1
|
Dias M, Gomes B, Pena P, Cervantes R, Beswick A, Duchaine C, Kolk A, Madsen AM, Oppliger A, Pogner C, Duquenne P, Wouters IM, Crook B, Viegas C. Filling the knowledge gap: Scoping review regarding sampling methods, assays, and further requirements to assess airborne viruses. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 946:174016. [PMID: 38908595 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Assessment of occupational exposure to viruses is crucial to identify virus reservoirs and sources of dissemination at an early stage and to help prevent spread between employees and to the general population. Measuring workers' exposure can facilitate assessment of the effectiveness of protective and mitigation measures in place. The aim of this scoping review is to give an overview of available methods and those already implemented for airborne virus' exposure assessment in different occupational and indoor environments. The results retrieved from the different studies may contribute to the setting of future standards and guidelines to ensure a reliable risk characterization in the occupational environments crucial for the implementation of effective control measures. The search aimed at selecting studies between January 1st 2010 and June 30th 2023 in the selected databases. Fifty papers on virus exposure assessment fitted the eligibility criteria and were selected for data extraction. Overall, this study identified gaps in knowledge regarding virus assessment and pinpointed the needs for further research. Several discrepancies were found (transport temperatures, elution steps, …), as well as a lack of publication of important data related to the exposure conditions (contextual information). With the available information, it is impossible to compare results between studies employing different methods, and even if the same methods are used, different conclusions/recommendations based on the expert judgment have been reported due to the lack of consensus in the contextual information retrieved and/or data interpretation. Future research on the field targeting sampling methods and in the laboratory regarding the assays to employ should be developed bearing in mind the different goals of the assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marta Dias
- H&TRC - Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL - Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA National School of Public Health, Public Health Research Centre, Comprehensive Health Research Center, CHRC, REAL, CCAL, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Bianca Gomes
- H&TRC - Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL - Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal; CE3C-Center for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Change, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, 1749-016 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Pedro Pena
- H&TRC - Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL - Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA National School of Public Health, Public Health Research Centre, Comprehensive Health Research Center, CHRC, REAL, CCAL, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Renata Cervantes
- H&TRC - Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL - Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA National School of Public Health, Public Health Research Centre, Comprehensive Health Research Center, CHRC, REAL, CCAL, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Alan Beswick
- Health and Safety Executive Science and Research Centre, Buxton SK17 9JN, UK
| | - Caroline Duchaine
- Département de biochimie, microbiologie et bio-informatique, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Annette Kolk
- Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance, Alte Heerstraße 111, 53757 Sankt Augustin, Germany
| | - Anne Mette Madsen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, 2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | | | | | | | - Inge M Wouters
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Brian Crook
- Health and Safety Executive Science and Research Centre, Buxton SK17 9JN, UK
| | - Carla Viegas
- H&TRC - Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL - Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA National School of Public Health, Public Health Research Centre, Comprehensive Health Research Center, CHRC, REAL, CCAL, NOVA University Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Huang L, Liang X, Xiao G, Du J, Ye L, Su Q, Liu C, Chen L. Response of salivary microbiome to temporal, environmental, and surface characteristics under in vitro exposure. Forensic Sci Int Genet 2024; 70:103020. [PMID: 38286081 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2024.103020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
The microbiome of saliva stains deposited at crime scenes and in everyday settings is valuable for forensic investigations and environmental ecology. However, the dynamics and applications of microbial communities in these saliva stains have not been fully explored. In this study, we analyzed saliva samples that were exposed to indoor conditions for up to 1 year and to different carriers (cotton, sterile absorbent cotton swab, woolen, dacron) in both indoor and outdoor environments for 1 month using high-throughput sequencing. The analysis of microbial composition and Mfuzz clustering showed that the salivary flora, specifically Streptococcus (cluster7), which was associated with microbial contamination, remained stable over short periods of time. However, prolonged exposure led to significant differences due to the invasion of environmental bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Achromobacter. The growth and colonization of environmental flora were promoted by humidity. The neutral model predictions indicated that the assembly of salivary microbial communities in outdoor environments was significantly influenced by stochastic processes, with environmental characteristics having a greater impact on community change compared to surface characteristics. By incorporating data from previous studies on fecal and vaginal secretion microbiology, we developed RF and XGBoost classification models that achieved high accuracy (>98 %) and AUC (>0.8). Additionally, a RF regression model was created to determine the time since deposition (TsD) of the stains. Time inference models yielded a mean absolute error (MAE) of 7.1 days for stains exposed for 1 year and 14.2 h for stains exposed for 14 days. These findings enhance our understanding of the changes in the microbiome of saliva stains over time, in different environments, and on different surfaces. They also have potential applications in assessing potential microbial contamination, identifying body fluids, and inferring the time of deposition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Litao Huang
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Forensic Multi-Omics for Precision Identification, School of Forensic Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
| | - Xiaomin Liang
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Forensic Multi-Omics for Precision Identification, School of Forensic Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
| | - Guichao Xiao
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Forensic Multi-Omics for Precision Identification, School of Forensic Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
| | - Jieyu Du
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Forensic Multi-Omics for Precision Identification, School of Forensic Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
| | - Linying Ye
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Forensic Multi-Omics for Precision Identification, School of Forensic Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
| | - Qin Su
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Forensic Multi-Omics for Precision Identification, School of Forensic Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China
| | - Chao Liu
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Forensic Multi-Omics for Precision Identification, School of Forensic Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China; National Anti-Drug Laboratory Guangdong Regional Center, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Ling Chen
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Forensic Multi-Omics for Precision Identification, School of Forensic Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Carrazana E, Ruiz-Gil T, Fujiyoshi S, Tanaka D, Noda J, Maruyama F, Jorquera MA. Potential airborne human pathogens: A relevant inhabitant in built environments but not considered in indoor air quality standards. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 901:165879. [PMID: 37517716 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Potential airborne human pathogens (PAHPs) may be a relevant component of the air microbiome in built environments. Despite that PAHPs can cause infections, particularly in immunosuppressed patients at medical centers, they are scarcely considered in standards of indoor air quality (IAQ) worldwide. Here, we reviewed the current information on microbial aerosols (bacteria, fungal and viruses) and PAHPs in different types of built environments (e.g., medical center, industrial and non-industrial), including the main factors involved in their dispersion, the methodologies used in their study and their associated biological risks. Our analysis identified the human occupancy and ventilation systems as the primary sources of dispersal of microbial aerosols indoors. We also observed temperature and relative humidity as relevant physicochemical factors regulating the dispersion and viability of some PAHPs. Our analysis revealed that some PAHPs can survive and coexist in different environments while other PAHPs are limited or specific for an environment. In relation to the methodologies (conventional or molecular) the nature of PAHPs and sampling type are pivotal. In this context, indoors air-borne viruses are the less studies because their small size, environmental lability, and absence of efficient sampling techniques and universal molecular markers for their study. Finally, it is noteworthy that PAHPs are not commonly considered and included in IAQ standards worldwide, and when they are included, the total abundance is the single parameter considered and biological risks is excluded. Therefore, we propose a revision, design and establishment of public health policies, regulations and IAQ standards, considering the interactions of diverse factors, such as nature of PAHPs, human occupancy and type of built environments where they develop.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Carrazana
- Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias Mención Biología Celular y Molecular Aplicada, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile; Laboratorio de Ecología Microbiana Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Tay Ruiz-Gil
- Laboratorio de Ecología Microbiana Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile; Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - So Fujiyoshi
- Center for Holobiome and Built Environment (CHOBE), Hiroshima University, Japan; Microbial Genomics and Ecology, PHIS, The IDEC institute, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Daisuke Tanaka
- School of Science Academic Assembly, University of Toyama, Toyama, Japan
| | - Jun Noda
- Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Fumito Maruyama
- Center for Holobiome and Built Environment (CHOBE), Hiroshima University, Japan; Microbial Genomics and Ecology, PHIS, The IDEC institute, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Milko A Jorquera
- Laboratorio de Ecología Microbiana Aplicada, Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile; Center for Holobiome and Built Environment (CHOBE), Hiroshima University, Japan; Network for Extreme Environment Research (NEXER), Scientific and Technological Bioresource Nucleus (BIOREN), Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zambrana W, Boehm AB. Occurrence of Human Viruses on Fomites in the Environment: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. ACS ENVIRONMENTAL AU 2023; 3:277-294. [PMID: 37743950 PMCID: PMC10515712 DOI: 10.1021/acsenvironau.3c00025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Documenting the occurrence of viruses on fomites is crucial in determining the significance of fomite-mediated transmission and the potential use of fomites for environmental disease surveillance. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to compile information on the occurrence of human viruses on fomites in the environment; we identified 134 peer-reviewed papers. We compiled sampling and measurement methods, results, quality control information, and whether virus data were compared with community health data from the papers. We conducted univariate and multivariate analyses to investigate if presence of virus on fomites was associated with virus type (enveloped, nonenveloped), sampling location (healthcare setting, nonhealthcare temporary setting, nonhealthcare nontemporary setting), and area of fomite swabbed (<50, 50-100, >100 cm2). Across 275 data sets from the 134 papers, there was the most data available for Coronaviridae and from fomites at hospitals. Positivity rates, defined as the percent positive fomite samples, were low (median = 6%). Data were available on viruses from 16 different viral families, but data on viruses from 9 families had few (n < 5) data sets. Many human virus families were not identified in this review (11 families). Less than 15% of the data sets reported virus concentrations in externally valid units (viruses per area of surface), and 16% provided a quantitative comparison between virus and health data. Virus type and area swabbed were significant predictors of virus presence on fomites, and the positivity rate of data sets collected from healthcare settings and nonhealthcare nontemporary settings (e.g., individual housing) were significantly higher than those collected in nonhealthcare temporary settings (e.g., restaurants). Data from this review indicates that viruses may be present on fomites, that fomite-mediated virus transmission may occur, and that fomites may provide information on circulation of infectious diseases in the community. However, more quantitative data on diverse viruses are needed, and method reporting needs significant improvements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Winnie Zambrana
- Department
of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Alexandria B. Boehm
- Department
of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Dong H, Mo J, Yu Y, Xie W, Zheng J, Jia C. A portable system for economical nucleic acid amplification testing. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1214624. [PMID: 37600301 PMCID: PMC10436208 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1214624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Regular and rapid large-scale screening for pathogens is crucial for controlling pandemics like Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this study, we present the development of a digital point-of-care testing (POCT) system utilizing microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 gene fragments. The system incorporates temperature tuning and fluorescent detection components, along with intelligent and autonomous image acquisition and self-recognition programs. Methods: The developed POCT system is based on the nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT), a well-established molecular biology technique for detecting and amplifying nucleic acids. We successfully detected artificially synthesized SARS-CoV-2 gene fragments, namely ORF1ab gene, N gene, and E gene, with minimal reagent consumption of only 2.2 μL per readout, representing a mere 11% of the requirements of conventional in-tube methods. The power dissipation of the system was low, at 6.4 W. Results: Our testing results demonstrated that the proposed approach achieved a limit of detection of 1000 copies/mL, which is equivalent to detecting 1 copy or a single RNA template per reaction. By employing standard curve analysis, the quantity of the target templates can be accurately determined. Conclusion: The developed digital POCT system shows great promise for rapid and reliable detection of SARS-CoV-2 gene fragments, offering a cost-effective and efficient solution for controlling pandemics. Its compatibility with other diagnostic techniques and low reagent consumption make it a viable option to enhance healthcare in resource-limited areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Dong
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of High-End Equipment Manufacturing, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jin Mo
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of High-End Equipment Manufacturing, Fuzhou, China
| | - Yongjian Yu
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of High-End Equipment Manufacturing, Fuzhou, China
| | - Wantao Xie
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of High-End Equipment Manufacturing, Fuzhou, China
| | | | - Chao Jia
- School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, China
- Fujian Provincial Collaborative Innovation Center of High-End Equipment Manufacturing, Fuzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Mihajlovski K, Buttner MP, Cruz P, Labus B, St. Pierre Schneider B, Detrick E. SARS-CoV-2 surveillance with environmental surface sampling in public areas. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278061. [PMID: 36417446 PMCID: PMC9683569 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Contaminated surfaces are one of the ways that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) may be transmitted. SARS-CoV-2 can be detected on environmental surfaces; however, few environmental sampling studies have been conducted in nonclinical settings. The objective of this study was to detect SARS-CoV-2 RNA on environmental surfaces in public areas in Las Vegas, Nevada. In total, 300 surface samples were collected from high-touch surfaces from high-congregate public locations and from a public health facility (PHF) that was visited by COVID-19 patients. Environmental samples were analyzed with quantitative reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) using SARS-CoV-2 specific primers and probes for three target genes. Results showed that 31 out of 300 (10.3%) surface samples tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, 24 at the PHF and 7 in high-congregate public locations. Concentrations ranged from 102 to 106 viral particles per 3 ml sample on a wide variety of materials. The data also showed that the N gene assay had greater sensitivity compared to the S and ORF gene assays. Besides frequently touched surfaces, SARS-CoV-2 was detected in restrooms, on floors and surfaces in contact with floors, as well as in a mop water sample. The results of this study describe the extent and distribution of environmental SARS-CoV-2 contamination in public areas in Las Vegas, Nevada. A method using the N gene PCR assay was developed for SARS-CoV-2 environmental monitoring in public areas. Environmental monitoring with this method can determine the specific sites of surface contamination in the community and may be beneficial for prevention of COVID-19 indirect transmission, and evaluation and improvement of infection control practices in public areas, public health facilities, universities, and businesses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Mihajlovski
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Mark P. Buttner
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, United States of America
| | - Patricia Cruz
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, United States of America
| | - Brian Labus
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, United States of America
| | - Barbara St. Pierre Schneider
- Graduate Nursing Department, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, The University of Texas at Arlington, TX, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth Detrick
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Fujita R, Kurosu H, Norizuki M, Ohishi T, Zamoto-Niikura A, Iwaki M, Mochida K, Takagi H, Harada T, Tsushima K, Matsumoto T, Hanaki KI, Sugai M, Yamagishi T. Potential risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection among people handling linens used by COVID-19 patients before and after washing. Sci Rep 2022; 12:14994. [PMID: 36056067 PMCID: PMC9438874 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-18945-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection when people handle linens is uncertain. We examined the presence of SARS-CoV-2 on linens, in the air, and on personal protective equipment (PPE) to assess potential infection risk among individuals who handle linens used by SARS-CoV-2-infected people. Patients in a hospital and an accommodation facility who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 participated in this study in 2020. Linen samples before washing or disinfection, rinse water after washing or disinfection, air in the workplace at the hospital and an accommodation facility, and the PPE worn by linen-handling people were tested for SARS-CoV-2 RNA and viable viruses. Among 700 samples from 13 SARS-CoV-2-infected participants and their surrounding environment, SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected from 14% (52/362) of the linens used by COVID-19 patients (cycle threshold [Ct] value: 33-40). SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected from 8% (2/26) of rinse water after washing or disinfection, from 15% (16/104) of air samples in the workspace, and from 10% (5/52) of gowns worn by linen-handling people, all with high Ct values (> 36). No SARS-CoV-2 was isolated from any samples. The potential risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection from handling linens used by SARS-CoV-2-infected people exists but appears to below.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Retsu Fujita
- Graduate School of Medicine, International University of Health and Welfare, 4-1-26, Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 107-8402, Japan
| | - Hitomi Kurosu
- Antimicrobial Resistance Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Masataro Norizuki
- Graduate School of Medicine, International University of Health and Welfare, 4-1-26, Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 107-8402, Japan
- Bureau of International Health Cooperation, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, 1-21-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8655, Japan
| | - Takayuki Ohishi
- Department of Infection Control and Prevention, Saiseikai Yokohama City Eastern Hospital, 3-6-1 Shimosueyoshi, Tsurumiku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 230-8765, Japan
| | - Aya Zamoto-Niikura
- Management Department of Biosafety , Laboratory Animal, and Pathogen Bank, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Masaaki Iwaki
- Management Department of Biosafety , Laboratory Animal, and Pathogen Bank, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Keiko Mochida
- Management Department of Biosafety , Laboratory Animal, and Pathogen Bank, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Takagi
- Management Department of Biosafety , Laboratory Animal, and Pathogen Bank, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Harada
- Management Department of Biosafety , Laboratory Animal, and Pathogen Bank, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Kenji Tsushima
- International University of Health and Welfare Narita Hospital, 852 Hatakeda, Narita, Chiba, 286-8520, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Matsumoto
- International University of Health and Welfare Narita Hospital, 852 Hatakeda, Narita, Chiba, 286-8520, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Hanaki
- Management Department of Biosafety , Laboratory Animal, and Pathogen Bank, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Motoyuki Sugai
- Antimicrobial Resistance Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Takuya Yamagishi
- Antimicrobial Resistance Research Center, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhang X, Wu J, Smith LM, Li X, Yancey O, Franzblau A, Dvonch JT, Xi C, Neitzel RL. Monitoring SARS-CoV-2 in air and on surfaces and estimating infection risk in buildings and buses on a university campus. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2022; 32:751-758. [PMID: 35477766 PMCID: PMC9045468 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-022-00442-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence is needed on the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in various types of environmental samples and on the estimated transmission risks in non-healthcare settings on campus. OBJECTIVES The objective of this research was to collect data on SARS-CoV-2 viral load and to examine potential infection risks of people exposed to the virus in publicly accessible non-healthcare environments on a university campus. METHODS Air and surface samples were collected using wetted wall cyclone bioaerosol samplers and swab kits, respectively, in a longitudinal environmental surveillance program from August 2020 until April 2021 on the University of Michigan Ann Arbor campus. Quantitative rRT-PCR with primers and probes targeting gene N1 were used for SARS-CoV-2 RNA quantification. The RNA concentrations were used to estimate the probability of infection by quantitative microbial risk assessment modeling and Monte-Carlo simulation. RESULTS In total, 256 air samples and 517 surface samples were collected during the study period, among which positive rates were 1.6% and 1.4%, respectively. Point-biserial correlation showed that the total case number on campus was significantly higher in weeks with positive environmental samples than in non-positive weeks (p = 0.001). The estimated probability of infection was about 1 per 100 exposures to SARS-CoV-2-laden aerosols through inhalation and as high as 1 per 100,000 exposures from contacting contaminated surfaces in simulated scenarios. SIGNIFICANCE Viral shedding was demonstrated by the detection of viral RNA in multiple air and surface samples on a university campus. The low overall positivity rate indicated that the risk of exposure to SARS-CoV-2 at monitored locations was low. Risk modeling results suggest that inhalation is the predominant route of exposure compared to surface contact, which emphasizes the importance of protecting individuals from airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and potentially other respiratory infectious diseases. IMPACT Given the reoccurring epidemics caused by highly infectious respiratory viruses in recent years, our manuscript reinforces the importance of monitoring environmental transmission by the simultaneous sampling and integration of multiple environmental surveillance matrices for modeling and risk assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jianfeng Wu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Lauren M Smith
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Olivia Yancey
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Alfred Franzblau
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - J Timothy Dvonch
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Chuanwu Xi
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| | - Richard L Neitzel
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Chavda VP, Chen Y, Dave J, Chen ZS, Chauhan SC, Yallapu MM, Uversky VN, Bezbaruah R, Patel S, Apostolopoulos V. COVID-19 and vaccination: myths vs science. Expert Rev Vaccines 2022; 21:1603-1620. [PMID: 35980281 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2022.2114900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Several vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been developed since the inception of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in December 2019, at unprecedented speed. However, these rapidly developed vaccines raised many questions related to the efficacy and safety of vaccines in different communities across the globe. Various hypotheses regarding COVID-19 and its vaccines were generated, and many of them have also been answered with scientific evidence. Still, there are many myths/misinformation related to COVID-19 and its vaccines, which create hesitancy for COVID-19 vaccination, and must be addressed critically to achieve success in the battle against the pandemic. AREA COVERED The development of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines against COVID-19, their safety and efficacy, and myths/misinformation relating to COVID-19 and vaccines are presented. EXPERT OPINION In this pandemic we have seen a global collaborative effort of researchers, governments, and industry, supported by billions of dollars in funding, have allowed the development of vaccines far more quickly than in the past. Vaccines go through rigorous testing, analysis, and evaluations in clinical settings prior to their approval, even if they are approved for emergency use. Despite the myths, vaccination represents an important strategy to get back to normality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vivek P Chavda
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad
| | - Yangmin Chen
- Peter J. Tobin College of Business, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Jayant Dave
- Department of Pharmaceutical Quality Assurance, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad
| | - Zhe-Sheng Chen
- College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY 11439, USA
| | - Subhash C Chauhan
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, TX, USA.,South Texas Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, TX, USA
| | - Murali M Yallapu
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, TX, USA.,South Texas Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, School of Medicine, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, McAllen, TX, USA
| | - Vladimir N Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Byrd Alzheimer's Research Institure, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Rajashri Bezbaruah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh -786004, Assam, India
| | - Sandip Patel
- Department of Pharmacology, L.M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad
| | - Vasso Apostolopoulos
- Institute for Health and Sport, Immunology and Translational Research Group, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, 3030, Australia.,Immunology Program, Australian Institute for Musculoskeletal Science (AIMSS), Melbourne, VIC, 3021, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Amato-Lourenço LF, de Souza Xavier Costa N, Dantas KC, Dos Santos Galvão L, Moralles FN, Lombardi SCFS, Júnior AM, Lindoso JAL, Ando RA, Lima FG, Carvalho-Oliveira R, Mauad T. Airborne microplastics and SARS-CoV-2 in total suspended particles in the area surrounding the largest medical centre in Latin America. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 292:118299. [PMID: 34626707 PMCID: PMC8494494 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) have been reported in the outdoor/indoor air of urban centres, raising health concerns due to the potential for human exposure. Since aerosols are considered one of the routes of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) transmission and may bind to the surface of airborne MPs, we hypothesize that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) could be associated with the levels of MPs in the air. Our goal was to quantify the SARS-CoV-2 RNA and MPs present in the total suspended particles (TSP) collected in the area surrounding the largest medical centre in Latin America and to elucidate a possible association among weather variables, MPs, and SARS-CoV-2 in the air. TSP were sampled from three outdoor locations in the areas surrounding a medical centre. MPs were quantified and measured under a fluorescence microscope, and their polymeric composition was characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microspectroscopy coupled with attenuated total reflectance (ATR). The viral load of SARS-CoV-2 was quantified by an in-house real-time PCR assay. A generalized linear model (GzLM) was employed to evaluate the effect of the SARS-CoV-2 quantification on MPs and weather variables. TSP samples tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in 22 out of 38 samples at the three sites. Polyester was the most frequent polymer (80%) found in the samples. The total amount of MPs was positively associated with the quantification of SARS-CoV-2 envelope genes and negatively associated with weather variables (temperature and relative humidity). Our findings show that SARS-CoV-2 aerosols may bind to TSP, such as MPs, and facilitate virus entry into the human body.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luís Fernando Amato-Lourenço
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Institute of Advanced Studies (IEA) Global Cities Program, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | | | - Kátia Cristina Dantas
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Alfredo Mendroni Júnior
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation in Pathogenesis and Targeted Therapy in OncoImmuno-Hematology (LIM-31), Department of Hematology, Hospital das Clínicas -HCFMUSP, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - José Angelo Lauletta Lindoso
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Institute of Infectiology Emilio Ribas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rômulo Augusto Ando
- Chemical Analyses Laboratory, Institute for Technological Research (IPT), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Felipe Gallego Lima
- Heart Institute (InCor), School of Medicine at Sao Paulo University, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Thais Mauad
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Institute of Advanced Studies (IEA) Global Cities Program, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Higher Concentrations of Bacterial Enveloped Virus Phi6 Can Protect the Virus from Environmental Decay. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:e0137121. [PMID: 34406830 PMCID: PMC8516058 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01371-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Phage Phi6 is an enveloped virus considered a possible nonpathogenic surrogate for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and other viral pathogens in transmission studies. Larger input amounts of bacteriophage Phi6 are shown to delay and protect the phage from environmental decay, both when the phages are dried in plastic tubes and when they are stored in saline solution at 4°C. In contrast, when bacteriophage Phi6 is placed in LB (Luria-Bertani) growth medium (instead of saline) prior to placement on the plastic surface, the influence of the starting concentration on viral recovery is negligible. Protection is reflected in the phage half-lives at higher concentrations being longer than the half-lives at lower concentrations. Because experiments supporting the possibility of fomite transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses rely upon the survival of infectious virus following inoculation onto various surfaces, large initial amounts of input virus on a surface may generate artificially inflated survival times compared to realistic lower levels of virus that a subject would normally encounter. This is not only because there are extra half-lives to go through at higher concentrations but also because the half-lives themselves are extended at higher virus concentrations. It is important to design surface drying experiments for pathogens with realistic levels of input virus and to consider the role of the carrier and matrix if the results are to be clinically relevant. IMPORTANCE During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, much attention has been paid to the environmental decay of SARS-CoV-2 due to the proposed transmission of the virus via fomites. However, published experiments have commenced with inocula with very high virus titers, an experimental design not representative of real-life conditions. The study described here evaluated the impact of the initial virus titer on the environmental decay of an enveloped virus, using a nonpathogenic surrogate for the transmission of SARS-CoV-2, enveloped bacteriophage Phi6. We establish that higher concentrations of virus can protect the virus from environmental decay, depending on conditions. This has important implications for stability studies of SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses. Our results point to a limitation in the fundamental methodology that has been used to attribute fomite transmission for almost all respiratory viruses.
Collapse
|
12
|
Sobolik JS, Sajewski ET, Jaykus LA, Cooper DK, Lopman BA, Kraay ANM, Ryan PB, Guest JL, Webb-Girard A, Leon JS. Low risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission via fomite, even in cold-chain. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2021:2021.08.23.21262477. [PMID: 34462753 PMCID: PMC8404890 DOI: 10.1101/2021.08.23.21262477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Countries continue to debate the need for decontamination of cold-chain food packaging to reduce possible SARS-CoV-2 fomite transmission among workers. While laboratory-based studies demonstrate persistence of SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces, the likelihood of fomite-mediated transmission under real-life conditions is uncertain. METHODS Using a quantitative risk assessment model, we simulated in a frozen food packaging facility 1) SARS-CoV-2 fomite-mediated infection risks following worker exposure to contaminated plastic packaging; and 2) reductions in these risks attributed to masking, handwashing, and vaccination. FINDINGS In a representative facility with no specific interventions, SARS-CoV-2 infection risk to a susceptible worker from contact with contaminated packaging was 2·8 × 10 -3 per 1h-period (95%CI: 6·9 × 10 -6 , 2·4 × 10 -2 ). Implementation of standard infection control measures, handwashing and masks (9·4 × 10 -6 risk per 1h-period, 95%CI: 2·3 × 10 -8 , 8·1 × 10 -5 ), substantially reduced risk (99·7%). Vaccination of the susceptible worker (two doses Pfizer/Moderna, vaccine effectiveness: 86-99%) combined with handwashing and masking reduced risk to less than 1·0 × 10 -6 . Simulating increased infectiousness/transmissibility of new variants (2-, 10-fold viral shedding) among a fully vaccinated workforce, handwashing and masks continued to mitigate risk (2·0 × 10 -6 -1·1 × 10 -5 risk per 1h-period). Decontamination of packaging in addition to these interventions reduced infection risks to below the 1·0 × 10 -6 risk threshold. INTERPRETATION Fomite-mediated SARS-CoV-2 infection risks were very low under cold-chain conditions. Handwashing and masking provide significant protection to workers, especially when paired with vaccination. FUNDING U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julia S. Sobolik
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 30322
| | | | - Lee-Ann Jaykus
- Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA, 27695
| | - D. Kane Cooper
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 30322
| | - Ben A. Lopman
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 30322
| | - Alicia NM. Kraay
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 30322
| | - P. Barry Ryan
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 30322
| | - Jodie L. Guest
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 30322
| | - Amy Webb-Girard
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 30322
| | - Juan S. Leon
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 30322
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Margarucci LM, Gianfranceschi G, Romano Spica V, D’Ermo G, Refi C, Podico M, Vitali M, Romano F, Valeriani F. Photocatalytic Treatments for Personal Protective Equipment: Experimental Microbiological Investigations and Perspectives for the Enhancement of Antimicrobial Activity by Micrometric TiO 2. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:8662. [PMID: 34444411 PMCID: PMC8391258 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18168662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to countries enforcing the use of facial masks to prevent contagion. However, acquisition, reuse, and disposal of personal protective equipment (PPE) has generated problems, in regard to the safety of individuals and environmental sustainability. Effective strategies to reprocess and disinfect PPE are needed to improve the efficacy and durability of this equipment and to reduce waste load. Thus, the addition of photocatalytic materials to these materials, combined with light exposure at specific wavelengths, may represent promising solutions. To this aim, we prepared a series of masks by depositing micrometer-sized TiO2 on the external surfaces; the masks were then contaminated with droplets of bacteria suspensions and the coatings were activated by light radiation at different wavelengths. A significant reduction in the microbial load (over 90%, p < 0.01) was observed using both Gram negative (E. coli) and Gram positive (S. aureus) bacteria within 15 min of irradiation, with UV or visible light, including sunlight or artificial sources. Our results support the need for further investigations on self-disinfecting masks and other disposable PPE, which could positively impact (i) the safety of operators/workers, and (ii) environmental sustainability in different occupational or recreational settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lory Marika Margarucci
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy; (L.M.M.); (G.G.); (F.V.)
| | - Gianluca Gianfranceschi
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy; (L.M.M.); (G.G.); (F.V.)
| | - Vincenzo Romano Spica
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy; (L.M.M.); (G.G.); (F.V.)
| | - Giuseppe D’Ermo
- Department of Surgery “P. Valdoni”, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | | | - Maurizio Podico
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy;
| | - Matteo Vitali
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.V.); (F.R.)
| | - Ferdinando Romano
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; (M.V.); (F.R.)
| | - Federica Valeriani
- Department of Movement, Human, and Health Sciences, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biotechnologies, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy; (L.M.M.); (G.G.); (F.V.)
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ng DHL, Sim MY, Huang HH, Sim JXY, Low JGH, Lim JKS. Feasibility and utility of facemask sampling in the detection of SARS-CoV-2 during an ongoing pandemic. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2021; 40:2489-2496. [PMID: 34224033 PMCID: PMC8256409 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-021-04302-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Easy access to screening for timely identification and isolation of infectious COVID-19 patients remains crucial in sustaining the international efforts to control COVID-19 spread. A major barrier limiting broad-based screening is the lack of a simple, rapid, and cost-effective COVID-19 testing method. We evaluated the feasibility and utility of facemask sampling in a cohort of 42 COVID-19-positive and 36 COVID-19-negative patients. We used a prototype of Steri-Strips™ (3 M) applied to the inner surface of looped surgical facemasks (Assure), which was worn by patients for a minimum wear time of 3 h, then removed and sent for SARS-CoV-2 PCR testing. Baseline demographics and symptomatology were also collected. Facemask sampling positivity was highest within the first 5 days of symptomatic presentation. Patients with nasopharyngeal and/or oropharyngeal swab SARS-CoV-2 PCR Ct values < 25.09 had SARS-CoV-2 detected on facemask sampling, while patients with Ct values ≥ 25.2 had no SARS-CoV-2 detected on facemask sampling. Facemask sampling can identify patients with COVID-19 during the early symptomatic phase or those with high viral loads, hence allowing timely identification and isolation of those with the highest transmission risk. Given the widespread use of facemasks, this method can potentially be easily applied to achieve broad-based, or even continuous, population screening.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dorothy Hui Lin Ng
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Mei Yi Sim
- Department of Urology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hong Hong Huang
- Department of Urology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jean Xiang Ying Sim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jenny Guek Hong Low
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore.,Programme in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jay Kheng Sit Lim
- Department of Urology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
Assembly and publication of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) genome in January 2020 enabled the immediate development of tests to detect the new virus. This began the largest global testing programme in history, in which hundreds of millions of individuals have been tested to date. The unprecedented scale of testing has driven innovation in the strategies, technologies and concepts that govern testing in public health. This Review describes the changing role of testing during the COVID-19 pandemic, including the use of genomic surveillance to track SARS-CoV-2 transmission around the world, the use of contact tracing to contain disease outbreaks and testing for the presence of the virus circulating in the environment. Despite these efforts, widespread community transmission has become entrenched in many countries and has required the testing of populations to identify and isolate infected individuals, many of whom are asymptomatic. The diagnostic and epidemiological principles that underpin such population-scale testing are also considered, as are the high-throughput and point-of-care technologies that make testing feasible on a massive scale.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tim R Mercer
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
- St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Marc Salit
- Departments of Pathology and Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Joint Initiative for Metrology in Biology, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|