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Uddin T, Xia J, Fu Y, McNamara CW, Chatterjee AK, Sibley LD. High Throughput Repurposing Screen Reveals Compounds with Activity Against Toxoplasma gondii Bradyzoites. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.01.601569. [PMID: 39005312 PMCID: PMC11244992 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.01.601569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii causes widespread chronic infections that are not cured by current treatments due to inability to affect semi-dormant bradyzoite stages within tissue cysts. To identify compounds to eliminate chronic infection, we developed a HTS using a recently characterized strain of T. gondii that undergoes efficient conversion to bradyzoites in intro. Stage-specific expression of luciferase was used to selectively monitor growth inhibition of bradyzoites by the Library of Pharmacological Active Compounds, consisting of 1,280 drug-like compounds. We identified 44 compounds with >50% inhibitory effects against bradyzoites, including new highly potent compounds, several of which have precedent for antimicrobial activity. Subsequent characterization of the compound Sanguinarine sulfate revealed potent and rapid killing against in vitro produced bradyzoites and bradyzoites harvested from chronically infected mice. These findings provide a platform for expanded screening and identify promising compounds for further preclinical development against T. gondii bradyzoites responsible for chronic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taher Uddin
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jing Xia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Yong Fu
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | | | | | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Herrera-Espejo S, Vila-Domínguez A, Cebrero-Cangueiro T, Smani Y, Pachón J, Jiménez-Mejías ME, Pachón-Ibáñez ME. Efficacy of Tamoxifen Metabolites in Combination with Colistin and Tigecycline in Experimental Murine Models of Escherichia coli and Acinetobacter baumannii. Antibiotics (Basel) 2024; 13:386. [PMID: 38786115 PMCID: PMC11117204 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics13050386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the potential of tamoxifen and N-desmethyltamoxifen metabolites as therapeutic agents against multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and Acinetobacter baumannii, using a repurposing approach to shorten the time required to obtain a new effective treatment against multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. Characterisation and virulence studies were conducted on E. coli (colistin-susceptible C1-7-LE and colistin-resistant MCR-1+) and A. baumannii (tigecycline-susceptible Ab#9 and tigecycline-resistant Ab#186) strains. The efficacy of the metabolite mix (33.3% each) and N-desmethyltamoxifen in combination with colistimethate sodium (CMS) or tigecycline was evaluated in experimental models in mice. In the pneumonia model, N-desmethyltamoxifen exhibited significant efficacy against Ab#9 and both E. coli strains, especially E. coli MCR-1+ (-2.86 log10 CFU/g lungs, -5.88 log10 CFU/mL blood, and -50% mortality), and against the Ab#186 strain when combined with CMS (-2.27 log10 CFU/g lungs, -2.73 log10 CFU/mL blood, and -40% mortality) or tigecycline (-3.27 log10 CFU/g lungs, -4.95 log10 CFU/mL blood, and -50% mortality). Moreover, the metabolite mix in combination with both antibiotics decreased the bacterial concentrations in the lungs and blood for both A. baumannii strains. In the sepsis model, the significant efficacy of the metabolite mix was restricted to the colistin-susceptible E. coli C1-7-LE strain (-3.32 log10 CFU/g lung, -6.06 log10 CFU/mL blood, and -79% mortality). N-desmethyltamoxifen could be a new therapeutic option in combination with CMS or tigecycline for combating multidrug-resistant GNB, specifically A. baumannii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraya Herrera-Espejo
- Unidad Clínica de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Microbiología y Parasitología, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, 41013 Sevilla, Spain; (S.H.-E.); (A.V.-D.); (T.C.-C.); (M.E.J.-M.); (M.E.P.-I.)
| | - Andrea Vila-Domínguez
- Unidad Clínica de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Microbiología y Parasitología, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, 41013 Sevilla, Spain; (S.H.-E.); (A.V.-D.); (T.C.-C.); (M.E.J.-M.); (M.E.P.-I.)
| | - Tania Cebrero-Cangueiro
- Unidad Clínica de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Microbiología y Parasitología, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, 41013 Sevilla, Spain; (S.H.-E.); (A.V.-D.); (T.C.-C.); (M.E.J.-M.); (M.E.P.-I.)
| | - Younes Smani
- Centro Andaluz de Biología del Desarrollo, Universidad Pablo de Olavide/Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas/Junta de Andalucía, 41013 Sevilla, Spain;
- Departamento de Biología Molecular e Ingeniería Bioquímica, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Jerónimo Pachón
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
- Departamento de Medicina, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Sevilla, 41009 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Manuel E. Jiménez-Mejías
- Unidad Clínica de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Microbiología y Parasitología, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, 41013 Sevilla, Spain; (S.H.-E.); (A.V.-D.); (T.C.-C.); (M.E.J.-M.); (M.E.P.-I.)
| | - María E. Pachón-Ibáñez
- Unidad Clínica de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Microbiología y Parasitología, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, 41013 Sevilla, Spain; (S.H.-E.); (A.V.-D.); (T.C.-C.); (M.E.J.-M.); (M.E.P.-I.)
- CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220 Madrid, Spain
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Maus D, Curtis B, Warschkau D, Betancourt ED, Seeber F, Blume M. Generation of Mature Toxoplasma gondii Bradyzoites in Human Immortalized Myogenic KD3 Cells. Bio Protoc 2024; 14:e4916. [PMID: 38213326 PMCID: PMC10777055 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.4916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic protozoan parasite and one of the most successful foodborne pathogens. Upon infection and dissemination, the parasites convert into the persisting, chronic form called bradyzoites, which reside within cysts in muscle and brain tissue. Despite their importance, bradyzoites remain difficult to investigate directly, owing to limited in vitro models. In addition, the need for new drugs targeting the chronic stage, which is underlined by the lack of eradicating treatment options, remains difficult to address since in vitro access to drug-tolerant bradyzoites remains limited. We recently published the use of a human myotube-based bradyzoite cell culture system and demonstrated its applicability to investigate the biology of T. gondii bradyzoites. Encysted parasites can be functionally matured during long-term cultivation in these immortalized cells and possess many in vivo-like features, including pepsin resistance, oral infectivity, and antifolate resistance. In addition, the system is scalable, enabling experimental approaches that rely on large numbers, such as metabolomics. In short, we detail the cultivation of terminally differentiated human myotubes and their subsequent infection with tachyzoites, which then mature to encysted bradyzoites within four weeks at ambient CO2 levels. We also discuss critical aspects of the procedure and suggest improvements. Key features • This protocol describes a scalable human myotube-based in vitro system capable of generating encysted bradyzoites featuring in vivo hallmarks. • Bradyzoite differentiation is facilitated through CO2 depletion but without additional artificial stress factors like alkaline pH. • Functional maturation occurs over four weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Maus
- Metabolism of Microbial Pathogens (P6), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Blake Curtis
- Metabolism of Microbial Pathogens (P6), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
- Research School of Chemistry, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - David Warschkau
- Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria (FG16), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Estefanía Delgado Betancourt
- Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria (FG16), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Frank Seeber
- Mycotic and Parasitic Agents and Mycobacteria (FG16), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Blume
- Metabolism of Microbial Pathogens (P6), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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Müller J, Hemphill A. In vitro screening technologies for the discovery and development of novel drugs against Toxoplasma gondii. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2024; 19:97-109. [PMID: 37921660 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2023.2276349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Toxoplasmosis constitutes a challenge for public health, animal production and welfare. Since more than 60 years, only a limited panel of drugs has been in use for clinical applications. AREAS COVERED Herein, the authors describe the methodology and the results of library screening approaches to identify inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondii and related strains. The authors then provide the reader with their expert perspectives for the future. EXPERT OPINION Various library screening projects, in particular those using reporter strains, have led to the identification of numerous compounds with good efficacy and specificity in vitro. However, only few compounds are effective in suitable animal models such as rodents. Whereas no novel compound has cleared the hurdle to applications in humans, the few compounds with known indication and application profiles in human patients are of interest for further investigations. Taken together, drug repurposing as well as high-throughput screening of novel compound libraries may shorten the way to novel drugs against toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Müller
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Andrew Hemphill
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Rodriguez JB, Szajnman SH. An updated review of chemical compounds with anti-Toxoplasma gondii activity. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 262:115885. [PMID: 37871407 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
The opportunistic apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is the etiologic agent for toxoplasmosis, which can infect a widespread range of hosts, particularly humans and warm-blooded animals. The present chemotherapy to treat or prevent toxoplasmosis is deficient and is based on diverse drugs such as atovaquone, trimethoprim, spiramycine, which are effective in acute toxoplasmosis. Therefore, a safe chemotherapy is required for toxoplasmosis considering that its responsible agent, T. gondii, provokes severe illness and death in pregnant women and immunodeficient patients. A certain disadvantage of the available treatments is the lack of effectiveness against the tissue cyst of the parasite. A safe chemotherapy to combat toxoplasmosis should be based on the metabolic differences between the parasite and the mammalian host. This article covers different relevant molecular targets to combat this disease including the isoprenoid pathway (farnesyl diphosphate synthase, squalene synthase), dihydrofolate reductase, calcium-dependent protein kinases, histone deacetylase, mitochondrial electron transport chain, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan B Rodriguez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón 2, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Unidad de Microanálisis y Métodos Físicos en Química Orgánica (UMYMFOR), C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Sergio H Szajnman
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Universitaria, Pabellón 2, C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Unidad de Microanálisis y Métodos Físicos en Química Orgánica (UMYMFOR), C1428EHA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Liu S, Yan Z, Peng Y, Liu Y, Li Y, Xu D, Gong Y, Cui Z, Wu Y, Zhang Y, Wang D, Pan W, Yang X. Lentinan has a beneficial effect on cognitive deficits induced by chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection in mice. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:454. [PMID: 38093309 PMCID: PMC10717010 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-06023-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is increasingly considered a risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases. However, there is only limited information on the development of drugs for T. gondii infection. Lentinan from Lentinula edodes is a bioactive ingredient with the potential to enhance anti-infective immunity. The present study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective effect of lentinan on T. gondii-associated cognitive deficits in mice. METHODS A chronic T. gondii infection mouse model was established by administering 10 cysts of T. gondii by gavage. Lentinan was intraperitoneally administered 2 weeks before infection. Behavioral tests, RNA sequencing, immunofluorescence, transmission electron microscopy and Golgi-Cox staining were performed to assess the effect of lentinan on cognitive deficits and neuropathology in vivo. In vitro, the direct and indirect effects of lentinan on the proliferation of T. gondii tachyzoites were evaluated in the absence and presence of BV-2 cells, respectively. RESULTS Lentinan prevented T. gondii-induced cognitive deficits and altered the transcriptome profile of genes related to neuroinflammation, microglial activation, synaptic function, neural development and cognitive behavior in the hippocampus of infected mice. Moreover, lentinan reduced the infection-induced accumulation of microglia and downregulated the mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines. In addition, the neurite and synaptic ultrastructural damage in the hippocampal CA1 region due to infection was ameliorated by lentinan administration. Lentinan decreased the cyst burden in the brains of infected mice, which was correlated with behavioral performance. In line with this finding, lentinan could significantly inhibit the proliferation of T. gondii tachyzoites in the microglial cell line BV2, although lentinan had no direct inhibitory effect on parasite growth. CONCLUSIONS Lentinan prevents cognitive deficits via the improvement of neurite impairment and synaptic loss induced by T. gondii infection, which may be associated with decreased cyst burden in the brain. Overall, our findings indicate that lentinan can ameliorate T. gondii-related neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuxi Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China
- The First Clinical Medical College, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ziyi Yan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China
- The First Clinical Medical College, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yuan Peng
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, Nanchong, Sichuan, China
| | - Yunqiu Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yiling Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China
- The First Clinical Medical College, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Daxiang Xu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yuying Gong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zeyu Cui
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China
- The Second Clinical Medical College, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yongshui Wu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China
- The First Clinical Medical College, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yumei Zhang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Binzhou Medical University, Binzhou, 256603, Shandong, China
| | - Dahui Wang
- Liangshan College (Li Shui) China, Lishui University, Lishui, 323000, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Wei Pan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China.
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Xiaoying Yang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Jiangsu International Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, 221004, Jiangsu, China.
- National Experimental Demonstration Center for Basic Medicine Education, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China.
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Han S, Mueller C, Wuebbolt C, Kilcullen S, Nayyar V, Calle Gonzalez B, Mahdavi Fard A, Floss JC, Morales MJ, Patel SP. Selective effects of estradiol on human corneal endothelial cells. Sci Rep 2023; 13:15279. [PMID: 37714879 PMCID: PMC10504266 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-42290-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD), mitochondrial and oxidative stresses in corneal endothelial cells (HCEnCs) contribute to cell demise and disease progression. FECD is more common in women than men, but the basis for this observation is poorly understood. To understand the sex disparity in FECD prevalence, we studied the effects of the sex hormone 17-β estradiol (E2) on growth, oxidative stress, and metabolism in primary cultures of HCEnCs grown under physiologic ([O2]2.5) and hyperoxic ([O2]A) conditions. We hypothesized that E2 would counter the damage of oxidative stress generated at [O2]A. HCEnCs were treated with or without E2 (10 nM) for 7-10 days under both conditions. Treatment with E2 did not significantly alter HCEnC density, viability, ROS levels, oxidative DNA damage, oxygen consumption rates, or extracellular acidification rates in either condition. E2 disrupted mitochondrial morphology in HCEnCs solely from female donors in the [O2]A condition. ATP levels were significantly higher at [O2]2.5 than at [O2]A in HCEnCs from female donors only, but were not affected by E2. Our findings demonstrate the resilience of HCEnCs against hyperoxic stress. The effects of hyperoxia and E2 on HCEnCs from female donors suggest cell sex-specific mechanisms of toxicity and hormonal influences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seoyoung Han
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Christian Mueller
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Caitlin Wuebbolt
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Sean Kilcullen
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Varinda Nayyar
- Research Service, Veterans Administration Western New York Healthcare System, Buffalo, NY, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ross Eye Institute, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Brayan Calle Gonzalez
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Ali Mahdavi Fard
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ross Eye Institute, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Jamie C Floss
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Michael J Morales
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Sangita P Patel
- Research Service, Veterans Administration Western New York Healthcare System, Buffalo, NY, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ross Eye Institute, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA.
- Ophthalmology Service, Veterans Administration Western New York Healthcare System, Buffalo, NY, USA.
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Dos Santos BR, Ramos ABDSB, de Menezes RPB, Scotti MT, Colombo FA, Marques MJ, Reimão JQ. Repurposing the Medicines for Malaria Venture's COVID Box to discover potent inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondii, and in vivo efficacy evaluation of almitrine bismesylate (MMV1804175) in chronically infected mice. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0288335. [PMID: 37418497 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis, caused by the obligate intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii, affects about one-third of the world's population and can cause severe congenital, neurological and ocular issues. Current treatment options are limited, and there are no human vaccines available to prevent transmission. Drug repurposing has been effective in identifying anti-T. gondii drugs. In this study, the screening of the COVID Box, a compilation of 160 compounds provided by the "Medicines for Malaria Venture" organization, was conducted to explore its potential for repurposing drugs to combat toxoplasmosis. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the compounds' ability to inhibit T. gondii tachyzoite growth, assess their cytotoxicity against human cells, examine their absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) properties, and investigate the potential of one candidate drug through an experimental chronic model of toxoplasmosis. Early screening identified 29 compounds that could inhibit T. gondii survival by over 80% while keeping human cell survival up to 50% at a concentration of 1 μM. The Half Effective Concentrations (EC50) of these compounds ranged from 0.04 to 0.92 μM, while the Half Cytotoxic Concentrations (CC50) ranged from 2.48 to over 50 μM. Almitrine was chosen for further evaluation due to its favorable characteristics, including anti-T. gondii activity at nanomolar concentrations, low cytotoxicity, and ADMET properties. Administering almitrine bismesylate (Vectarion®) orally at dose of 25 mg/kg/day for ten consecutive days resulted in a statistically significant (p < 0.001) reduction in parasite burden in the brains of mice chronically infected with T. gondii (ME49 strain). This was determined by quantifying the RNA of living parasites using real-time PCR. The presented results suggest that almitrine may be a promising drug candidate for additional experimental studies on toxoplasmosis and provide further evidence of the potential of the MMV collections as a valuable source of drugs to be repositioned for infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna Ramos Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Preclinical Assays and Research of Alternative Sources of Innovative Therapy for Toxoplasmosis and Other Sicknesses (PARASITTOS), Departamento de Morfologia e Patologia Básica, Faculdade de Medicina de Jundiaí, Jundiaí, Brazil
| | | | - Renata Priscila Barros de Menezes
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos Bioativos (PgPNSB), Instituto de Pesquisa em Fármacos e Medicamentos (IPeFarM), Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
| | - Marcus Tullius Scotti
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos Bioativos (PgPNSB), Instituto de Pesquisa em Fármacos e Medicamentos (IPeFarM), Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
| | - Fábio Antônio Colombo
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas, Brazil
| | - Marcos José Marques
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de Alfenas, Brazil
| | - Juliana Quero Reimão
- Laboratory of Preclinical Assays and Research of Alternative Sources of Innovative Therapy for Toxoplasmosis and Other Sicknesses (PARASITTOS), Departamento de Morfologia e Patologia Básica, Faculdade de Medicina de Jundiaí, Jundiaí, Brazil
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Han S, Mueller C, Wuebbolt C, Kilcullen S, Nayyar V, Gonzalez BC, Fard AM, Floss JC, Morales MJ, Patel SP. Selective effects of estradiol on human corneal endothelial cells. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.27.538629. [PMID: 37162976 PMCID: PMC10168450 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.27.538629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Fuchs endothelial corneal dystrophy (FECD) results from genetic and environmental factors triggering mitochondrial and oxidative stress in corneal endothelial cells (CEnCs) leading to CEnC death and corneal opacification. FECD is more common in women than men, but the basis for this observation is unknown. Because FECD is commonly diagnosed around the time of the menopausal transition in women when estrogen levels decrease precipitously, we studied the effects of the potent estrogen,17-β estradiol (E2) on growth, oxidative stress, and metabolism in primary cultures of human CEnCs (HCEnCs) under conditions of physiologic 2.5% O 2 ([O 2 ] 2.5 ) and under hyperoxic stress ([O 2 ] A : room air + 5% CO 2 ). We hypothesized that E2 would counter the stresses of the hyperoxic environment in HCEnCs. HCEnCs were treated ± 10 nM E2 for 7-10 days at [O 2 ] 2.5 and [O 2 ] A followed by measurements of cell density, viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial morphology, oxidative DNA damage, ATP levels, mitochondrial respiration (O 2 consumption rate [OCR]), and glycolysis (extracellular acidification rate [ECAR]). There were no significant changes in HCEnC density, viability, ROS levels, oxidative DNA damage, OCR, and ECAR in response to E2 under either O 2 condition. We found that E2 disrupted mitochondrial morphology in HCEnCs from female donors but not male donors at the [O 2 ] A condition. ATP levels were significantly higher at [O 2 ] 2.5 compared to [O 2 ] A in HCEnCs from female donors only, but were not affected by E2. Our findings demonstrate the overall resilience of primary HCEnCs against hyperoxic stress. The selective detrimental effects of hyperoxia and estradiol on HCEnCs from female but not male donors suggests mechanisms of toxicity based upon cell-sex in addition to hormonal environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seoyoung Han
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Christian Mueller
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Caitlin Wuebbolt
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Sean Kilcullen
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Varinda Nayyar
- Research Service, Veterans Administration of Western New York Healthcare System, Buffalo, New York, USA
- Ross Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Brayan Calle Gonzalez
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Ali Mahdavi Fard
- Ross Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Jamie C. Floss
- Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Michael J. Morales
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Sangita P. Patel
- Research Service, Veterans Administration of Western New York Healthcare System, Buffalo, New York, USA
- Ross Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
- Ophthalmology Service, Veterans Administration of Western New York Healthcare System, Buffalo, New York, USA
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10
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Müller J, Hemphill A. Toxoplasma gondii infection: novel emerging therapeutic targets. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2023; 27:293-304. [PMID: 37212443 PMCID: PMC10330558 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2023.2217353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Toxoplasmosis constitutes a challenge for public health, animal production, and welfare. So far, only a limited panel of drugs has been marketed for clinical applications. In addition to classical screening, the investigation of unique targets of the parasite may lead to the identification of novel drugs. AREAS COVERED Herein, the authors describe the methodology to identify novel drug targets in Toxoplasma gondii and review the literature with a focus on the last two decades. EXPERT OPINION Over the last two decades, the investigation of essential proteins of T. gondii as potential drug targets has fostered the hope of identifying novel compounds for the treatment of toxoplasmosis. Despite good efficacies in vitro, only a few classes of these compounds are effective in suitable rodent models, and none has cleared the hurdle to applications in humans. This shows that target-based drug discovery is in no way better than classical screening approaches. In both cases, off-target effects and adverse side effects in the hosts must be considered. Proteomics-driven analyses of parasite- and host-derived proteins that physically bind drug candidates may constitute a suitable tool to characterize drug targets, irrespectively of the drug discovery methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Müller
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Andrew Hemphill
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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11
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Adeyemi OS, Ishii K, Kato K. The In Vitro Anti-Parasitic Activities of Emodin toward Toxoplasma gondii. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:ph16030447. [PMID: 36986545 PMCID: PMC10053859 DOI: 10.3390/ph16030447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, toxoplasmosis affects nearly one-third of the world’s population, but the available treatments have several limitations. This factor underscores the search for better therapy for toxoplasmosis. Therefore, in the current investigation, we investigated the potential of emodin as a new anti-Toxoplasma gondii while exploring its anti-parasitic mechanism of action. We explored the mechanisms of action of emodin in the presence and absence of an in vitro model of experimental toxoplasmosis. Emodin showed strong anti-T. gondii action with an EC50 value of 0.03 µg/mL; at this same effective anti-parasite concentration, emodin showed no appreciable host cytotoxicity. Likewise, emodin showed a promising anti-T. gondii specificity with a selectivity index (SI) of 276. Pyrimethamine, a standard drug for toxoplasmosis, had an SI of 2.3. The results collectively imply that parasite damage was selective rather than as a result of a broad cytotoxic effect. Furthermore, our data confirm that emodin-induced parasite growth suppression stems from parasite targets and not host targets, and indicate that the anti-parasite action of emodin precludes oxidative stress and ROS production. Emodin likely mediates parasite growth suppression through means other than oxidative stress, ROS production, or mitochondrial toxicity. Collectively, our findings support the potential of emodin as a promising and novel anti-parasitic agent that warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluyomi Stephen Adeyemi
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-onsen, Osaki 989-6711, Miyagi, Japan
- Medicinal Biochemistry and Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Landmark University, Omu-Aran 251101, Kwara State, Nigeria
| | - Kosei Ishii
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-onsen, Osaki 989-6711, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Kentaro Kato
- Laboratory of Sustainable Animal Environment, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, 232-3 Yomogida, Naruko-onsen, Osaki 989-6711, Miyagi, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel./Fax: +81-229-84-7391
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12
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Abstract
The global burden of tuberculosis (TB) is aggravated by the continuously increasing emergence of drug resistance, highlighting the need for innovative therapeutic options. The concept of host-directed therapy (HDT) as adjunctive to classical antibacterial therapy with antibiotics represents a novel and promising approach for treating TB. Here, we have focused on repurposing the clinically used anticancer drug tamoxifen, which was identified as a molecule with strong host-directed activity against intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Using a primary human macrophage Mtb infection model, we demonstrate the potential of tamoxifen against drug-sensitive as well as drug-resistant Mtb bacteria. The therapeutic effect of tamoxifen was confirmed in an in vivo TB model based on Mycobacterium marinum infection of zebrafish larvae. Tamoxifen had no direct antimicrobial effects at the concentrations used, confirming that tamoxifen acted as an HDT drug. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the antimycobacterial effect of tamoxifen is independent of its well-known target the estrogen receptor (ER) pathway, but instead acts by modulating autophagy, in particular the lysosomal pathway. Through RNA sequencing and microscopic colocalization studies, we show that tamoxifen stimulates lysosomal activation and increases the localization of mycobacteria in lysosomes both in vitro and in vivo, while inhibition of lysosomal activity during tamoxifen treatment partly restores mycobacterial survival. Thus, our work highlights the HDT potential of tamoxifen and proposes it as a repurposed molecule for the treatment of TB. IMPORTANCE Tuberculosis (TB) is the world's most lethal infectious disease caused by a bacterial pathogen, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This pathogen evades the immune defenses of its host and grows intracellularly in immune cells, particularly inside macrophages. There is an urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies because treatment of TB patients is increasingly complicated by rising antibiotic resistance. In this study, we explored a breast cancer drug, tamoxifen, as a potential anti-TB drug. We show that tamoxifen acts as a so-called host-directed therapeutic, which means that it does not act directly on the bacteria but helps the host macrophages combat the infection more effectively. We confirmed the antimycobacterial effect of tamoxifen in a zebrafish model for TB and showed that it functions by promoting the delivery of mycobacteria to digestive organelles, the lysosomes. These results support the high potential of tamoxifen to be repurposed to fight antibiotic-resistant TB infections by host-directed therapy.
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13
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Honfozo A, Houngue R, Vandeputte A, Dechavanne S, Nouatin O, Atindehou MC, Fanou LA, Massougbodji A, Dechavanne C, Brodin P, Tomavo S. An image-based high-content screening for compounds targeting Toxoplasma gondii repurposed inhibitors effective against the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1102551. [PMID: 36936758 PMCID: PMC10020723 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1102551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexa phylum includes numerous obligate intracellular protozoan parasites that are life threatening for humans and animals. In this context, Plasmodium falciparum and Toxoplasma gondii are of particular interest, as they are responsible for malaria and toxoplasmosis, respectively, for which efficient vaccines are presently lacking and therapies need to be improved. Apicomplexan parasites have a highly polarized morphology, with their apical end containing specific secretory organelles named rhoptries and micronemes, which depend on the unique receptor and transporter sortilin TgSORT for their biogenesis. In the present study, we took advantage of the subcellular polarity of the parasite to engineer a clonal transgenic Toxoplasma line that expresses simultaneously the green fluorescent protein TgSORT-GFP in the post-Golgi-endosome-like compartment and the red fluorescent protein rhoptry ROP1-mCherry near the apical end. We utilized this fluorescent transgenic T. gondii to develop a miniaturized image-based phenotype assay coupled to an automated image analysis. By applying this methodology to 1,120 compounds, we identified 12 that are capable of disrupting the T. gondii morphology and inhibiting intracellular replication. Analysis of the selected compounds confirmed that all 12 are kinase inhibitors and intramembrane pumps, with some exhibiting potent activity against Plasmodium falciparum. Our findings highlight the advantage of comparative and targeted phenotypic analysis involving two related parasite species as a means of identifying molecules with a conserved mode of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariane Honfozo
- Université Paris Saclay, CNRS UMR 9198-CEA, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Rodrigue Houngue
- Université Paris Saclay, CNRS UMR 9198-CEA, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Alexandre Vandeputte
- Université de Lille, CNRS UMR 9017, INSERM U 1019, Institut Pasteur de Lille, US 41 − UAR 2014 − PLBS, CIIL − Center for Immunity and Infection of Lille, Lille, France
| | | | - Odilon Nouatin
- Institut de Recherche Clinique du Bénin, Abomey-Calavi, Benin
| | | | - Lucie Ayi Fanou
- Laboratoire de Biochimie et de Biologie Moléculaire, FAST/UAC, Cotonou, Benin
| | | | - Célia Dechavanne
- Université de Paris Cité, IRD, MERIT, Paris, France
- CERPAGE, Cotonou, Benin
| | - Priscille Brodin
- Université de Lille, CNRS UMR 9017, INSERM U 1019, Institut Pasteur de Lille, US 41 − UAR 2014 − PLBS, CIIL − Center for Immunity and Infection of Lille, Lille, France
| | - Stanislas Tomavo
- Université Paris Saclay, CNRS UMR 9198-CEA, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif sur Yvette, France
- *Correspondence: Stanislas Tomavo,
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14
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Pant A, Yao X, Lavedrine A, Viret C, Dockterman J, Chauhan S, Chong-Shan Shi, Manjithaya R, Cadwell K, Kufer TA, Kehrl JH, Coers J, Sibley LD, Faure M, Taylor GA, Chauhan S. Interactions of Autophagy and the Immune System in Health and Diseases. AUTOPHAGY REPORTS 2022; 1:438-515. [PMID: 37425656 PMCID: PMC10327624 DOI: 10.1080/27694127.2022.2119743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
Autophagy is a highly conserved process that utilizes lysosomes to selectively degrade a variety of intracellular cargo, thus providing quality control over cellular components and maintaining cellular regulatory functions. Autophagy is triggered by multiple stimuli ranging from nutrient starvation to microbial infection. Autophagy extensively shapes and modulates the inflammatory response, the concerted action of immune cells, and secreted mediators aimed to eradicate a microbial infection or to heal sterile tissue damage. Here, we first review how autophagy affects innate immune signaling, cell-autonomous immune defense, and adaptive immunity. Then, we discuss the role of non-canonical autophagy in microbial infections and inflammation. Finally, we review how crosstalk between autophagy and inflammation influences infectious, metabolic, and autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Pant
- Autophagy Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Xiaomin Yao
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Aude Lavedrine
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université de Lyon, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe Labellisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, FRM
| | - Christophe Viret
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université de Lyon, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe Labellisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, FRM
| | - Jake Dockterman
- Department of Immunology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Swati Chauhan
- Cell biology and Infectious diseases, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Chong-Shan Shi
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Ravi Manjithaya
- Autophagy Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, India
- Neuroscience Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Ken Cadwell
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Thomas A. Kufer
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Nutritional Medicine, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - John H. Kehrl
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Jörn Coers
- Department of Immunology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Mathias Faure
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Université de Lyon, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe Labellisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, FRM
| | - Gregory A Taylor
- Department of Immunology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., St Louis, MO, 63110, USA
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Health Care Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
- Departments of Medicine, Division of Geriatrics, and Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development, Duke University, Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Santosh Chauhan
- Cell biology and Infectious diseases, Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar, India
- CSIR–Centre For Cellular And Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, Telangana
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15
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Cheng A, Zhang H, Chen B, Zheng S, Wang H, Shi Y, You S, Li M, Jiang L. Modulation of autophagy as a therapeutic strategy for Toxoplasma gondii infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:902428. [PMID: 36093185 PMCID: PMC9448867 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.902428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infection is a severe health threat that endangers billions of people worldwide. T. gondii utilizes the host cell membrane to form a parasitophorous vacuole (PV), thereby fully isolating itself from the host cell cytoplasm and making intracellular clearance difficult. PV can be targeted and destroyed by autophagy. Autophagic targeting results in T. gondii killing via the fusion of autophagosomes and lysosomes. However, T. gondii has developed many strategies to suppress autophagic targeting. Accordingly, the interplay between host cell autophagy and T. gondii is an emerging area with important practical implications. By promoting the canonical autophagy pathway or attenuating the suppression of autophagic targeting, autophagy can be effectively utilized in the development of novel therapeutic strategies against T gondii. Here, we have illustrated the complex interplay between host cell mediated autophagy and T. gondii. Different strategies to promote autophagy in order to target the parasite have been elucidated. Besides, we have analyzed some potential new drug molecules from the DrugBank database using bioinformatics tools, which can modulate autophagy. Various challenges and opportunities focusing autophagy mediated T. gondii clearance have been discussed, which will provide new insights for the development of novel drugs against the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ao Cheng
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Huanan Zhang
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Baike Chen
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Shengyao Zheng
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Hongyi Wang
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yijia Shi
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Siyao You
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Ming Li
- Department of Immunology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Liping Jiang, ; Ming Li,
| | - Liping Jiang
- Department of Parasitology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
- China-Africa Research Center of Infectious Diseases, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: Liping Jiang, ; Ming Li,
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16
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Cajazeiro DC, Toledo PPM, de Sousa NF, Scotti MT, Reimão JQ. Drug Repurposing Based on Protozoan Proteome: In Vitro Evaluation of In Silico Screened Compounds against Toxoplasma gondii. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14081634. [PMID: 36015260 PMCID: PMC9414507 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14081634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan that infects up to a third of the world’s population. This parasite can cause serious problems, especially if a woman is infected during pregnancy, when toxoplasmosis can cause miscarriage, or serious complications to the baby, or in an immunocompromised person, when the infection can possibly affect the patient’s eyes or brain. To identify potential drug candidates that could counter toxoplasmosis, we selected 13 compounds which were pre-screened in silico based on the proteome of T. gondii to be evaluated in vitro against the parasite in a cell-based assay. Among the selected compounds, three demonstrated in vitro anti-T. gondii activity in the nanomolar range (almitrine, bortezomib, and fludarabine), and ten compounds demonstrated anti-T. gondii activity in the micromolar range (digitoxin, digoxin, doxorubicin, fusidic acid, levofloxacin, lomefloxacin, mycophenolic acid, ribavirin, trimethoprim, and valproic acid). Almitrine demonstrated a Selectivity Index (provided by the ratio between the Half Cytotoxic Concentration against human foreskin fibroblasts and the Half Effective Concentration against T. gondii tachyzoites) that was higher than 47, whilst being considered a lead compound against T. gondii. Almitrine showed interactions with the Na+/K+ ATPase transporter for Homo sapiens and Mus musculus, indicating a possible mechanism of action of this compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora Chaves Cajazeiro
- Laboratory of Preclinical Assays and Research of Alternative Sources of Innovative Therapy for Toxoplasmosis and Other Sicknesses (PARASITTOS), Departamento de Morfologia e Patologia Básica, Faculdade de Medicina de Jundiaí, Jundiaí 13202-550, Brazil
| | - Paula Pereira Marques Toledo
- Laboratory of Preclinical Assays and Research of Alternative Sources of Innovative Therapy for Toxoplasmosis and Other Sicknesses (PARASITTOS), Departamento de Morfologia e Patologia Básica, Faculdade de Medicina de Jundiaí, Jundiaí 13202-550, Brazil
| | - Natália Ferreira de Sousa
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos Bioativos (PgPNSB), Instituto de Pesquisa em Fármacos e Medicamentos (IPeFarM), Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, Cidade Universitária, João Pessoa 58051-900, Brazil
| | - Marcus Tullius Scotti
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Produtos Naturais e Sintéticos Bioativos (PgPNSB), Instituto de Pesquisa em Fármacos e Medicamentos (IPeFarM), Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, Cidade Universitária, João Pessoa 58051-900, Brazil
| | - Juliana Quero Reimão
- Laboratory of Preclinical Assays and Research of Alternative Sources of Innovative Therapy for Toxoplasmosis and Other Sicknesses (PARASITTOS), Departamento de Morfologia e Patologia Básica, Faculdade de Medicina de Jundiaí, Jundiaí 13202-550, Brazil
- Correspondence:
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17
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Abduljalil H, Bakri A, Albashaireh K, Alshanta OA, Brown JL, Sherry L, Kean R, Nile C, McLean W, Ramage G. Screening the Tocriscreen™ bioactive compound library in search for inhibitors of
Candida
biofilm formation. APMIS 2022; 130:568-577. [PMID: 35791082 PMCID: PMC9541805 DOI: 10.1111/apm.13260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Biofilms formed by Candida species present a significant clinical problem due to the ineffectiveness of many conventional antifungal agents, in particular the azole class. We urgently require new and clinically approved antifungal agents quickly for treatment of critically ill patients. To improve efficiency in antifungal drug development, we utilized a library of 1280 biologically active molecules within the Tocriscreen 2.0 Micro library. Candida aurisNCPF 8973 and Candida albicansSC5314 were initially screened for biofilm inhibitory activity using metabolic and biomass quantitative assessment methods, followed up by targeted evaluation of five selected hits. The initial screening (80% metabolic inhibition rate) revealed that there was 90 and 87 hits (approx. 7%) for C. albicans and C. auris, respectively. Additionally, all five compounds selected from the initial hits exhibited a biofilm inhibition effect against several key Candida species tested, including C. glabrata and C. krusei. Toyocamycin displayed the most potent activity at concentrations as low as 0.5 μg/mL, though was limited to inhibition. Darapladib demonstrated an efficacy for biofilm inhibition and treatment at a concentration range from 8 to 32 μg/mL and from 16 to 256 μg/mL, respectively. Combinational testing with conventional antifungals against C. albicans strains demonstrated a range of synergies for planktonic cells, and notably an anti‐biofilm synergy for darapladib and caspofungin. Together, these data provide new insights into antifungal management possibilities for Candida biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hafsa Abduljalil
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Group School of Medicine Dentistry and Nursing College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Ahmed Bakri
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Group School of Medicine Dentistry and Nursing College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Khawlah Albashaireh
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Group School of Medicine Dentistry and Nursing College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Om Alkhir Alshanta
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Group School of Medicine Dentistry and Nursing College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Jason L. Brown
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Group School of Medicine Dentistry and Nursing College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Leighann Sherry
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Group School of Medicine Dentistry and Nursing College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Ryan Kean
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences Glasgow Caledonian University
| | | | - William McLean
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Group School of Medicine Dentistry and Nursing College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Gordon Ramage
- Glasgow Biofilm Research Group School of Medicine Dentistry and Nursing College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
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18
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Bazedoxifene, a Postmenopausal Drug, Acts as an Antimalarial and Inhibits Hemozoin Formation. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0278121. [PMID: 35616371 PMCID: PMC9241896 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02781-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite a remarkable improvement in health care and continued drug discovery efforts, malaria control efforts are continuously challenged by the emergence of drug-resistant parasite strains. Given a long and risky development path of new drugs, repurposing existing drugs for the treatment of malaria is an attractive and shorter path. Tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) for the treatment and prevention of estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer, possesses antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic activities. Hence, we assessed tamoxifen, raloxifene, and bazedoxifene, which represent the first-, second-, and third-generation SERMs, respectively, for antimalarial activity. Raloxifene and bazedoxifene inhibited the erythrocytic development of Plasmodium falciparum with submicromolar 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values. Among the three, bazedoxifene was the most potent and also decreased P. berghei infection in female mice but not in male mice. However, bazedoxifene similarly inhibited P. falciparum growth in erythrocytes of male and female origin, which highlights the importance of sex-specific host physiology in drug efficacy. Bazedoxifene was most potent on early ring-stage parasites, and about 35% of the treated parasites did not contain hemozoin in the food vacuole. Bazedoxifene-treated parasites had almost 34% less hemozoin content than the control parasites. However, both control and bazedoxifene-treated parasites had similar hemoglobin levels, suggesting that bazedoxifene inhibits hemozoin formation and that toxicity due to accumulation of free heme could be a mechanism of its antimalarial activity. Because bazedoxifene is in clinical use and bazedoxifene-chloroquine combination shows an additive antiparasitic effect, bazedoxifene could be an adjunctive partner of currently used antimalarial regimens. IMPORTANCE The emergence and spread of drug-resistant strains of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has necessitated new drugs. Selective estrogen receptor modulators are in clinical use for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer and postmenopausal osteoporosis. We demonstrate that bazedoxifene, a third-generation selective estrogen receptor modulator, has potent inhibitory activity against both susceptible and drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum. It also blocked the development of Plasmodium berghei in mice. The inhibitory effect was strongest on the ring stage and resulted in the inhibition of hemozoin formation, which could be the major mechanism of bazedoxifene action. Hemozoin is a nontoxic polymer of heme, which is a by-product of hemoglobin degradation by the malaria parasite during its development within the erythrocyte. Because bazedoxifene is already in clinical use for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis, our findings support repurposing of bazedoxifene as an antimalarial.
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Yu Z, He K, Cao W, Aleem MT, Yan R, Xu L, Song X, Li X. Nano vaccines for T. gondii Ribosomal P2 Protein With Nanomaterials as a Promising DNA Vaccine Against Toxoplasmosis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:839489. [PMID: 35265084 PMCID: PMC8899214 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.839489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Caused by Toxoplasma gondii, toxoplasmosis has aroused great threats to public health around the world. So far, no effective vaccine or drug is commercially available, and the demands for a safe and effective therapeutic strategy have become more and more urgent. In the current study, we constructed a DNA vaccine encoding T. gondii ribosomal P2 protein (TgP2) and denoted as TgP2-pVAX1 plasmid. To improve the immunoprotection, nanomaterial poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) and chitosan were used as the delivery vehicle to construct TgP2-pVAX1/PLGA and TgP2-pVAX1/CS nanospheres. Before vaccinations in BALB/c mice, TgP2-pVAX1 plasmids were transiently transfected into Human Embryonic Kidney (HEK) 293-T cells, and the expression of the eukaryotic plasmids was detected by laser confocal microscopy and Western blotting. Then the immunoprotection of naked DNA plasmids and their two nano-encapsulations were evaluated in the laboratory animal model. According to the investigations of antibody, cytokine, dendritic cell (DC) maturation, molecule expression, splenocyte proliferation, and T lymphocyte proportion, TgP2-pVAX1 plasmid delivered by two types of nanospheres could elicit a mixed Th1/Th2 immune response and Th1 immunity as the dominant. In addition, TgP2-pVAX1/PLGA and TgP2-pVAX1/CS nanospheres have great advantages in enhancing immunity against a lethal dose of T. gondii RH strain challenge. All these results suggested that TgP2-pVAX1 plasmids delivered by PLGA or chitosan nanomaterial could be promising vaccines in resisting toxoplasmosis and deserve further investigations and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- ZhengQing Yu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ke He
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - WanDi Cao
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Muhammad Tahir Aleem
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - RuoFeng Yan
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - LiXin Xu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - XiaoKai Song
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - XiangRui Li
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
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Hajj RE, Tawk L, Itani S, Hamie M, Ezzeddine J, El Sabban M, El Hajj H. Toxoplasmosis: Current and Emerging Parasite Druggable Targets. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9122531. [PMID: 34946133 PMCID: PMC8707595 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9122531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is a prevalent disease affecting a wide range of hosts including approximately one-third of the human population. It is caused by the sporozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), which instigates a range of symptoms, manifesting as acute and chronic forms and varying from ocular to deleterious congenital or neuro-toxoplasmosis. Toxoplasmosis may cause serious health problems in fetuses, newborns, and immunocompromised patients. Recently, associations between toxoplasmosis and various neuropathies and different types of cancer were documented. In the veterinary sector, toxoplasmosis results in recurring abortions, leading to significant economic losses. Treatment of toxoplasmosis remains intricate and encompasses general antiparasitic and antibacterial drugs. The efficacy of these drugs is hindered by intolerance, side effects, and emergence of parasite resistance. Furthermore, all currently used drugs in the clinic target acute toxoplasmosis, with no or little effect on the chronic form. In this review, we will provide a comprehensive overview on the currently used and emergent drugs and their respective parasitic targets to combat toxoplasmosis. We will also abridge the repurposing of certain drugs, their targets, and highlight future druggable targets to enhance the therapeutic efficacy against toxoplasmosis, hence lessening its burden and potentially alleviating the complications of its associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rana El Hajj
- Department of Biological Sciences, Beirut Arab University, P.O. Box 11-5020, Riad El Solh, Beirut 1107 2809, Lebanon;
| | - Lina Tawk
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Balamand, Beirut 1100 2807, Lebanon; (L.T.); (J.E.)
| | - Shaymaa Itani
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Riad El-Solh, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon; (S.I.); (M.H.)
| | - Maguy Hamie
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Riad El-Solh, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon; (S.I.); (M.H.)
| | - Jana Ezzeddine
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Balamand, Beirut 1100 2807, Lebanon; (L.T.); (J.E.)
| | - Marwan El Sabban
- Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Riad El-Solh, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon;
| | - Hiba El Hajj
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Riad El-Solh, Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon; (S.I.); (M.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +961–1-350000 (ext. 4897)
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Effect of 17β-Estradiol, Progesterone, and Tamoxifen on Neurons Infected with Toxoplasma gondii In Vitro. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9102174. [PMID: 34683495 PMCID: PMC8541540 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9102174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is the causal agent of toxoplasmosis, which produces damage in the central nervous system (CNS). Toxoplasma-CNS interaction is critical for the development of disease symptoms. T. gondii can form cysts in the CNS; however, neurons are more resistant to this infection than astrocytes. The probable mechanism for neuron resistance is a permanent state of neurons in the interface, avoiding the replication of intracellular parasites. Steroids regulate the formation of Toxoplasma cysts in mice brains. 17β-estradiol and progesterone also participate in the control of Toxoplasma infection in glial cells in vitro. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of 17β-estradiol, progesterone, and their specific agonists-antagonists on Toxoplasma infection in neurons in vitro. Neurons cultured were pretreated for 48 h with 17β-estradiol or progesterone at 10, 20, 40, 80, or 160 nM/mL or tamoxifen 1 μM/mL plus 17β-estradiol at 10, 20, 40, 80, and 160 nM/mL. In other conditions, the neurons were pretreated during 48 h with 4,4',4″-(4-propyl-[1H] pyrozole-1,3,5-triyl) trisphenol or 23-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) propionitrile at 1 nM/mL, and mifepristone 1 µM/mL plus progesterone at 10, 20, 40, 80, and 160 nM/mL. Neurons were infected with 5000 tachyzoites of the T. gondii strain RH. The effect of 17β estradiol, progesterone, their agonists, or antagonists on Toxoplasma infection in neurons was evaluated at 24 and 48 h by immunocytochemistry. T. gondii replication was measured with the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide reduction assay. 17β-Estradiol alone or plus tamoxifen reduced infected neurons (50%) compared to the control at 48 h. Progesterone plus estradiol decreased the number of intracellular parasites at 48 h of treatment compared to the control (p < 0.001). 4,4',4″-(4-propyl-[1H] pyrozole-1,3,5-triyl) trisphenol and 23-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) propionitrile reduced infected neurons at 48 h of treatment significantly compared to the control (p < 0.05 and p < 0.001, respectively). The Toxoplasma infection process was decreased by the effect of 17β-estradiol alone or combined with tamoxifen or progesterone in neurons in vitro. These results suggest the essential participation of progesterone and estradiol and their classical receptors in the regulation of T. gondii neuron infection.
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Repurposing diphenylbutylpiperidine-class antipsychotic drugs for host-directed therapy of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Salmonella enterica infections. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19634. [PMID: 34608194 PMCID: PMC8490354 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98980-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The persistent increase of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infections negatively impacts Tuberculosis treatment outcomes. Host-directed therapies (HDT) pose an complementing strategy, particularly since Mtb is highly successful in evading host-defense by manipulating host-signaling pathways. Here, we screened a library containing autophagy-modulating compounds for their ability to inhibit intracellular Mtb-bacteria. Several active compounds were identified, including two drugs of the diphenylbutylpiperidine-class, Fluspirilene and Pimozide, commonly used as antipsychotics. Both molecules inhibited intracellular Mtb in pro- as well as anti-inflammatory primary human macrophages in a host-directed manner and synergized with conventional anti-bacterials. Importantly, these inhibitory effects extended to MDR-Mtb strains and the unrelated intracellular pathogen, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (Stm). Mechanistically Fluspirilene and Pimozide were shown to regulate autophagy and alter the lysosomal response, partly correlating with increased bacterial localization to autophago(lyso)somes. Pimozide's and Fluspirilene's efficacy was inhibited by antioxidants, suggesting involvement of the oxidative-stress response in Mtb growth control. Furthermore, Fluspirilene and especially Pimozide counteracted Mtb-induced STAT5 phosphorylation, thereby reducing Mtb phagosome-localized CISH that promotes phagosomal acidification. In conclusion, two approved antipsychotic drugs, Pimozide and Fluspirilene, constitute highly promising and rapidly translatable candidates for HDT against Mtb and Stm and act by modulating the autophagic/lysosomal response by multiple mechanisms.
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Nano DNA Vaccine Encoding Toxoplasma gondii Histone Deacetylase SIR2 Enhanced Protective Immunity in Mice. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13101582. [PMID: 34683874 PMCID: PMC8538992 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13101582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogen of toxoplasmosis, Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), is a zoonotic protozoon that can affect the health of warm-blooded animals including humans. Up to now, an effective vaccine with completely protection is still inaccessible. In this study, the DNA vaccine encoding T. gondii histone deacetylase SIR2 (pVAX1-SIR2) was constructed. To enhance the efficacy, chitosan and poly (d, l-lactic-co-glycolic)-acid (PLGA) were employed to design nanospheres loaded with the DNA vaccine, denoted as pVAX1-SIR2/CS and pVAX1-SIR2/PLGA nanospheres. The pVAX1-SIR2 plasmids were transfected into HEK 293-T cells, and the expression was evaluated by a laser scanning confocal microscopy. Then, the immune protections of pVAX1-SIR2 plasmid, pVAX1-SIR2/CS nanospheres, and pVAX1-SIR2/PLGA nanospheres were evaluated in a laboratory animal model. The in vivo findings indicated that pVAX1-SIR2/CS and pVAX1-SIR2/PLGA nanospheres could generate a mixed Th1/Th2 immune response, as indicated by the regulated production of antibodies and cytokines, the enhanced maturation and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) expression of dendritic cells (DCs), the induced splenocyte proliferation, and the increased percentages of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes. Furthermore, this enhanced immunity could obviously reduce the parasite burden in immunized animals through a lethal dose of T. gondii RH strain challenge. All these results propose that pVAX1-SIR2 plasmids entrapped in chitosan or PLGA nanospheres could be the promising vaccines against acute T. gondii infections and deserve further investigations.
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Yu Z, Cao W, Gao X, Aleem MT, Liu J, Luo J, Yan R, Xu L, Song X, Li X. With Chitosan and PLGA as the Delivery Vehicle, Toxoplasma gondii Oxidoreductase-Based DNA Vaccines Decrease Parasite Burdens in Mice. Front Immunol 2021; 12:726615. [PMID: 34512659 PMCID: PMC8430031 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.726615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an intracellular parasitic protozoan that can cause serious public health problems. However, there is no effectively preventive or therapeutic strategy available for human and animals. In the present study, we developed a DNA vaccine encoding T. gondii oxidoreductase from short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase family (TgSDRO-pVAX1) and then entrapped in chitosan and poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) to improve the efficacy. When encapsulated in chitosan (TgSDRO-pVAX1/CS nanospheres) and PLGA (TgSDRO-pVAX1/PLGA nanospheres), adequate plasmids were loaded and released stably. Before animal immunizations, the DNA vaccine was transfected into HEK 293-T cells and examined by western blotting and laser confocal microscopy. Th1/Th2 cellular and humoral immunity was induced in immunized mice, accompanied by modulated secretion of antibodies and cytokines, promoted the maturation and MHC expression of dendritic cells, and enhanced the percentages of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes. Immunization with TgSDRO-pVAX1/CS and TgSDRO-pVAX1/PLGA nanospheres conferred significant immunity with lower parasite burden in the mice model of acute toxoplasmosis. Furthermore, our results also lent credit to the idea that TgSDRO-pVAX1/CS and TgSDRO-pVAX1/PLGA nanospheres are substitutes for each other. In general, the current study proposed that TgSDRO-pVAX1 with chitosan or PLGA as the delivery vehicle is a promising vaccine candidate against acute toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengqing Yu
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Wandi Cao
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xuchen Gao
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Muhammad Tahir Aleem
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Junlong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Jianxun Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Ruofeng Yan
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lixin Xu
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaokai Song
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiangrui Li
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
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Garg A, Singh A, Kumar A. Selective estrogen receptor modulators against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria: an experimental study. Future Microbiol 2021; 16:987-1001. [PMID: 34406075 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2020-0310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: This study was conducted to explore the antibacterial potential of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs). Materials & methods: The percentage growth retardation, bacterial growth kinetics, biofilm, checkerboard and bacterial burden assays were conducted to check antibacterial potential of SERMs. Finally, docking study was also conducted to predict possible antibacterial mechanism of SERMs. Results: In vitro and in vivo studies have shown the antibacterial activity of SERMs against different tested strains of bacteria. The synergistic activity of SERMs in combination with standard antibacterial agents was also observed and tested further under in vivo conditions. In vivo results have shown decreased bacterial bioburden. Docking studies have predicted the multimodal antibacterial mechanism of SERMs. Conclusion: SERMs can be considered as promising broad-spectrum antibacterial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aakriti Garg
- Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India
| | - Arti Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India
| | - Anoop Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India.,Department of Pharmacology & Clinical Research, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Research (DIPSAR), Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences & Research University (DPSRU), New Delhi, 110017, India
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Neurotransmitter System-Targeting Drugs Antagonize Growth of the Q Fever Agent, Coxiella burnetii, in Human Cells. mSphere 2021; 6:e0044221. [PMID: 34232075 PMCID: PMC8386451 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00442-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is a highly infectious, intracellular, Gram-negative bacterial pathogen that causes human Q fever, an acute flu-like illness that can progress to chronic endocarditis. C. burnetii is transmitted to humans via aerosols and has long been considered a potential biological warfare agent. Although antibiotics, such as doxycycline, effectively treat acute Q fever, a recently identified antibiotic-resistant strain demonstrates the ability of C. burnetii to resist traditional antimicrobials, and chronic disease is extremely difficult to treat with current options. These findings highlight the need for new Q fever therapeutics, and repurposed drugs that target eukaryotic functions to prevent bacterial replication are of increasing interest in infectious disease. To identify this class of anti-C. burnetii therapeutics, we screened a library of 727 FDA-approved or late-stage clinical trial compounds using a human macrophage-like cell model of infection. Eighty-eight compounds inhibited bacterial replication, including known antibiotics, antipsychotic or antidepressant treatments, antihistamines, and several additional compounds used to treat a variety of conditions. The majority of identified anti-C. burnetii compounds target host neurotransmitter system components. Serotoninergic, dopaminergic, and adrenergic components are among the most highly represented targets and potentially regulate macrophage activation, cytokine production, and autophagy. Overall, our screen identified multiple host-directed compounds that can be pursued for potential use as anti-C. burnetii drugs. IMPORTANCECoxiella burnetii causes the debilitating disease Q fever in humans. This infection is difficult to treat with current antibiotics and can progress to long-term, potentially fatal infection in immunocompromised individuals or when treatment is delayed. Here, we identified many new potential treatment options in the form of drugs that are either FDA approved or have been used in late-stage clinical trials and target human neurotransmitter systems. These compounds are poised for future characterization as nontraditional anti-C. burnetii therapies.
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Recombinant Toxoplasma gondii Ribosomal Protein P2 Modulates the Functions of Murine Macrophages In Vitro and Provides Immunity against Acute Toxoplasmosis In Vivo. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9040357. [PMID: 33917244 PMCID: PMC8068005 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9040357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Almost every warm-blooded animal can be an intermediate host for Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii); there is still no efficient vaccine and medicine available for T. gondii infections. Detected on the surface of free tachyzoites of T. gondii, T. gondii ribosomal protein P2 (TgRPP2) has been identified as a target for protection against toxoplasmosis. In the present study, TgRPP2 was firstly expressed in a prokaryotic expression system, and the purified recombinant TgRPP2 (rTgRPP2) was characterized by its modulation effects on murine macrophages. Then, the purified rTgRPP2 was injected into mice to evaluate the immune protection of rTgRPP2. The results indicated that rTgRPP2 could bind to murine Ana-1 cells and showed good reactogenicity. After incubation with purified rTgRPP2, the proliferation, apoptosis, phagocytosis, nitric oxide (NO) production, and cytokines secreted by murine macrophages were modulated. Furthermore, the in vivo experiments indicated that animals immunized with rTgRPP2 could generate a significantly high level of antibodies, cytokines, and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, leading to a prolonged survival time. All of the results indicated that murine macrophages could be regulated by rTgRPP2 and are essential for the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. Immunization with rTgRPP2 triggered significant protection, with prolonged survival time in a mice model of acute toxoplasmosis. Our results lend credibility to the idea that rTgRPP2 could be a potential target for drug design and vaccine development.
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Boromycin Has Potent Anti- Toxoplasma and Anti- Cryptosporidium Activity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:AAC.01278-20. [PMID: 33468470 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01278-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii and Cryptosporidium parvum, members of the phylum Apicomplexa, are significant pathogens of both humans and animals worldwide for which new and effective therapeutics are needed. Here, we describe the activity of the antibiotic boromycin against Toxoplasma and Cryptosporidium Boromycin potently inhibited intracellular proliferation of both T. gondii and C. parvum at half-maximal effective concentrations (EC50) of 2.27 nM and 4.99 nM, respectively. Treatment of extracellular T. gondii tachyzoites with 25 nM boromycin for 30 min suppressed 84% of parasite growth, but T. gondii tachyzoite invasion into host cells was not affected by boromycin. Immunofluorescence of boromycin-treated T. gondii showed loss of morphologically intact parasites with randomly distributed surface antigens inside the parasitophorous vacuoles. Boromycin exhibited a high selectivity for the parasites over their host cells. These results suggest that boromycin is a promising new drug candidate for treating toxoplasmosis and cryptosporidiosis.
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Elsheikha HM, Marra CM, Zhu XQ. Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management of Cerebral Toxoplasmosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2021; 34:e00115-19. [PMID: 33239310 PMCID: PMC7690944 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00115-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is known to infect a considerable number of mammalian and avian species and a substantial proportion of the world's human population. The parasite has an impressive ability to disseminate within the host's body and employs various tactics to overcome the highly regulatory blood-brain barrier and reside in the brain. In healthy individuals, T. gondii infection is largely tolerated without any obvious ill effects. However, primary infection in immunosuppressed patients can result in acute cerebral or systemic disease, and reactivation of latent tissue cysts can lead to a deadly outcome. It is imperative that treatment of life-threatening toxoplasmic encephalitis is timely and effective. Several therapeutic and prophylactic regimens have been used in clinical practice. Current approaches can control infection caused by the invasive and highly proliferative tachyzoites but cannot eliminate the dormant tissue cysts. Adverse events and other limitations are associated with the standard pyrimethamine-based therapy, and effective vaccines are unavailable. In this review, the epidemiology, economic impact, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of cerebral toxoplasmosis are discussed, and critical areas for future research are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hany M Elsheikha
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Christina M Marra
- Departments of Neurology and Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, People's Republic of China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi Province, People's Republic of China
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Khalifa MM, Martorelli Di Genova B, McAlpine SG, Gallego-Lopez GM, Stevenson DM, Rozema SD, Monaghan NP, Morris JC, Knoll LJ, Golden JE. Dual-Stage Picolinic Acid-Derived Inhibitors of Toxoplasma gondii. ACS Med Chem Lett 2020; 11:2382-2388. [PMID: 33335660 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.0c00267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii causes a prevalent human infection for which only the acute stage has an FDA-approved therapy. To find inhibitors of both the acute stage parasites and the persistent cyst stage that causes a chronic infection, we repurposed a compound library containing known inhibitors of parasitic hexokinase, the first step in the glycolysis pathway, along with a larger collection of new structural derivatives. The focused screen of 22 compounds showed a 77% hit rate (>50% multistage inhibition) and revealed a series of aminobenzamide-linked picolinic acids with submicromolar potency against both T. gondii parasite forms. Picolinic acid 23, designed from an antiparasitic benzamidobenzoic acid class with challenging ADME properties, showed 60-fold-enhanced solubility, a moderate LogD7.4, and a 30% improvement in microsomal stability. Furthermore, isotopically labeled glucose tracing revealed that picolinic acid 23 does not function by hexokinase inhibition. Thus, we report a new probe scaffold to interrogate dual-stage inhibition of T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad M. Khalifa
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 777 Highland Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53703, United States
| | - Bruno Martorelli Di Genova
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Sarah G. McAlpine
- Eukaryotic Pathogens Innovation Center, Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, 190 Collins Street, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - Gina M. Gallego-Lopez
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
- Morgridge Institute for Research, Madison, Wisconsin 53715, United States
| | - David M. Stevenson
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States of America
| | - Soren D. Rozema
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 777 Highland Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53703, United States
| | - Neil P. Monaghan
- Eukaryotic Pathogens Innovation Center, Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, 190 Collins Street, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - James C. Morris
- Eukaryotic Pathogens Innovation Center, Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, Clemson University, 190 Collins Street, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, United States
| | - Laura J. Knoll
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Jennifer E. Golden
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 777 Highland Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53703, United States
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Nuclear Receptors as Autophagy-Based Antimicrobial Therapeutics. Cells 2020; 9:cells9091979. [PMID: 32867365 PMCID: PMC7563212 DOI: 10.3390/cells9091979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an intracellular process that targets intracellular pathogens for lysosomal degradation. Autophagy is tightly controlled at transcriptional and post-translational levels. Nuclear receptors (NRs) are a family of transcriptional factors that regulate the expression of gene sets involved in, for example, metabolic and immune homeostasis. Several NRs show promise as host-directed anti-infectives through the modulation of autophagy activities by their natural ligands or small molecules (agonists/antagonists). Here, we review the roles and mechanisms of NRs (vitamin D receptors, estrogen receptors, estrogen-related receptors, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors) in linking immunity and autophagy during infection. We also discuss the potential of emerging NRs (REV-ERBs, retinoic acid receptors, retinoic acid-related orphan receptors, liver X receptors, farnesoid X receptors, and thyroid hormone receptors) as candidate antimicrobials. The identification of novel roles and mechanisms for NRs will enable the development of autophagy-adjunctive therapeutics for emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases.
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Angel SO, Vanagas L, Ruiz DM, Cristaldi C, Saldarriaga Cartagena AM, Sullivan WJ. Emerging Therapeutic Targets Against Toxoplasma gondii: Update on DNA Repair Response Inhibitors and Genotoxic Drugs. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:289. [PMID: 32656097 PMCID: PMC7325978 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis in animals and humans. This infection is transmitted to humans through oocysts released in the feces of the felines into the environment or by ingestion of undercooked meat. This implies that toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic disease and T. gondii is a foodborne pathogen. In addition, chronic toxoplasmosis in goats and sheep is the cause of recurrent abortions with economic losses in the sector. It is also a health problem in pets such as cats and dogs. Although there are therapies against this infection in its acute stage, they are not able to permanently eliminate the parasite and sometimes they are not well tolerated. To develop better, safer drugs, we need to elucidate key aspects of the biology of T. gondii. In this review, we will discuss the importance of the homologous recombination repair (HRR) pathway in the parasite's lytic cycle and how components of these processes can be potential molecular targets for new drug development programs. In that sense, the effect of different DNA damage agents or HHR inhibitors on the growth and replication of T. gondii will be described. Multitarget drugs that were either associated with other targets or were part of general screenings are included in the list, providing a thorough revision of the drugs that can be tested in other scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio O Angel
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Instituto Tecnológico Chascomús (INTECH), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Laura Vanagas
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Instituto Tecnológico Chascomús (INTECH), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Diego M Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Instituto Tecnológico Chascomús (INTECH), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Constanza Cristaldi
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Instituto Tecnológico Chascomús (INTECH), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Ana M Saldarriaga Cartagena
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Instituto Tecnológico Chascomús (INTECH), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - William J Sullivan
- Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States.,Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
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Liu S, Wu M, Hua Q, Lu D, Tian Y, Yu H, Cheng L, Chen Y, Cao J, Hu X, Tan F. Two old drugs, NVP-AEW541 and GSK-J4, repurposed against the Toxoplasma gondii RH strain. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:242. [PMID: 32393321 PMCID: PMC7216583 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04094-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic pathogen that causes toxoplasmosis and leads to serious public health problems in developing countries. However, current clinical therapeutic drugs have some disadvantages, such as serious side effects, a long course of treatment and the emergence of drug-resistant strains. The urgent need to identify novel anti-Toxoplasma drugs has initiated the effective strategy of repurposing well-characterized drugs. As a principled screening for the identification of effective compounds against Toxoplasma gondii, in the current study, a collection of 666 compounds were screened for their ability to significantly inhibit Toxoplasma growth. Methods The inhibition of parasite growth was determined using a luminescence-based β-galactosidase activity assay. Meanwhile, the effect of compounds on the viability of host cells was measured using CCK8. To assess the inhibition of the selected compounds on discrete steps of the T. gondii lytic cycle, the invasion, intracellular proliferation and egress abilities were evaluated. Finally, a murine infection model of toxoplasmosis was used to monitor the protective efficacy of drugs against acute infection of a highly virulent RH strain. Results A total of 68 compounds demonstrated more than 70% parasite growth inhibition. After excluding compounds that impaired host cell viability, we further characterized two compounds, NVP-AEW541 and GSK-J4 HCl, which had IC50 values for parasite growth of 1.17 μM and 2.37 μM, respectively. In addition, both compounds showed low toxicity to the host cell. Furthermore, we demonstrated that NVP-AEW541 inhibits tachyzoite invasion, while GSK-J4 HCl inhibits intracellular tachyzoite proliferation by halting cell cycle progression from G1 to S phase. These findings prompted us to analyse the efficacy of the two compounds in vivo by using established mouse models of acute toxoplasmosis. In addition to prolonging the survival time of mice acutely infected with T. gondii, both compounds had a remarkable ability to reduce the parasite burden of tissues. Conclusions Our findings suggest that both NVP-AEW541 and GSK-J4 could be potentially repurposed as candidate drugs against T. gondii infection.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuxian Liu
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China
| | - Mimi Wu
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qianqian Hua
- Clinical Laboratory, Dongyang People's Hospital, Jinhua, 322100, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Daiqiang Lu
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yuan Tian
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China
| | - Helin Yu
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China
| | - Linyan Cheng
- School of the First Clinical Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yinqi Chen
- School of the Second Clinical Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jiaxin Cao
- School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xin Hu
- School of Medical Laboratory Science and School of Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Feng Tan
- Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, Zhejiang, China.
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Screening of compound libraries for inhibitors of Toxoplasma growth and invasion. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:1675-1681. [PMID: 32236711 PMCID: PMC7223663 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06673-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii can infect virtually all warm-blooded animals, including humans. It can differentiate between rapidly replicating tachyzoites that cause acute infection and slowly growing bradyzoites in tissue cysts. Treatment options for toxoplasmosis are challenging because current therapies cannot eradicate the latent T. gondii infection that is mainly caused by the bradyzoite forms. Accordingly, recurrence of infection is a problem for immunocompromised patients and congenitally infected patients. Protein kinases have been widely studied in eukaryotic cells, and while little is known about signaling in Toxoplasma infection, it is likely that protein kinases play a key role in parasite proliferation, differentiation, and probably invasion. To identify optimized new kinase inhibitors for drug development against T. gondii, we screened a library of kinase inhibitor compounds for anti-Toxoplasma activity and host cell cytotoxicity. Pyrimethamine served as a positive control and 0.5% DMSO was used as a negative control. Among the 80 compounds screened, 6 compounds demonstrated ≥ 80% parasite growth inhibition at concentrations at which 5 compounds did not suppress host cell viability, while 3 kinase inhibitors (Bay 11-7082, Tyrphostin AG 1295 and PD-98059) had suppressive effects individually on parasite growth and host cell invasion, but did not strongly induce bradyzoite formation.
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Garg A, Singh B, Sharma R, Singh A, Kumar A. Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Mechanistic Insights Against Microbial Infections. Curr Mol Med 2020; 20:102-115. [PMID: 31622201 DOI: 10.2174/1566524019666191014112133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Background:
Infections are one of the leading causes of death worldwide
and currently available treatments remain unsatisfactory due to rise in the cases of
antimicrobial resistance. Thus, there is a need for the development of new drugs with
different mechanisms of action. However, the development of new antimicrobials agents
is a long and expensive process. Hence, most of the pharmaceutical companies are
Methodology:
The data related to SERMs and microbial infection has been extracted
from Pub Med (from January 1997 to December 2018). A total of 101 studies have been
published from 1997 -2018 regarding SERMs and microbial infections.
Results:
On the basis of inclusion and exclusion criteria, 25 studies have been included
for the analysis of level of evidence regarding antimicrobial effects of SERMs. Emerging
reports have indicated the antimicrobial property of selective estrogen receptor
modulators (SERMs) against normal and resistant strains under in vitro and in vivo
conditions against wide variety of microorganisms through different mechanisms of
action.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, SERMs could be developed as a broad spectrum
antimicrobial agent alone or in combination with existing antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aakriti Garg
- Department of Pharmacology, Indo-Soviet Friendship College of Pharmacy (ISFCP), Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Balraj Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, Indo-Soviet Friendship College of Pharmacy (ISFCP), Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Ruchika Sharma
- Department of Biotechnology, Indo-Soviet Friendship Institute of Professional Studies (ISFIPS), Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Arti Singh
- Department of Pharmacology, Indo-Soviet Friendship College of Pharmacy (ISFCP), Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Anoop Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, Indo-Soviet Friendship College of Pharmacy (ISFCP), Moga, Punjab, India
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Mellini M, Di Muzio E, D’Angelo F, Baldelli V, Ferrillo S, Visca P, Leoni L, Polticelli F, Rampioni G. In silico Selection and Experimental Validation of FDA-Approved Drugs as Anti-quorum Sensing Agents. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2355. [PMID: 31649658 PMCID: PMC6796623 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of antibiotic resistant bacterial pathogens is increasing at an unprecedented pace, calling for the development of new therapeutic options. Small molecules interfering with virulence processes rather than growth hold promise as an alternative to conventional antibiotics. Anti-virulence agents are expected to decrease bacterial virulence and to pose reduced selective pressure for the emergence of resistance. In the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa the expression of key virulence traits is controlled by quorum sensing (QS), an intercellular communication process that coordinates gene expression at the population level. Hence, QS inhibitors represent promising anti-virulence agents against P. aeruginosa. Virtual screenings allow fast and cost-effective selection of target ligands among vast libraries of molecules, thus accelerating the time and limiting the cost of conventional drug-discovery processes, while the drug-repurposing approach is based on the identification of off-target activity of FDA-approved drugs, likely endowed with low cytotoxicity and favorable pharmacological properties. This study aims at combining the advantages of virtual screening and drug-repurposing approaches to identify new QS inhibitors targeting the pqs QS system of P. aeruginosa. An in silico library of 1,467 FDA-approved drugs has been screened by molecular docking, and 5 hits showing the highest predicted binding affinity for the pqs QS receptor PqsR (also known as MvfR) have been selected. In vitro experiments have been performed by engineering ad hoc biosensor strains, which were used to verify the ability of hit compounds to decrease PqsR activity in P. aeruginosa. Phenotypic analyses confirmed the impact of the most promising hit, the antipsychotic drug pimozide, on the expression of P. aeruginosa PqsR-controlled virulence traits. Overall, this study highlights the potential of virtual screening campaigns of FDA-approved drugs to rapidly select new inhibitors of important bacterial functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Mellini
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Paolo Visca
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
| | - Livia Leoni
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabio Polticelli
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
- National Institute of Nuclear Physics, Roma Tre Section, Rome, Italy
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Barrett MP, Kyle DE, Sibley LD, Radke JB, Tarleton RL. Protozoan persister-like cells and drug treatment failure. Nat Rev Microbiol 2019; 17:607-620. [PMID: 31444481 PMCID: PMC7024564 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-019-0238-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial treatment failure threatens our ability to control infections. In addition to antimicrobial resistance, treatment failures are increasingly understood to derive from cells that survive drug treatment without selection of genetically heritable mutations. Parasitic protozoa, such as Plasmodium species that cause malaria, Toxoplasma gondii and kinetoplastid protozoa, including Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp., cause millions of deaths globally. These organisms can evolve drug resistance and they also exhibit phenotypic diversity, including the formation of quiescent or dormant forms that contribute to the establishment of long-term infections that are refractory to drug treatment, which we refer to as 'persister-like cells'. In this Review, we discuss protozoan persister-like cells that have been linked to persistent infections and discuss their impact on therapeutic outcomes following drug treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - Dennis E Kyle
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - L David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Joshua B Radke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rick L Tarleton
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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Adeyemi OS, Atolani O, Awakan OJ, Olaolu TD, Nwonuma CO, Alejolowo O, Otohinoyi DA, Rotimi D, Owolabi A, Batiha GES. In Vitro Screening to Identify Anti- Toxoplasma Compounds and In Silico Modeling for Bioactivities and Toxicity. THE YALE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2019; 92:369-383. [PMID: 31543702 PMCID: PMC6747942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis, which affects more than a billion people worldwide, is a common parasitic infection caused by the obligate intracellular parasite, Toxoplasmagondii. Current treatment strategies have several limitations, including unwanted side effects and poor efficacy. Therefore, newer therapies are needed for toxoplasmosis. Drug repurposing and screening of a vast array of natural and/or synthetic compounds is a viable option for antiparasitic drug discovery. In this study, we screened 62 compounds comprising natural products (NPs) and FDA-approved (FDA) drugs, to identify the hit compounds that suppress the growth of T. gondii. To determine the parasite inhibitory potential of the compounds, host mammalian cells were infected with a transgenic T. gondii strain, and the viability of the parasite was evaluated by luminescence. Of the 62 compounds, tubericidin, sulfuretin, peruvoside, resveratrol, narasin and diacetoxyscirpenol of the natural product isolates, as well as bortezonib, 10-Hydroxycamtothecin, mebendazole, niflumic acid, clindamycin HCl, mecamylamine, chloroquine, mitomycin C, fenbendazole, daunorubicin, atropine, and cerivastatin of FDA molecules were identified as "hits" with ≥ 40 percent anti-parasite action. Additionally, mitomycin C, radicicol, naringenin, gitoxigenin, menadione, botulin, genistin, homobutein, and gelsemin HCl of the natural product isolates, as well as lomofungin, cyclocytidine, prazosin HCl, cerivastatin, camptothecin, flufenamic acid, atropine, daunorubicin, and fenbendazole of the FDA compounds exhibited cytotoxic activity, reducing the host viability by ≥ 30 percent. Our findings not only support the prospects of drug repurposing, but also indicate that screening a vast array of molecules may provide viable sources of alternative therapies for parasitic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluyomi Stephen Adeyemi
- Department of Biochemistry, Medicinal Biochemistry, Nanomedicine & Toxicology Laboratory, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria,To whom all correspondence should be addressed: Oluyomi Stephen Adeyemi, Department of Biochemistry, The Medicinal Biochemistry, Nanomedicine & Toxicology Laboratory, Landmark University, PMB 1001, Omu-Aran 251101, Nigeria; Tel: +234 7034 50 7902,
| | | | - Oluwakemi Josephine Awakan
- Department of Biochemistry, Medicinal Biochemistry, Nanomedicine & Toxicology Laboratory, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria
| | - Tomilola Debby Olaolu
- Department of Biochemistry, Medicinal Biochemistry, Nanomedicine & Toxicology Laboratory, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria
| | - Charles Obiora Nwonuma
- Department of Biochemistry, Medicinal Biochemistry, Nanomedicine & Toxicology Laboratory, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria
| | - Omokolade Alejolowo
- Department of Biochemistry, Medicinal Biochemistry, Nanomedicine & Toxicology Laboratory, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria
| | | | - Damilare Rotimi
- Department of Biochemistry, Medicinal Biochemistry, Nanomedicine & Toxicology Laboratory, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria
| | | | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Egypt
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Deng Y, Wu T, Zhai SQ, Li CH. Recent progress on anti-Toxoplasma drugs discovery: Design, synthesis and screening. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 183:111711. [PMID: 31585276 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii severely threaten the health of immunocompromised patients and pregnant women as this parasite can cause several disease, including brain and eye disease. Current treatment for toxoplasmosis commonly have high cytotoxic side effects on host and require long durations ranging from one week to more than one year. The regiments lack efficacy to eradicate T. gondii tissue cysts to cure chromic infection results in the needs for long treatment and relapsing disease. In addition, there has not been approved drugs for treating the pregnant women infected by T. gondii. Moreover, Toxoplasma vaccine researches face a wide variety of challenges. Developing high efficient and low toxic agents against T. gondii is urgent and important. Over the last decade, tremendous progress have been made in identifying and developing novel compounds for the treatment of toxoplasmosis. This review summarized and discussed recent advances between 2009 and 2019 in exploring effective agents against T. gondii from five aspects of drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Deng
- Institute of Veterinary Sciences & Pharmaceuticals, Chongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, Rongchang, 402460, China
| | - Tao Wu
- Institute of Veterinary Sciences & Pharmaceuticals, Chongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, Rongchang, 402460, China
| | - Shao-Qin Zhai
- Institute of Veterinary Sciences & Pharmaceuticals, Chongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, Rongchang, 402460, China
| | - Cheng-Hong Li
- Institute of Veterinary Sciences & Pharmaceuticals, Chongqing Academy of Animal Sciences, Rongchang, 402460, China.
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40
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Zhao C, Dai X, Li Y, Guo Q, Zhang J, Zhang X, Wang L. EK-DRD: A Comprehensive Database for Drug Repositioning Inspired by Experimental Knowledge. J Chem Inf Model 2019; 59:3619-3624. [PMID: 31433187 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.9b00365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Drug repositioning, or the identification of new indications for approved therapeutic drugs, has gained substantial traction with both academics and pharmaceutical companies because it reduces the cost and duration of the drug development pipeline and the likelihood of unforeseen adverse events. To date there has not been a systematic effort to identify such opportunities, in part because of the lack of a comprehensive resource for an enormous amount of unsystematic drug repositioning information to support scientists who could benefit from this endeavor. To address this challenge, we developed a new database, the Experimental Knowledge-Based Drug Repositioning Database (EK-DRD), by using text and data mining as well as manual curation. EK-DRD contains experimentally validated drug repositioning annotation for 1861 FDA-approved and 102 withdrawn small-molecule drugs. Annotation was done at four levels using 30 944 target assay records, 3999 cell assay records, 585 organism assay records, and 8889 clinical trial records. Additionally, approximately 1799 repositioning protein or target sequences coupled with 856 related diseases and 1332 pathways are linked to the drug entries. Our web-based software displays a network of integrative relationships between drugs, their repositioning targets, and related diseases. The database is fully searchable and supports extensive text, sequence, chemical structure, and relational query searches. EK-DRD is freely accessible at http://www.idruglab.com/drd/index.php .
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongze Zhao
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Synthetic Biology and Medicine, Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center of Biopharmaceuticals, School of Biology and Biological Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510006 , China
| | - Xi Dai
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Synthetic Biology and Medicine, Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center of Biopharmaceuticals, School of Biology and Biological Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510006 , China
| | - Yecheng Li
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Synthetic Biology and Medicine, Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center of Biopharmaceuticals, School of Biology and Biological Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510006 , China
| | - Qingqing Guo
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Synthetic Biology and Medicine, Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center of Biopharmaceuticals, School of Biology and Biological Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510006 , China
| | - Jianhua Zhang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Synthetic Biology and Medicine, Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center of Biopharmaceuticals, School of Biology and Biological Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510006 , China
| | - Xiaotong Zhang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Synthetic Biology and Medicine, Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center of Biopharmaceuticals, School of Biology and Biological Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510006 , China
| | - Ling Wang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Synthetic Biology and Medicine, Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center of Biopharmaceuticals, School of Biology and Biological Engineering , South China University of Technology , Guangzhou 510006 , China
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Parvathaneni V, Kulkarni NS, Muth A, Gupta V. Drug repurposing: a promising tool to accelerate the drug discovery process. Drug Discov Today 2019; 24:2076-2085. [PMID: 31238113 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2019.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Traditional drug discovery and development involves several stages for the discovery of a new drug and to obtain marketing approval. It is necessary to discover new strategies for reducing the drug discovery time frame. Today, drug repurposing has gained importance in identifying new therapeutic uses for already-available drugs. Typically, repurposing can be achieved serendipitously (unintentional fortunate observations) or through systematic approaches. Numerous strategies to discover new indications for FDA-approved drugs are discussed in this article. Drug repurposing has therefore become a productive approach for drug discovery because it provides a novel way to explore old drugs for new use but encounters several challenges. Some examples of different approaches are reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vineela Parvathaneni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Nishant S Kulkarni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Aaron Muth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Vivek Gupta
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA.
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Konstantinovic N, Guegan H, Stäjner T, Belaz S, Robert-Gangneux F. Treatment of toxoplasmosis: Current options and future perspectives. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2019; 15:e00036. [PMID: 32095610 PMCID: PMC7033996 DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2019.e00036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is a worldwide parasitic disease infecting about one third of humans, with possible severe outcomes in neonates and immunocompromised patients. Despite continuous and successful efforts to improve diagnosis, therapeutic schemes have barely evolved since many years. This article aims at reviewing the main clinical trials and current treatment practices, and at addressing future perspectives in the light of ongoing researches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda Konstantinovic
- National Reference Laboratory for Toxoplasmosis, Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, 11129 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Hélène Guegan
- Univ Rennes, CHU Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset - UMR_S 1085, F-35000 Rennes, France
| | - Tijana Stäjner
- National Reference Laboratory for Toxoplasmosis, Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, 11129 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sorya Belaz
- Univ Rennes, CHU Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset - UMR_S 1085, F-35000 Rennes, France
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Lis A, Wiley M, Vaughan J, Gray PC, Blader IJ. The Activin Receptor, Activin-Like Kinase 4, Mediates Toxoplasma Gondii Activation of Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:36. [PMID: 30891432 PMCID: PMC6411701 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
To grow and cause disease, intracellular pathogens modulate host cell processes. Identifying these processes as well as the mechanisms used by the pathogens to manipulate them is important for the development of more effective therapeutics. As an example, the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii induces a wide variety of changes to its host cell, including altered membrane trafficking, cytoskeletal reorganization, and differential gene expression. Although several parasite molecules and their host targets have been identified that mediate- these changes, few are known to be required for parasite replication. One exception is the host cell transcription factor, hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), which is required for parasite replication in an oxygen-dependent manner. Toxoplasma activates HIF-1 by stabilizing the HIF-1α subunit, and this is dependent on the signaling from the Activin-Like Kinase (ALK) receptor superfamily. Here, we demonstrate that specific overexpression of the ALK family member, ALK4, increased HIF-1 activity in Toxoplasma-infected cells, and this increase required ALK4 kinase activity. Moreover, Toxoplasma stimulated ALK4 to dimerize with its co-receptor, ActRII, and also increased ALK4 kinase activity, thereby demonstrating that Toxoplasma activates the ALK4 receptor. ALK4 activation of HIF-1 was independent of canonical SMAD signaling but rather was dependent on the non-canonical Rho GTPase and JNK MAP kinase signaling pathways. Finally, Toxoplasma increased rates of ALK4 ubiquitination and turnover. These data provide the first evidence indicating that ALK4 signaling is a target for a microbial pathogen to manipulate its host cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Lis
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Mandi Wiley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
| | | | | | - Ira J Blader
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States
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Munera López J, Ganuza A, Bogado SS, Muñoz D, Ruiz DM, Sullivan WJ, Vanagas L, Angel SO. Evaluation of ATM Kinase Inhibitor KU-55933 as Potential Anti- Toxoplasma gondii Agent. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:26. [PMID: 30815397 PMCID: PMC6381018 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an apicomplexan protozoan parasite with a complex life cycle composed of multiple stages that infect mammals and birds. Tachyzoites rapidly replicate within host cells to produce acute infection during which the parasite disseminates to tissues and organs. Highly replicative cells are subject to Double Strand Breaks (DSBs) by replication fork collapse and ATM, a member of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) family, is a key factor that initiates DNA repair and activates cell cycle checkpoints. Here we demonstrate that the treatment of intracellular tachyzoites with the PI3K inhibitor caffeine or ATM kinase-inhibitor KU-55933 affects parasite replication rate in a dose-dependent manner. KU-55933 affects intracellular tachyzoite growth and induces G1-phase arrest. Addition of KU-55933 to extracellular tachyzoites also leads to a significant reduction of tachyzoite replication upon infection of host cells. ATM kinase phosphorylates H2A.X (γH2AX) to promote DSB damage repair. The level of γH2AX increases in tachyzoites treated with camptothecin (CPT), a drug that generates fork collapse, but this increase was not observed when co-administered with KU-55933. These findings support that KU-55933 is affecting the Toxoplasma ATM-like kinase (TgATM). The combination of KU-55933 and other DNA damaging agents such as methyl methane sulfonate (MMS) and CPT produce a synergic effect, suggesting that TgATM kinase inhibition sensitizes the parasite to damaged DNA. By contrast, hydroxyurea (HU) did not further inhibit tachyzoite replication when combined with KU-55933.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Munera López
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, IIB-INTECH, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Agustina Ganuza
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, IIB-INTECH, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Silvina S Bogado
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, IIB-INTECH, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Daniela Muñoz
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, IIB-INTECH, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Diego M Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, IIB-INTECH, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - William J Sullivan
- Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States.,Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Laura Vanagas
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, IIB-INTECH, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Sergio O Angel
- Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, IIB-INTECH, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas (CONICET)-Universidad Nacional General San Martin (UNSAM), Chascomús, Argentina
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Baez-Jurado E, Rincón-Benavides MA, Hidalgo-Lanussa O, Guio-Vega G, Ashraf GM, Sahebkar A, Echeverria V, Garcia-Segura LM, Barreto GE. Molecular mechanisms involved in the protective actions of Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators in brain cells. Front Neuroendocrinol 2019; 52:44-64. [PMID: 30223003 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic selective modulators of the estrogen receptors (SERMs) have shown to protect neurons and glial cells against toxic insults. Among the most relevant beneficial effects attributed to these compounds are the regulation of inflammation, attenuation of astrogliosis and microglial activation, prevention of excitotoxicity and as a consequence the reduction of neuronal cell death. Under pathological conditions, the mechanism of action of the SERMs involves the activation of estrogen receptors (ERs) and G protein-coupled receptor for estrogens (GRP30). These receptors trigger neuroprotective responses such as increasing the expression of antioxidants and the activation of kinase-mediated survival signaling pathways. Despite the advances in the knowledge of the pathways activated by the SERMs, their mechanism of action is still not entirely clear, and there are several controversies. In this review, we focused on the molecular pathways activated by SERMs in brain cells, mainly astrocytes, as a response to treatment with raloxifene and tamoxifen.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Baez-Jurado
- Departamento de Nutrición y Bioquímica, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
| | - M A Rincón-Benavides
- Departamento de Nutrición y Bioquímica, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
| | - O Hidalgo-Lanussa
- Departamento de Nutrición y Bioquímica, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
| | - G Guio-Vega
- Departamento de Nutrición y Bioquímica, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá D.C., Colombia
| | - G M Ashraf
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - A Sahebkar
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - V Echeverria
- Universidad San Sebastián, Fac. Cs de la Salud, Lientur 1457, Concepción 4080871, Chile; Research & Development Service, Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Bay Pines, FL 33744, USA
| | - L M Garcia-Segura
- Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - G E Barreto
- Departamento de Nutrición y Bioquímica, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá D.C., Colombia; Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
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Abstract
The concept of repurposing previously approved medications to the treatment of new indications by taking advantage of off-target effects has gained traction in recent years, particularly in areas of medicine that do not offer large profits to pharmaceutical firms. As infectious disease discovery research has declined among large pharmaceutical companies, the potential payoff of repurposing has become attractive. The concept of repurposing previously approved medications to the treatment of new indications by taking advantage of off-target effects has gained traction in recent years, particularly in areas of medicine that do not offer large profits to pharmaceutical firms. As infectious disease discovery research has declined among large pharmaceutical companies, the potential payoff of repurposing has become attractive. From these efforts, the triphenylethylene class of selective estrogen receptor modulators related to tamoxifen has shown activity against a wide range of medically important human pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses. Because it has activity against many pathogens affecting people in resource-limited areas of the world, TAM and related drugs may be particularly useful. Here, we review the in vitro, in vivo, and mechanistic studies of the anti-infective activity of tamoxifen, toremifene, clomiphene, and their analogs. We also discuss the pharmacologic properties of this privileged scaffold and its potential utility in treating infectious diseases.
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Mishra P, Ammanathan V, Manjithaya R. Chemical Biology Strategies to Study Autophagy. Front Cell Dev Biol 2018; 6:160. [PMID: 30538986 PMCID: PMC6277461 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2018.00160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Growing amount of evidence in the last two decades highlight that macroautophagy (generally referred to as autophagy) is not only indispensable for survival in yeast but also equally important to maintain cellular quality control in higher eukaryotes as well. Importantly, dysfunctional autophagy has been explicitly shown to be involved in various physiological and pathological conditions such as cell death, cancer, neurodegenerative, and other diseases. Therefore, modulation and regulation of the autophagy pathway has emerged as an alternative strategy for the treatment of various disease conditions in the recent years. Several studies have shown genetic or pharmacological modulation of autophagy to be effective in treating cancer, clearing intracellular aggregates and pathogens. Understanding and controlling the autophagic flux, either through a genetic or pharmacological approach is therefore a highly promising approach and of great scientific interest as spatiotemporal and cell-tissue-organ level autophagy regulation is not clearly understood. Indeed, chemical biology approaches that identify small molecule effectors of autophagy have thus a dual benefit: the modulators act as tools to study and understand the process of autophagy, and may also have therapeutic potential. In this review, we discuss different strategies that have appeared to screen and identify potent small molecule modulators of autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piyush Mishra
- Autophagy Lab, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Veena Ammanathan
- Autophagy Lab, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Ravi Manjithaya
- Autophagy Lab, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru, India
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Abstract
Macroautophagy/autophagy is vital for intracellular quality control and homeostasis. Therefore, careful regulation of autophagy is very important. In the past 10 years, a number of studies have reported that estrogenic effectors affect autophagy. However, some results, especially those regarding the modulatory effect of 17β-estradiol (E2) on autophagy seem inconsistent. Moreover, several clinical trials are already in place combining both autophagy inducers and autophagy inhibitors with endocrine therapies for breast cancer. Not all patients experience benefit, which further confuses and complicates our understanding of the main effects of autophagy in estrogen-related cancer. In view of the importance of the crosstalk between estrogen signaling and autophagy, this review summarizes the estrogenic effectors reported to affect autophagy, subcellular distribution and translocation of estrogen receptors, autophagy-targeted transcription factors (TFs), miRNAs, and histone modifications regulated by E2. Upon stimulation with estrogen, there will always be opposing functional actions, which might occur between different receptors, receptors on TFs, TFs on autophagy genes, or even histone modifications on transcription. The huge signaling network downstream of estrogen can promote autophagy and reduce overstimulated autophagy at the same time, which allows autophagy to be regulated by estrogen in a restricted range. To help understand how the estrogenic regulation of autophagy affects cell fate, a hypothetical model is presented here. Finally, we discuss some exciting new directions in the field. We hope this might help to better understand the multiple associations between estrogen and autophagy, the pathogenic mechanisms of many estrogen-related diseases, and to design novel and efficacious therapeutics. Abbreviations: AP-1, activator protein-1; HATs, histone acetyltransferases; HDAC, histone deacetylases; HOTAIR, HOX transcript antisense RNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Xiang
- a Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Wuhan University , Wuhan , PR China
| | - Xiang Liu
- a Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Wuhan University , Wuhan , PR China
| | - Jing Ren
- a Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Wuhan University , Wuhan , PR China
| | - Kun Chen
- a Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Wuhan University , Wuhan , PR China
| | - Hong-Lu Wang
- a Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Wuhan University , Wuhan , PR China
| | - Yu-Yang Miao
- a Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Wuhan University , Wuhan , PR China
| | - Miao-Miao Qi
- a Key Laboratory of Combinatorial Biosynthesis and Drug Discovery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Wuhan University , Wuhan , PR China
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Jiménez-Meléndez A, Rico-San Román L, Hemphill A, Balmer V, Ortega-Mora LM, Álvarez-García G. Repurposing of commercially available anti-coccidials identifies diclazuril and decoquinate as potential therapeutic candidates against Besnoitia besnoiti infection. Vet Parasitol 2018; 261:77-85. [PMID: 30253854 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2018.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Repurposing of currently marketed compounds with proven efficacy against apicomplexan parasites was used as an approach to define novel candidate therapeutics for bovine besnoitiosis. Besnoitia besnoiti tachyzoites grown in MARC-145 cells were exposed to different concentrations of toltrazuril, diclazuril, imidocarb, decoquinate, sulfadiazine and trimethoprim alone or in combination with sulfadiazine. Drugs were added either just prior to infection of MARC-145 cells (0 h post infection, hpi) or at 6 hpi. A primary evaluation of drug effects was done by direct immunofluorescence staining and counting. Potential effects on the host cells were assessed using a XTT kit for cell proliferation. Compounds displaying promising efficacy were selected for IC50 and IC99 determination by qPCR. In addition, the impact of drugs on the tachyzoite ultrastructure was assessed by TEM and long-term treatment assays were performed. Cytotoxicity assays confirmed that none of the compounds affected the host cells. Decoquinate and diclazuril displayed invasion inhibition rates of 90 and 83% at 0 h pi and 73 and 72% at 6 h pi, respectively. The remaining drugs showed lower efficacy and were not further studied. Decoquinate and diclazuril exhibited IC99 values of 100 nM and 29.9 μM, respectively. TEM showed that decoquinate primarily affected the parasite mitochondrium, whilst diclazuril interfered in cytokinesis of daughter zoites. The present study demonstrates the efficacy of diclazuril and decoquinate against B. besnoiti in vitro and further assessments of safety and efficacy of both drugs should be performed in the target species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Jiménez-Meléndez
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Rico-San Román
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrew Hemphill
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, CH-3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Vreni Balmer
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, CH-3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Luis Miguel Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gema Álvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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50
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Radke JB, Burrows JN, Goldberg DE, Sibley LD. Evaluation of Current and Emerging Antimalarial Medicines for Inhibition of Toxoplasma gondii Growth in Vitro. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:1264-1274. [PMID: 29998728 PMCID: PMC6093624 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.8b00113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a common zoonotic infection of humans, and estimates indicate that 1-2 billion people are chronically infected. Although largely asymptomatic, chronic infection poses risk of serious disease due to reactivation should immunity decline. Current therapies for toxoplasmosis only control acute infection caused by actively proliferating tachyzoites but do not eradicate the chronic tissue cyst stages. As well, there are considerable adverse side effects of the most commonly used therapy of combined sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine. Targeting the folate pathway is also an effective treatment for malaria, caused by the related parasites Plasmodium spp., suggesting common agents might be used to treat both infections. Here, we evaluated currently approved and newly emerging medicines for malaria to determine if such compounds might also prove useful for treating toxoplasmosis. Surprisingly, the majority of antimalarial compounds being used currently or in development for treatment of malaria were only modestly effective at inhibiting in vitro growth of T. gondii tachyzoites. These findings suggest that many essential processes in P. falciparum that are targeted by antimalarial compounds are either divergent or nonessential in T. gondii, thus limiting options for repurposing of current antimalarial medicines for toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua B. Radke
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., 600 S. Euclid Ave., St Louis, MO 63110
| | - Jeremy N. Burrows
- Medicines for Malaria Venture, ICC, Route de Pré3Bois 20, 1215 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Daniel E. Goldberg
- Departments of Medicine and Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., 660 S. Euclid Ave., St Louis, MO 63110
| | - L. David Sibley
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University Sch. Med., 600 S. Euclid Ave., St Louis, MO 63110
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