Kannan Murugan
- Department of Molecular Cellular Oncology and Microbiology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8549 Japan.
| | - Michele Grieco
- DiSTABiF, Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Ambientali, Biologiche e Farmaceutiche, Seconda Università di Napoli, via Vivaldi 43, Caserta 81100 Italy
| | - Nobuo Tsuchida
- Department of Molecular Cellular Oncology and Microbiology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8549 Japan.
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Abstract
The high prevalence of KRAS mutations in human cancers and the lack of effective treatments for patients ranks KRAS among the most highly sought-after targets for preclinical oncologists. Pharmaceutical companies and academic laboratories have tried for decades to identify small molecule inhibitors of oncogenic KRAS proteins, but little progress has been made and many have labeled KRAS undruggable. However, recent progress in in silico screening, fragment-based drug design, disulfide tethered screening, and some emerging themes in RAS biology have caused the field to reconsider previously held notions about targeting KRAS. This review will cover some of the historical efforts to identify RAS inhibitors, and some of the most promising efforts currently being pursued.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Holderfield
- NCI-Ras Initiative, Cancer Research Technology Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research, Frederick, Maryland 21702
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Abstract
In recent years, melanoma research has undergone a renaissance. What was once viewed, at least in the metastatic setting, as an intractable and untreatable disease is now revealing its molecular weaknesses. 2011 was a landmark year for melanoma therapy, with two new agents, the anti-CTLA4 antibody ipilimumab and the BRAF inhibitor vemurafenib, shown to confer a survival benefit in randomized phase III clinical trials. Overlooked in the recent flurry of interest that has accompanied the development of these drugs, melanoma is in fact an ancient disease that has long frustrated attempts at therapeutic interventions. In this article, we trace the history of melanoma: from the earliest known cases of melanoma in pre-Colombian South America, through the explorations of the Victorian anatomists right up to the molecular biology revolution of the 20th century that allowed for the identification of the key driving events required for melanomagenesis. We further outline how observations about melanoma heterogeneity, first made over 190 years ago, continue to drive our efforts to reduce melanoma to the level of a chronic, manageable disease and ultimately to cure it entirely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vito W. Rebecca
- Department of Molecular Oncology, The Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
- The Comprehensive Melanoma Research Center, The Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Vernon K. Sondak
- The Comprehensive Melanoma Research Center, The Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
- Department of Cutaneous Oncology, The Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - Keiran S. M. Smalley
- Department of Molecular Oncology, The Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
- The Comprehensive Melanoma Research Center, The Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
- Department of Cutaneous Oncology, The Moffitt Cancer Center, 12902 Magnolia Drive, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
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4
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Clinical relevance of KRAS in human cancers. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:150960. [PMID: 20617134 PMCID: PMC2896632 DOI: 10.1155/2010/150960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2009] [Revised: 02/22/2010] [Accepted: 03/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The KRAS gene (Ki-ras2 Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog) is an oncogene that encodes a small GTPase transductor protein called KRAS. KRAS is involved in the regulation of cell division as a result of its ability to relay external signals to the cell nucleus. Activating mutations in the KRAS gene impair the ability of the KRAS protein to switch between active and inactive states, leading to cell transformation and increased resistance to chemotherapy and biological therapies targeting epidermal growth factor receptors. This review highlights some of the features of the KRAS gene and the KRAS protein and summarizes current knowledge of the mechanism of KRAS gene regulation. It also underlines the importance of activating mutations in the KRAS gene in relation to carcinogenesis and their importance as diagnostic biomarkers, providing clues regarding human cancer patients' prognosis and indicating potential therapeutic approaches.
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Abstract
From the pioneering work with acute transforming retroviruses to the current post-genomic era, RAS genes have always been at the leading edge of signal transduction and molecular oncology. Yet, a complete understanding of RAS function and dysfunction - mainly in human cancer - is still to come. The knowledge that has accumulated since their discovery 30 years ago has, however, been remarkable, and should pave the way for not only solving the outstanding issues regarding RAS biology, but also for developing efficacious drugs that could have a significant impact on cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Malumbres
- Molecular Oncology Programme, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas, Melchor Fernández Almagro 3, 28029 Madrid, Spain.
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6
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Abstract
The process by which normal cells become progressively transformed to malignancy is now known to require the sequential acquisition of mutations which arise as a consequence of damage to the genome. This damage can be the result of endogenous processes such as errors in replication of DNA, the intrinsic chemical instability of certain DNA bases or from attack by free radicals generated during metabolism. DNA damage can also result from interactions with exogenous agents such as ionizing radiation, UV radiation and chemical carcinogens. Cells have evolved means to repair such damage, but for various reasons errors occur and permanent changes in the genome, mutations, are introduced. Some inactivating mutations occur in genes responsible for maintaining genomic integrity facilitating the acquisition of additional mutations. This review seeks first to identify sources of mutational damage so as to identify the basic causes of human cancer. Through an understanding of cause, prevention may be possible. The evolution of the normal cell to a malignant one involves processes by which genes involved in normal homeostatic mechanisms that control proliferation and cell death suffer mutational damage which results in the activation of genes stimulating proliferation or protection against cell death, the oncogenes, and the inactivation of genes which would normally inhibit proliferation, the tumor suppressor genes. Finally, having overcome normal controls on cell birth and cell death, an aspiring cancer cell faces two new challenges: it must overcome replicative senescence and become immortal and it must obtain adequate supplies of nutrients and oxygen to maintain this high rate of proliferation. This review examines the process of the sequential acquisition of mutations from the prospective of Darwinian evolution. Here, the fittest cell is one that survives to form a new population of genetically distinct cells, the tumor. This review does not attempt to be comprehensive but identifies key genes directly involved in carcinogenesis and demonstrates how mutations in these genes allow cells to circumvent cellular controls. This detailed understanding of the process of carcinogenesis at the molecular level has only been possible because of the advent of modern molecular biology. This new discipline, by precisely identifying the molecular basis of the differences between normal and malignant cells, has created novel opportunities and provided the means to specifically target these modified genes. Whenever possible this review highlights these opportunities and the attempts being made to generate novel, molecular based therapies against cancer. Successful use of these new therapies will rely upon a detailed knowledge of the genetic defects in individual tumors. The review concludes with a discussion of how the use of high throughput molecular arrays will allow the molecular pathologist/therapist to identify these defects and direct specific therapies to specific mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Bertram
- Cancer Research Center of Hawaii, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1236 Lauhala Street, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA.
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7
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Shimizu T, Kato MV, Nikaido O, Suzuki F. A specific chromosome change and distinctive transforming genes are necessary for malignant progression of spontaneous transformation in cultured Chinese hamster embryo cells. Jpn J Cancer Res 1995; 86:546-54. [PMID: 7622419 PMCID: PMC5920869 DOI: 10.1111/j.1349-7006.1995.tb02433.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Chinese hamster embryo (CHE) cell strains, each initiated from a separate cell stock obtained from different mothers, were transferred successively at intervals of 3 days and the changes in growth properties and karyotypes at various passages were examined. All nine cell strains proliferated at varying growth rates for 60 passages but only 2 (designated CHE A1 and CHE A2) of them expressed malignant phenotypes. The acquisition of tumorigenicity in nude mice was observed in CHE A1 and CHE A2 cells at passages 40 and 10, respectively. After 5 passages, 8 of 9 cell strains contained one or two common additional chromosomes, chromosome 3q and/or chromosome 5, although one cell strain (designated CHE A3) maintained a normal diploid karyotype for 60 passages. Trisomy of chromosome 3q was observed in all tumorigenic CHE A1 and A2 cells. One or two 3q chromosomes were detected in all tumor-derived cell lines established from tumors produced by these tumorigenic cells. DNA from tumorigenic cells and tumor-derived cell lines exhibited a high ability to transform mouse NIH3T3 cells, but we could not detect any activation of Ha-ras, Ki-ras, hst, erbB-2, mos, met or raf in any of the transformed NIH3T3 cells. These results suggest that even though cultured CHE cells can transform spontaneously, without any specific chromosome change, to immortal cells, activation of unknown oncogene(s) in addition to a specific chromosome change may be required for their malignant progression. Our results suggest that trisomy of chromosome 3q is this specific chromosome change.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Shimizu
- Division of Radiation Biology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kanazawa University
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Leuthauser SW, Thomas JE, Guernsey DL. Oncogenes in X-ray-transformed C3H 10T1/2 mouse cells and in X-ray-induced mouse fibrosarcoma (RIF-1) cells. Int J Radiat Biol 1992; 62:45-51. [PMID: 1353775 DOI: 10.1080/09553009214551811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In order to better understand the molecular basis of X-ray induced carcinogenesis we have investigated RNA levels of oncogenes in an X-ray transformed C3H 10T1/2 fibroblast line (XTD) and RIF-1 cells isolated from an X-ray-induced fibrosarcoma in a C3H mouse. Steady-state levels of K-ras, H-ras, N-ras, abl, sis, src, and fos were unchanged in the X-ray-transformed cells compared with non-transformed C3H 10T1/2 cells. However, myc and raf mRNA levels were increased dramatically in the transformed cells. Data further suggests a possible alteration in processing of raf RNA in the XTD cells. Southern blot analysis of secondary transfectants induced with XTD DNA indicated that the oncogenic phenotype did not segregate with the myc or raf loci; nor with nine other oncogenes analysed.
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Vassbotn FS, Skar R, Holmsen H, Lillehaug JR. Absence of PDGF-induced, PKC-independent c-fos expression in a chemically transformed C3H/10T1/2 cell clone. Exp Cell Res 1992; 202:98-104. [PMID: 1380924 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4827(92)90408-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The effect of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) on c-fos mRNA transcription was studied in the immortalized mouse embryo fibroblast C3H/10T1/2 Cl 8 (10T1/2) cells and the chemically transformed, tumorigenic subclone C3H/10T1/2 Cl 16 (Cl 16). In the 10T1/2 cells as well as the Cl 16 subclone, the dose-dependent PDGF stimulation of c-fos mRNA synthesis was similar in both logarithmically growing and confluent cultures. c-fos mRNA was induced severalfold by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) in both 10T1/2 and Cl 16. Down-regulation of protein kinase C (PKC) activity by TPA pretreatment inhibited PDGF-stimulated c-fos mRNA expression in Cl 16 cells but did not affect this induction in the 10T1/2 cells. This inhibition was not a general phenomenon of 3-methylcholanthrene-mediated transformation of 10T1/2 cells since experiments with another transformed 10T1/2 cell clone, C3H/10T1/2 TPA 482, gave qualitatively the same results as the 10T1/2 cells. Receptor binding experiments showed that the nontransformed and transformed cells had a comparable number of PDGF receptors, 1.3 x 10(5) and 0.7 x 10(5) receptors per cell, respectively. Furthermore, cAMP-induced c-fos expression induced by forskolin is formerly shown to be independent of PKC down-regulation. In our experiments, forskolin induced c-fos expression in both clones. However, PKC down-regulation inhibited the forskolin-induced c-fos expression in Cl 16 cells. This apparently demonstrates cross talk between PKC and PKA in the c-fos induction pathway. The present results provide evidence for an impaired mechanism for activating c-fos expression through PKC-independent, PDGF-induced signal transduction in the chemically transformed Cl 16 fibroblasts compared to that in nontransformed 10T1/2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- F S Vassbotn
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Bergen, Norway
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10
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Oncogenic Cell Transformation in Vitro. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-035416-0.50010-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
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11
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Hustad CM, Jones PA. Effect of myogenic determination on tumorigenicity of chemically transformed 10T1/2 cells. Mol Carcinog 1991; 4:153-61. [PMID: 1710465 DOI: 10.1002/mc.2940040211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Transforming agents have been postulated to interfere with cellular differentiation programs, thus causing uncontrolled growth. Inducing transformed cells to differentiate can result in loss of the transformed phenotype since many end-stage differentiated cells are unable to divide. We attempted to bypass or suppress the tumorigenic phenotype of 3-methylcholanthrene (MCA)-transformed 10T1/2 cells (MCA Cl 15C1) by induction of myogenic determination. MCA Cl 15C1 cells were either treated with the hypomethylating drug 5-azacytidine (5-aza-CR) or were transfected with the muscle determination gene MyoD1, both of which induce a myogenic phenotype in 10T1/2 cells. Colonies containing myoblast-like cells were isolated and examined. Muscle markers were detected both in 5-aza-CR-treated and in MyoD1-transfected myogenic clones by immunofluorescence and northern analyses. The myogenic clones did not show decreased tumorigenicities relative to that of the parental cells upon subcutaneous injection in nude mice. Some of the resulting tumors, however, were classified as rhabdomyosarcomas rather than fibrosarcomas. Although induction of myogenic determination was not sufficient to abolish the tumorigenic phenotype of MCA Cl 15C1 cells, several tumors showed decreased levels of MyoD1 mRNA, suggesting that growth in vivo either selected for or caused decreased determination gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Hustad
- Kenneth Norris Jr. Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles 90033
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12
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Abstract
Experimental evidence indicates that cancer development is a multistep process, and that multiple genetic changes are required before a normal cell becomes fully neoplastic. These genetic changes involve oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and possibly senescence genes. From studies in vivo using several different animal models, the stages are broadly defined as initiation, progression, and clearly involve both genetic and epigenetic events. Studies in vitro using cell culture systems have allowed the multistep process to be dissected in greater detail at both the cellular and molecular genetic level. In the Syrian hamster embryo cell culture model, neoplastic progression requires four heritable changes, involving activation of two oncogenes and loss of two tumor suppressor genes. Like the experimental systems, a limited number of studies of human tumors suggest that the multistep paradigm is also applicable, and that similar genetic events are involved in the development of cancer in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Boyd
- Laboratory of Molecular Carcinogenesis, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
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13
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Johnson PW, Stankova J, Dexter D, Roder JC. The in vivo clearance of Ha-ras transformants by natural killer cells. Clin Exp Metastasis 1990; 8:13-25. [PMID: 2403489 DOI: 10.1007/bf00155589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The experiments in this study were designed to test the hypothesis that natural killer (NK) cells play a role in host surveillance against early neoplastic changes in the malignant process. C3H 10T1/2 mouse fibroblasts were transfected with a pSV2-neo plasmid vector which contains EJ, the mutated c-Ha-ras, regulated by its own promoter. Control cells were transfected with pSV2-neo alone and did not contain the ras gene. Oncogene-transfected cells were compared with control cells for lung colony formation following tail vein injection into C3H mice. Intravenous injection of ras-transfected 10T1/2 cells induced marked lung colony formation in vivo, whereas C3H 10T1/2 parental lines or 10T1/2 cells transfected with pSV2-neo alone induced no lung colonies in C3H mice. The colonising potential of ras transfectants could be decreased by augmentation of NK activity by injection of polyinosinic cytidylic acid and increased by depletion of NK effectors with anti-asialo GM1. Experiments with beige mice demonstrated that the mortality of syngeneic, NK-deficient C3H-bg/bg mice injected with ras tranfectants was significantly greater than similarly treated NK-normal C3H(-)+/bg littermate controls. The results support the view that NK cells are capable in vivo of recognizing early defined stages in the neoplastic process initiated by oncogenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- P W Johnson
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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14
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Ananthaswamy HN, Price JE, Tainsky MA, Goldberg LH, Bales ES. Correlation between Ha-ras gene amplification and spontaneous metastasis in NIH 3T3 cells transfected with genomic DNA from human skin cancers. Clin Exp Metastasis 1989; 7:301-13. [PMID: 2647332 DOI: 10.1007/bf01753682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Our previous studies have shown that DNA from some human skin cancers contained activated Ha-ras oncogenes capable of inducing tumorigenic transformation when introduced into NIH 3T3 cells by DNA-mediated gene transfer. In addition, we found that NIH 3T3 cells transfected with DNA from one of the human skin cancers not only induced s.c. tumors at the site of injection but also metastasized spontaneously to the lungs in 100 per cent of nude mice injected. In this present study we examined the relationship between Ha-ras oncogene amplification and metastatic potential in tumors induced by various human skin cancer DNA-transfectants. Total cellular RNA was extracted from nude mouse tumor cell lines and analyzed by northern blot hybridization to a 32P-labeled, nick-translated Ha-ras probe. The metastatic potential of nude mouse tumor cell lines was assessed by their ability to form lung colonies after i.v. or s.c. injection. It was found that only the tumors expressing high levels of Ha-ras gene transcripts induced spontaneous metastasis after s.c. injection. There appeared to be little correlation between the level of Ha-ras oncogene amplification and experimental metastasis. These results suggest that amplification and overexpression of Ha-ras oncogene may play a role in the escape of cells from the primary tumor rather than in the ability of cells to survive in the circulatory system and colonize secondary sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- H N Ananthaswamy
- Department of Immunology, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston 77030
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Nesnow S, Ross J, Mohapatra N, Gold A, Sangaiah R, Gupta R. DNA adduct formation, metabolism, and morphological transforming activity of aceanthrylene in C3H10T1/2CL8 cells. Mutat Res 1989; 222:223-35. [PMID: 2922008 DOI: 10.1016/0165-1218(89)90138-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Aceanthrylene (ACE), a cyclopenta-fused polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (CP-PAH) related to anthracene, has been studied for its ability to be metabolized, to form DNA adducts, and to morphologically transform C3H10T1/2CL8 mouse embryo fibroblasts in culture. Although ACE has been previously shown to be a strong mutagen in Salmonella typhimurium strains TA89 and TA100, it did not transform C3H10T1/2 cells (0.4-16 micrograms/ml) under 2 treatment protocols: treatment (for 24 h) 1 day after seeding the cells; treatment (for 24 h) 5 days after seeding the cells. Both protocols are effective in detecting the morphological transforming activity of PAH and CP-PAH and the latter protocol has been shown to be effective in detecting chemicals which are active in the first protocol only with the additional treatment of the cells with a tumor promoter. ACE is metabolized by C3H10T1/2 cells to ACE-1,2-dihydrodiol (the cyclopenta-ring dihydrodiol) at a rate of 450 pmoles ACE-1,2-dihydrodiol formed/h/10(6) cells. ACE-7,8-dihydrodiol and ACE-9,10-dihydrodiol, identified as major Aroclor-1254-induced rat liver microsomal metabolites from their UV, NMR, and mass spectral data, were not identified in incubations of C3H10T1/2 cells with ACE. ACE-DNA adducts in C3H10T1/2 cells were isolated, separated, identified, and quantitated using the 32P-postlabeling method. ACE forms 4 major adducts and each was identified as an ACE-1,2-oxide/2'-deoxyguanosine adduct. The level of adduction was 2.18 pmoles ACE adducts/mg DNA after a 24-h incubation of ACE (16 micrograms/ml) with C3H10T1/2 cells. ACE-DNA adduct persistence and repair were evaluated in C3H10T1/2 cells using a hydroxyurea block after ACE treatment. ACE-DNA adducts were not repaired under the conditions used in the morphological transformation studies. Thus, ACE provides an interesting example of a mutagenic PAH which is metabolized by C3H10T1/2 cells to active intermediates, forms relatively stable and persistent 2'-deoxyguanosine adducts in C3H10T1/2 cells, and yet induces no detectable morphological transforming activity under the experimental conditions used.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Nesnow
- Carcinogenesis and Metabolism Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
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16
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Krolewski B, Little JB. Molecular analysis of DNA isolated from the different stages of x-ray-induced transformation in vitro. Mol Carcinog 1989; 2:27-33. [PMID: 2730762 DOI: 10.1002/mc.2940020105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A major challenge in radiation carcinogenesis is to identify the cellular gene or genes involved in initiating the process. We examined the transforming activities of DNAs obtained from C3H10T1/2 cells during x-ray-induced morphological transformation. DNAs extracted from mass cultures of 10T1/2 cells at different times after irradiation with 600 rad and from type III-transformed foci were transfected into NIH 3T3 cells. The results indicate that certain oncogenes are activated beginning 3 wk after irradiation, well before the appearance of macroscopically visible transformed foci. For DNA isolated from x-ray-transformed 10T1/2 cells (type III foci), the frequencies of transfection were 0.003-0.11 foci/microgram of genomic DNA with NIH 3T3 cells and 0.004-0.04 foci/microgram genomic DNA using 10T1/2 cells as recipients. Southern blot analysis of DNAs obtained from 23 primary transfectants and from 23 x-ray-transformed cell lines indicated no gross rearrangements or amplification of any of the 14 oncogenes screened (v-Ha-ras, v-Ki-ras, N-ras, v-myc, v-raf, v-src, v-fes, v-abl, v-mos, v-erbA, v-erbB, v-myb, v-fos, v-sis). This suggests that x-irradiation may activate as yet unidentified oncogenes. The occurrence of positive transfection 3 wk after irradiation is discussed in terms of the hypothesis that transformation may not occur as a direct consequence of the exposure to x-rays but develops as a rare event in the progeny of the irradiated cells at some later time, as a consequence of the delayed activation of certain genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Krolewski
- Laboratory of Radiobiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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17
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Weitzman S, Schmeichel C, Turk P, Stevens C, Tolsma S, Bouck N. Phagocyte-mediated carcinogenesis: DNA from phagocyte-transformed C3H 10T1/2 cells can transform NIH/3T3 cells. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1988; 551:103-9; discussion 110. [PMID: 3245654 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb22324.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S Weitzman
- Northwestern University Cancer Center, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois 60611
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18
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Brookes P, Cooper CS, Ellis MV, Warren W, Gardner E, Summerhayes IC. Activated Ki-ras genes in bladder epithelial cell lines transformed by treatment of primary mouse bladder explant cultures with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. Mol Carcinog 1988; 1:82-8. [PMID: 3151261 DOI: 10.1002/mc.2940010203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
DNA from five lines of transformed bladder epithelial cells derived from cultures of primary cells that had been treated with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) can transform NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblasts in DNA transfection experiments. Southern analysis of DNA from NIH 3T3 primary and secondary transformants established that four of the DMBA-transformed cell lines contained activated cellular Ki-ras, while the remaining cell line contained a transforming gene that is unrelated to Ki-ras, N-ras, and Ha-ras. The point mutations responsible for Ki-ras activation were detected using oligonucleotide probes following selective amplification of Ki-ras specific sequences using the polymerase chain reaction. The results showed that activation of Ki-ras invariably involved a GC----AT transition mutation of the first position of codon 12. Surprisingly, a Ki-ras gene that was activated by a GC----AT transition mutation at the same position was also detected in a single transformed bladder urothelial cell line derived from control cultures of mouse bladder cells. Together, our results indicate that Ki-ras activation in the DMBA-transformed bladder cell lines may not be a direct consequence of interaction of activated DMBA metabolites with the Ki-ras gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Brookes
- Chemical Carcinogenesis Section, Institute of Cancer Research, London, England
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- A Balmain
- Beatson Institute for Cancer Research, Garscube Estate, Bearsden, Glkasgow, Scotland
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20
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Doggett NA, Cordeiro-Stone M, Chae CB, Kaufman DG. Timing of proto-oncogene replication: a possible determinant of early S phase sensitivity of C3H 10T1/2 cells to transformation by chemical carcinogens. Mol Carcinog 1988; 1:41-9. [PMID: 3255390 DOI: 10.1002/mc.2940010110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The temporal order of replication of several genes was studied in 10T1/2 cells synchronized by release from confluence-induced arrest of proliferation followed by treatment with 2 micrograms/mL aphidicolin for 24 h. DNA subjected to bromodeoxyuridine substitution for 1- or 2-h intervals spanning the S phase was separated from the remaining DNA in cesium chloride gradients, filtered onto nitrocellulose in a slot-blot apparatus, and hybridized with various 32P-labeled probes. Ha-ras was among the first genes replicated at the onset of the S phase. The myc proto-oncogene replicated later but within the first hour of the S phase. The replication of Ki-ras, raf, and mos was detected between hour 1 and 2 of the S phase. The dihydrofolate reductase gene replicated early (0-2 h) and the myb proto-oncogene replicated in mid-S phase (2-4 h). An immunoglobulin VH sequence and the beta-globin gene replicated late in 10T1/2 cells, 4-6 h after removal of aphidicolin. Replicating DNA is preferentially adducted by chemical carcinogens, and replication of damaged proto-oncogenes before they are repaired may activate their transforming potential. Therefore, the observed replication of proto-oncogenes during the early S phase may underlie the enhanced sensitivity of 10T1/2 cells to chemically induced transformation at this point in the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Doggett
- Department of Pathology, Lineberger Cancer Research Center, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599
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Smith GJ, Grisham JW. Activation of the Ha-ras gene in C3H 10T1/2 cells transformed by exposure to N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1987; 147:1194-9. [PMID: 2889455 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(87)80196-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A transfectable, presumably mutationally activated, c-Ha-ras gene was identified in a clonal population of 10T1/2 cells established from a Type II focus induced by exposure of a parental, wild-type population to N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG).
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Smith
- Department of Pathology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 27514
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22
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Doniger J, Notario V, DiPaolo J. Carcinogens with diverse mutagenic activities initiate neoplastic guinea pig cells that acquire the same N-ras point mutation. J Biol Chem 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)61428-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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23
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Rapp UR, Storm SM, Cleveland JL. Oncogenes: clinical relevance. HAEMATOLOGY AND BLOOD TRANSFUSION 1987; 31:450-9. [PMID: 3327780 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-72624-8_97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- U R Rapp
- Division of Cancer Etiology, National Cancer Institute
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24
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Abstract
The metabolism and activation of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons has been reviewed and the original contributions made to this area by Professor E. Boyland have been placed in context. The reactions involved in the formation, via epoxides, of hydroxylated derivatives have been outlined and conjugations with glucuronic and sulphuric acids and with glutathione have been discussed. Examples of secondary hydroxylation reactions have been given and the possible role that phenolic hydroxyl groups may play in activating epoxides considered. Mechanism by which polycyclic hydrocarbons are activated by metabolism to epoxides of various types have been included, mainly by reference to benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]anthracene and chrysene. The tissue and species specific effects of polycyclic hydrocarbons have been referred to and the tissues that may act as targets in man for the initiation of malignancy by polycyclic hydrocarbons mentioned.
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25
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Trimble WS, Johnson PW, Hozumi N, Roder JC. Inducible cellular transformation by a metallothionein-ras hybrid oncogene leads to natural killer cell susceptibility. Nature 1986; 321:782-4. [PMID: 3520342 DOI: 10.1038/321782a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are lymphoid effector cells possessing spontaneous cytolytic activity against a variety of tumour targets. The fact that NK cells pre-exist at high frequency and require no lengthy activation, and the observation that differentiated and metastatic tumour cells often have a decreased sensitivity to NK cytolysis have led to the hypothesis that these cells may be involved in the earliest stages of antitumour surveillance. Central to this model is the prediction that NK sensitivity must arise during cellular transformation. To test this prediction directly, we have constructed a vector containing the transforming gene from the EJ bladder carcinoma cell line under the transcriptional control of the mouse metallothionein-I promoter. When induced with heavy metal ions, mouse fibroblast lines containing this vector become dramatically sensitive to NK-mediated cytolysis concomitant with the expression of the cellular Harvey ras (c-Ha-ras) p21 protein and with cellular transformation.
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Kung HF, Smith MR, Bekesi E, Manne V, Stacey DW. Reversal of transformed phenotype by monoclonal antibodies against Ha-ras p21 proteins. Exp Cell Res 1986; 162:363-71. [PMID: 3510879 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4827(86)90341-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The transforming activities of p21 ras proteins have been determined by micro-injection of these proteins into NIH3T3 cells. In order to facilitate functional studies on the effect of ras proteins on malignant transformation and normal cellular growth, analysis has been made with three monoclonal antibodies (YA6-172, Y13-238 and Y13-259) as originally reported by Furth et al. (J virol 43 (1982) 294). Purified immunoglobulin of Y13-259 has the highest titer of binding to bacterially synthesized p21 ras proteins. Experimental analyses indicate that only Y13-259 antibody will neutralize the transforming activity of the co-injected bacterially synthesized ras protein and the neutralization effect was blocked by co-injection of excess ras protein. In addition, micro-injection of Y13-259 immunoglobulin into transformed NIH3T3 cells (obtained by DNA transfection of NIH3T3 cells with molecularly cloned ras gene) reversed their transformed phenotypes. These results indicate that both bacterially synthesized p21 ras proteins and the natural ras proteins produced in NIH3T3 cells were neutralized by Y13-259 antibody.
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27
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Zarbl H, Sukumar S, Arthur AL, Martin-Zanca D, Barbacid M. Activation of H-ras-1 oncogenes by chemical carcinogens. BASIC LIFE SCIENCES 1986; 38:385-97. [PMID: 3017289 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-9462-8_42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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28
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Zarbl H, Sukumar S, Arthur AV, Martin-Zanca D, Barbacid M. Direct mutagenesis of Ha-ras-1 oncogenes by N-nitroso-N-methylurea during initiation of mammary carcinogenesis in rats. Nature 1985; 315:382-5. [PMID: 3923365 DOI: 10.1038/315382a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 656] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Induction of mammary carcinomas in rats by a single exposure to a carcinogen during sexual development often involves malignant activation of the Ha-ras-1 locus. Each of the Ha-ras-1 oncogenes present in tumours induced by N-nitroso-N-methylurea, but not in those induced by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene, became activated by the same G----A transition, the type of mutation induced by N-nitroso-N-methylurea. These results are consistent with the notion that Ha-ras-1 oncogenes are directly activated by the carcinogen during initiation of neoplasia.
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Cooper CS, Park M, Blair DG, Tainsky MA, Huebner K, Croce CM, Vande Woude GF. Molecular cloning of a new transforming gene from a chemically transformed human cell line. Nature 1984; 311:29-33. [PMID: 6590967 DOI: 10.1038/311029a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 710] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Molecular cloning of the transforming gene from a chemically transformed human osteosarcoma-derived cell line enables the gene to be mapped to chromosome 7 (7p11.4-7qter) and by this criterion and by direct hybridization to be shown to be unrelated to known oncogenes.
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