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Vestergaard MV, Allin KH, Eriksen C, Zakerska-Banaszak O, Arasaradnam RP, Alam MT, Kristiansen K, Brix S, Jess T. Gut microbiota signatures in inflammatory bowel disease. United European Gastroenterol J 2024; 12:22-33. [PMID: 38041519 PMCID: PMC10859715 DOI: 10.1002/ueg2.12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), including Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), affect millions of people worldwide with increasing incidence. OBJECTIVES Several studies have shown a link between gut microbiota composition and IBD, but results are often limited by small sample sizes. We aimed to re-analyze publicly available fecal microbiota data from IBD patients. METHODS We extracted original fecal 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing data from 45 cohorts of IBD patients and healthy individuals using the BioProject database at the National Center for Biotechnology Information. Unlike previous meta-analyses, we merged all study cohorts into a single dataset, including sex, age, geography, and disease information, based on which microbiota signatures were analyzed, while accounting for varying technical platforms. RESULTS Among 2518 individuals in the combined dataset, we discovered a hitherto unseen number of genera associated with IBD. A total of 77 genera associated with CD, of which 38 were novel associations, and a total of 64 genera associated with UC, of which 28 represented novel associations. Signatures were robust across different technical platforms and geographic locations. Reduced alpha diversity in IBD compared to healthy individuals, in CD compared to UC, and altered microbiota composition (beta diversity) in UC and especially in CD as compared to healthy individuals were found. CONCLUSIONS Combining original microbiota data from 45 cohorts, we identified a hitherto unseen large number of genera associated with IBD. Identification of microbiota features robustly associated with CD and UC may pave the way for the identification of new treatment targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Vibeke Vestergaard
- Center for Molecular Prediction of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, PREDICT, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristine H Allin
- Center for Molecular Prediction of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, PREDICT, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Carsten Eriksen
- Center for Molecular Prediction of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, PREDICT, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Ramesh P Arasaradnam
- Warwick Medical School & Cancer Research Centre, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Mohammad T Alam
- Warwick Medical School & Cancer Research Centre, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
- Department of Biology, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Karsten Kristiansen
- Center for Molecular Prediction of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, PREDICT, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Laboratory of Genomics and Molecular Medicine, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Susanne Brix
- Center for Molecular Prediction of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, PREDICT, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Tine Jess
- Center for Molecular Prediction of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, PREDICT, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
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Oliver A, Kay M, Lemay DG. TaxaHFE: a machine learning approach to collapse microbiome datasets using taxonomic structure. BIOINFORMATICS ADVANCES 2023; 3:vbad165. [PMID: 38046097 PMCID: PMC10689668 DOI: 10.1093/bioadv/vbad165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
Motivation Biologists increasingly turn to machine learning models not just to predict, but to explain. Feature reduction is a common approach to improve both the performance and interpretability of models. However, some biological datasets, such as microbiome data, are inherently organized in a taxonomy, but these hierarchical relationships are not leveraged during feature reduction. We sought to design a feature engineering algorithm to exploit relationships in hierarchically organized biological data. Results We designed an algorithm, called TaxaHFE, to collapse information-poor features into their higher taxonomic levels. We applied TaxaHFE to six previously published datasets and found, on average, a 90% reduction in the number of features (SD = 5.1%) compared to using the most complete taxonomy. Using machine learning to compare the most resolved taxonomic level (i.e. species) against TaxaHFE-preprocessed features, models based on TaxaHFE features achieved an average increase of 3.47% in receiver operator curve area under the curve. Compared to other hierarchical feature engineering implementations, TaxaHFE introduces the novel ability to consider both categorical and continuous response variables to inform the feature set collapse. Importantly, we find TaxaHFE's ability to reduce hierarchically organized features to a more information-rich subset increases the interpretability of models. Availability and implementation TaxaHFE is available as a Docker image and as R code at https://github.com/aoliver44/taxaHFE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Oliver
- USDA-ARS Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, CA 95616, United States
| | - Matthew Kay
- Independent Researcher, Washington, DC 20002, United States
| | - Danielle G Lemay
- USDA-ARS Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, CA 95616, United States
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States
- Genome Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States
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3
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Warner BB, Rosa BA, Ndao IM, Tarr PI, Miller JP, England SK, Luby JL, Rogers CE, Hall-Moore C, Bryant RE, Wang JD, Linneman LA, Smyser TA, Smyser CD, Barch DM, Miller GE, Chen E, Martin J, Mitreva M. Social and psychological adversity are associated with distinct mother and infant gut microbiome variations. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5824. [PMID: 37726348 PMCID: PMC10509221 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41421-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Health disparities are driven by underlying social disadvantage and psychosocial stressors. However, how social disadvantage and psychosocial stressors lead to adverse health outcomes is unclear, particularly when exposure begins prenatally. Variations in the gut microbiome and circulating proinflammatory cytokines offer potential mechanistic pathways. Here, we interrogate the gut microbiome of mother-child dyads to compare high-versus-low prenatal social disadvantage, psychosocial stressors and maternal circulating cytokine cohorts (prospective case-control study design using gut microbiomes from 121 dyads profiled with 16 S rRNA sequencing and 89 dyads with shotgun metagenomic sequencing). Gut microbiome characteristics significantly predictive of social disadvantage and psychosocial stressors in the mothers and children indicate that different discriminatory taxa and related pathways are involved, including many species of Bifidobacterium and related pathways across several comparisons. The lowest inter-individual gut microbiome similarity was observed among high-social disadvantage/high-psychosocial stressors mothers, suggesting distinct environmental exposures driving a diverging gut microbiome assembly compared to low-social disadvantage/low-psychosocial stressors controls (P = 3.5 × 10-5 for social disadvantage, P = 2.7 × 10-15 for psychosocial stressors). Children's gut metagenome profiles at 4 months also significantly predicted high/low maternal prenatal IL-6 (P = 0.029), with many bacterial species overlapping those identified by social disadvantage and psychosocial stressors. These differences, based on maternal social and psychological status during a critical developmental window early in life, offer potentially modifiable targets to mitigate health inequities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara B Warner
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
| | - Bruce A Rosa
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - I Malick Ndao
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Phillip I Tarr
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - J Philip Miller
- Institute for Informatics, Data Science and Biostatistics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Sarah K England
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Joan L Luby
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Cynthia E Rogers
- Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Carla Hall-Moore
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Renay E Bryant
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Jacqueline D Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Laura A Linneman
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Tara A Smyser
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Christopher D Smyser
- Departments of Neurology, Pediatrics and Radiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Deanna M Barch
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Psychiatry, & Radiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA
| | - Gregory E Miller
- Institute for Policy Research & Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Edith Chen
- Institute for Policy Research & Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - John Martin
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Makedonka Mitreva
- Departments of Medicine and Genetics, and McDonnell Genome Institute, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
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Du Y, Li Y, Xu X, Li R, Zhang M, Cui Y, Zhang L, Wei Z, Wang S, Tuo H. Probiotics for constipation and gut microbiota in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2022; 103:92-97. [PMID: 36087572 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2022.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Constipation is one of the common non-motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease that significantly impacts patient quality of life. Probiotics supplementation may improve constipation symptoms, but its effect on the gut microbiota population is unclear. METHODS In this randomized controlled study, 46 PD patients with constipation according to Rome Ⅲ criteria were recruited. The number of complete bowel movements per week, degree of defecation effort, Bristol stool Scale (BSS), Patient Assessment of Constipation symptom (PAC-SYM) and Patient assessment of constipation quality of life questionnaire (PAC-QOL) were collected pre- and post-intervention to evaluate the constipation symptoms. In addition, fresh feces of subjects before and after intervention and healthy controls were collected for 16s rRNA gene V3-V4 region sequencing to compare bacterial flora differences. RESULTS Compared with the control group, the treatment group increased the average number of complete bowel movements per week (1.09 ± 1.24 vs. 0.04 ± 0.64, P < 0.001). Probiotics supplementation reduced the BSS score (0.65 ± 0.93 vs. -0.17 ± 0.94, P = 0.004), PAC-SYM score (4.09 ± 6.31 vs. -1.83 ± 4.14, P < 0.001), PAC-QOL score (10.65 ± 16.53 vs. 0.57 ± 12.82, P = 0.042), and degree of defecation effort score (1.00 ± 0.80 vs. 0.00 ± 0.30, P < 0.001). The improvement rate of constipation in the probiotics group was significantly higher than that in the control group (52.2% vs. 8.7%, P = 0.001). PD patients showed intestinal flora disorders compared to healthy controls. After 12 weeks of probiotics treatment, g_Christensenella_sp._Marseille-P2437 significantly increased, while g_Eubacterium_oxidoreducens_group, g_Eubacterium_hallii_group and s_Odoribacter_sp._N54.MGS-14 decreased (p < 0 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Probiotics treatment can effectively improve the constipation symptoms of PD patients and positively affected the gut microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yitong Du
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yue Li
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojiao Xu
- Department of Neurology, Hospital of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Rongxue Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Mingkai Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Cui
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Liyan Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zheng Wei
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Shiya Wang
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Houzhen Tuo
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
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Perrone MR, Romano S, De Maria G, Tundo P, Bruno AR, Tagliaferro L, Maffia M, Fragola M. Compositional Data Analysis of 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing Results from Hospital Airborne Microbiome Samples. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:10107. [PMID: 36011742 PMCID: PMC9408509 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph191610107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The compositional analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequencing datasets is applied to characterize the bacterial structure of airborne samples collected in different locations of a hospital infection disease department hosting COVID-19 patients, as well as to investigate the relationships among bacterial taxa at the genus and species level. The exploration of the centered log-ratio transformed data by the principal component analysis via the singular value decomposition has shown that the collected samples segregated with an observable separation depending on the monitoring location. More specifically, two main sample clusters were identified with regards to bacterial genera (species), consisting of samples mostly collected in rooms with and without COVID-19 patients, respectively. Human pathogenic genera (species) associated with nosocomial infections were mostly found in samples from areas hosting patients, while non-pathogenic genera (species) mainly isolated from soil were detected in the other samples. Propionibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus pettenkoferi, Corynebacterium tuberculostearicum, and jeikeium were the main pathogenic species detected in COVID-19 patients' rooms. Samples from these locations were on average characterized by smaller richness/evenness and diversity than the other ones, both at the genus and species level. Finally, the ρ metrics revealed that pairwise positive associations occurred either between pathogenic or non-pathogenic taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rita Perrone
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Salvatore Romano
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Giuseppe De Maria
- Presidio Ospedaliero Santa Caterina Novella, Azienda Sanitaria Locale Lecce, 73013 Galatina, Italy
| | - Paolo Tundo
- Presidio Ospedaliero Santa Caterina Novella, Azienda Sanitaria Locale Lecce, 73013 Galatina, Italy
| | - Anna Rita Bruno
- Presidio Ospedaliero Santa Caterina Novella, Azienda Sanitaria Locale Lecce, 73013 Galatina, Italy
| | - Luigi Tagliaferro
- Presidio Ospedaliero Santa Caterina Novella, Azienda Sanitaria Locale Lecce, 73013 Galatina, Italy
| | - Michele Maffia
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy
| | - Mattia Fragola
- Department of Mathematics and Physics, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy
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Liu H, Hu Z, Zhou M, Zhang H, Zhang X, Yue Y, Yao X, Wang J, Xi C, Zheng P, Xu X, Hu B. PM 2.5 drives bacterial functions for carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles in the atmosphere. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 295:118715. [PMID: 34933062 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Airborne bacteria may absorb the substance from the atmospheric particles and play a role in biogeochemical cycling. However, these studies focused on a few culturable bacteria and the samples were usually collected from one site. The metabolic potential of a majority of airborne bacteria on a regional scale and their driving factors remain unknown. In this study, we collected particulates with aerodynamic diameter ≤2.5 μm (PM2.5) from 8 cities that represent different regions across China and analyzed the samples via high-throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA genes, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis, and functional database prediction. Based on the FAPROTAX database, 326 (80.69%), 191 (47.28%) and 45 (11.14%) bacterial genera are possible to conduct the pathways of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles, respectively. The pathway analysis indicated that airborne bacteria may lead to the decrease in organic carbon while the increase in ammonium and sulfate in PM2.5 samples, all of which are the important components of PM2.5. Among the 19 environmental factors studied including air pollutants, meteorological factors, and geographical conditions, PM2.5 concentration manifested the strongest correlations with the functional genes for the transformation of ammonium and sulfate. Moreover, the PM2.5 concentration rather than the sampling site will drive the distribution of functional genera. Thus, a bi-directional relationship between PM2.5 and bacterial metabolism is suggested. Our findings shed light on the potential bacterial pathway for the biogeochemical cycling in the atmosphere and the important role of PM2.5, offering a new perspective for atmospheric ecology and pollution control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Liu
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400044, China
| | - Zhichao Hu
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Meng Zhou
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Hao Zhang
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Xiaole Zhang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland; Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Yang Yue
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland; Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Xiangwu Yao
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland; Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Chuanwu Xi
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2029, USA
| | - Ping Zheng
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Xiangyang Xu
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Baolan Hu
- College of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; Research Center for Air Pollution and Health, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
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Gut microbiota features associated with Clostridioides difficile colonization in dairy calves. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0251999. [PMID: 34910727 PMCID: PMC8673638 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Diarrheal disease, a major cause of morbidity and mortality in dairy calves, is strongly associated with the health and composition of the gut microbiota. Clostridioides difficile is an opportunistic pathogen that proliferates and can produce enterotoxins when the host experiences gut dysbiosis. However, even asymptomatic colonization with C. difficile can be associated with differing degrees of microbiota disruption in a range of species, including people, swine, and dogs. Little is known about the interaction between C. difficile and the gut microbiota in dairy calves. In this study, we sought to define microbial features associated with C. difficile colonization in pre-weaned dairy calves less than 2 weeks of age. We characterized the fecal microbiota of 80 calves from 23 different farms using 16S rRNA sequencing and compared the microbiota of C. difficile-positive (n = 24) and C. difficile-negative calves (n = 56). Farm appeared to be the greatest source of variability in the gut microbiota. When controlling for calf age, diet, and farm location, there was no significant difference in Shannon alpha diversity (P = 0.50) or in weighted UniFrac beta diversity (P = 0.19) between C. difficile-positive and–negative calves. However, there was a significant difference in beta diversity as assessed using Bray-Curtiss diversity (P = 0.0077), and C. difficile-positive calves had significantly increased levels of Ruminococcus (gnavus group) (Adj. P = 0.052), Lachnoclostridium (Adj. P = 0.060), Butyricicoccus (Adj. P = 0.060), and Clostridium sensu stricto 2 compared to C. difficile-negative calves. Additionally, C. difficile-positive calves had fewer microbial co-occurrences than C. difficile–negative calves, indicating reduced bacterial synergies. Thus, while C. difficile colonization alone is not associated with dysbiosis and is therefore unlikely to result in an increased likelihood of diarrhea in dairy calves, it may be associated with a more disrupted microbiota.
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