Inhibition of notch signalling ameliorates experimental inflammatory arthritis

Notch ligands are biomarkers of anti-TNF response in RA patients

Notch and its ligands play a critical role in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) pathogenesis. Hence, studies were conducted to delineate the functional significance of the Notch pathway in RA synovial tissue (ST) cells and the influence of RA therapies on their expression. Morphological studies reveal that JAG1, DLL4, and Notch1 are highly enriched in RA ST lining and sublining CD68+CD14+ MΦs. JAG1 and DLL4 transcription is jointly upregulated in RA MΦs reprogrammed by TLR4/5 ligation and TNF, whereas Syntenin-1 exposure expands JAG1, DLL4, and Notch1 expression levels in these cells. Single-cell RNA-seq data exhibit that JAG1 and Notch3 are overexpressed on all fibroblast-like synoviocyte (FLS) subpopulations, in parallel, JAG2, DLL1, and Notch1 expression levels are modest on RA FLS and are predominately potentiated by TLR4 ligation. Intriguingly, JAG1, DLL1/4, and Notch1/3 are presented on RA endothelial cells, and their expression is mutually reconfigured by TLR4/5 ligation in the endothelium. Synovial JAG1/JAG2/DLL1 or Notch1/3 transcriptomes were unchanged in patients who received disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) or IL-6R Ab therapy regardless of disease activity score. Uniquely, RA MΦs and endothelial cells rewired by IL-6 displayed DLL4 transcriptional upregulation, and IL-6R antibody treatment disrupted RA ST DLL4 transcription in good responders compared to non-responders or moderate responders. Nevertheless, the JAG1/JAG2/DLL1/DLL4 transcriptome was diminished in anti-TNF good responders with myeloid pathotype and was unaltered in the fibroid pathotype except for DLL4. Taken together, our findings suggest that RA myeloid Notch ligands can serve as markers for anti-TNF responsiveness and trans-activate Notch receptors expressed on RA FLS and/or endothelial cells.

Targeting Pathways and Integrated Approaches to Treat Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic symmetrical systemic disorder that not only affects joints but also other organs such as heart, lungs, kidney, and liver. Approximately there is 0.5%-1% of the total population affected by RA. RA pathogenesis still remains unclear due to which its appropriate treatment is a challenge. Further, multitudes of factors have been reported to affect its progression i.e. genetic factor, environmental factor, immune factor, and oxidative factor. Therapeutic approaches available for the treatment of RA include NSAIDs, DMARDs, enzymatic, hormonal, and gene therapies. But most of them provide the symptomatic relief without treating the core of the disease. This makes it obligatory to explore and reach the molecular targets for cure and long-term relief from RA. Herein, we attempt to provide extensive overlay of the new targets for RA treatment such as signaling pathways, proteins, and receptors affecting the progression of the disease and its severity. Precise modification in these targets such as suppressing the notch signaling pathway, SIRT 3 protein, Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor and stimulating the neuronal signals particularly efferent vagus nerve and SIRT 1 protein may offer long term relief and potentially diminish the chronicity. To target or alter the novel molecules and signaling pathway a specific delivery system is required such as liposome, nanoparticles and micelles and many more. Present review paper discusses in detail about novel targets and delivery systems for treating RA.

CXCR3 antagonist NBI-74330 mitigates joint inflammation in Collagen-Induced arthritis model in DBA/1J mice

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by uncontrolled synovial proliferation, pannus formation, cartilage injury, and bone destruction. We used the CXCR3-specific antagonist NBI-74330 to block T-cell-mediated signaling in a DBA/1J mouse model of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). After CIA induction, DBA/1J mice were treated with NBI-74330 (100 mg/kg) daily from day 21 until day 34 and evaluated for arthritic score and histopathological changes. Furthermore, using flow cytometry, we investigated the effects of NBI-74330 on Th1 (IFN-γ, TNF-α, T-bet, STAT4, Notch-3, and RANKL), Th17 (IL-21, IL-17A, STAT3, and RORγt), and Th22 (IL-22) cells in splenic CD4⁺ and CXCR3⁺T-cells. We also used RT-PCR to assess the effect of mRNA levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, T-bet, RANKL, IL-17A, RORγt, and IL-22 in knee tissues. The IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-17A serum protein levels were measured using ELISA. Compared to vehicle-treated CIA mice, the severity of arthritic scores and histological severity of inflammation decreased significantly in NBI-74330-treated CIA mice. Moreover, compared to vehicle-treated CIA mice, the percentages of CD4⁺IFN-γ⁺, CD4⁺TNF-α⁺, CD4⁺T-bet⁺, CD4⁺STAT4⁺, CD4⁺Notch-3⁺, CXCR3⁺IFN-γ⁺, CXCR3⁺TNF-α⁺, CXCR3⁺T-bet⁺, CXCR3⁺STAT4⁺, CXCR3⁺Notch-3⁺, CD4⁺RANKL⁺, CD4⁺IL-21⁺, CD4⁺IL-17A⁺, CD4⁺STAT3⁺, CD4⁺RORγt⁺, and CD4⁺IL-22⁺ cells decreased in NBI-74330-treated CIA mice. Furthermore, NBI-74330-treatment downregulated IFN-γ, TNF-α, T-bet, RANKL, STAT3, IL-17A, RORγt, and IL-22 mRNA levels. Serum IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-17A levels were significantly lower in NBI-74330-treated CIA mice than in vehicle-treated CIA mice. This study demonstrates the antiarthritic effects of NBI-74330 in CIA mice. Therefore, these data suggest that NBI-74330 could be considered a potential RA treatment.

Signaling pathways in rheumatoid arthritis: implications for targeted therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an incurable systemic autoimmune disease. Disease progression leads to joint deformity and associated loss of function, which significantly impacts the quality of life for sufferers and adds to losses in the labor force. In the past few decades, RA has attracted increased attention from researchers, the abnormal signaling pathways in RA are a very important research field in the diagnosis and treatment of RA, which provides important evidence for understanding this complex disease and developing novel RA-linked intervention targets. The current review intends to provide a comprehensive overview of RA, including a general introduction to the disease, historical events, epidemiology, risk factors, and pathological process, highlight the primary research progress of the disease and various signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms, including genetic factors, epigenetic factors, summarize the most recent developments in identifying novel signaling pathways in RA and new inhibitors for treating RA. therapeutic interventions including approved drugs, clinical drugs, pre-clinical drugs, and cutting-edge therapeutic technologies. These developments will hopefully drive progress in new strategically targeted therapies and hope to provide novel ideas for RA treatment options in the future.

Innate and adaptive immune abnormalities underlying autoimmune diseases: the genetic connections

With the exception of an extremely small number of cases caused by single gene mutations, most autoimmune diseases result from the complex interplay between environmental and genetic factors. In a nutshell, etiology of the common autoimmune disorders is unknown in spite of progress elucidating certain effector cells and molecules responsible for pathologies associated with inflammatory and tissue damage. In recent years, population genetics approaches have greatly enriched our knowledge regarding genetic susceptibility of autoimmunity, providing us with a window of opportunities to comprehensively re-examine autoimmunity-associated genes and possible pathways. In this review, we aim to discuss etiology and pathogenesis of common autoimmune disorders from the perspective of human genetics. An overview of the genetic basis of autoimmunity is followed by 3 chapters detailing susceptibility genes involved in innate immunity, adaptive immunity and inflammatory cell death processes respectively. With such attempts, we hope to expand the scope of thinking and bring attention to lesser appreciated molecules and pathways as important contributors of autoimmunity beyond the 'usual suspects' of a limited subset of validated therapeutic targets.

The interaction between autophagy and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition mediated by NICD/ULK1 is involved in the formation of diabetic cataracts

Background

Cataracts are the leading cause of blindness and a common ocular complication of diabetes. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of lens epithelial cells (LECs) and altered autophagic activity occur during the development of diabetic cataracts. The disturbed interaction of autophagy with EMT in LECs stimulated by high glucose levels may participate in cataract formation.

Methods

A rat diabetic cataract model induced by streptozotocin (STZ) and human lens epithelial cells (HLE-B3) stimulated with a high glucose concentration were employed in the study. These models were treated with rapamycin (an inhibitor of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)), and N-(N-[3,5-difluorophenacetyl]-1-alanyl)-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester (DAPT, an inhibitor of γ-secretase) alone or in combination. Lens opacity was observed and photographed under a slit-lamp microscope. Histological changes in paraffin sections of lenses were detected under a light microscope after hematoxylin and eosin staining. Alterations of autophagosomes in LECs were counted and evaluated under a transmission electron microscope. The expression levels of proteins involved in the EMT, autophagy, and the signaling pathways in LECs were measured using Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. Cell migration was determined by performing transwell and scratch wound assays. Coimmunoprecipitation (Co-IP) was performed to verify protein-protein interactions. Proteins were overexpressed in transfected cells to confirm their roles in the signaling pathways of interest.

Results

In LECs, a high glucose concentration induces the EMT by activating Jagged1/Notch1/Notch intracellular domain (NICD)/Snail signaling and inhibits autophagy through the AKT/mTOR/unc 51-like kinase 1 (ULK1) signaling pathway in vivo and in vitro, resulting in diabetic cataracts. Enhanced autophagic activity induced by rapamycin suppressed the EMT by inducing Notch1 degradation by SQSTM1/p62 and microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3) in LECs, while inhibition of the Notch signaling pathway with DAPT not only prevented the EMT but also activated autophagy by decreasing the levels of NICD, which bound to ULK1, phosphorylated it, and then inhibited the initiation of autophagy.

Conclusions

We describe a new interaction of autophagy and the EMT involving NICD/ULK1 signaling, which mediates crosstalk between these two important events in the formation of diabetic cataracts. Activating autophagy and suppressing the EMT mutually promote each other, revealing a potential target and strategy for the prevention of diabetic cataracts.

Therapeutic Targeting Notch2 Protects Bone Micro-Vasculatures from Methotrexate Chemotherapy-Induced Adverse Effects in Rats

Intensive cancer chemotherapy is well known to cause bone vasculature disfunction and damage, but the mechanism is poorly understood and there is a lack of treatment. Using a rat model of methotrexate (MTX) chemotherapy (five once-daily dosses at 0.75 mg/kg), this study investigated the roles of the Notch2 signalling pathway in MTX chemotherapy-induced bone micro-vasculature impairment. Gene expression, histological and micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) analyses revealed that MTX-induced micro-vasculature dilation and regression is associated with the induction of Notch2 activity in endothelial cells and increased production of inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) from osteoblasts (bone forming cells) and bone marrow cells. Blockade of Notch2 by a neutralising antibody ameliorated MTX adverse effects on bone micro-vasculature, both directly by supressing Notch2 signalling in endothelial cells and indirectly via reducing TNFα production. Furthermore, in vitro studies using rat bone marrow-derived endothelial cell revealed that MTX treatment induces Notch2/Hey1 pathway and negatively affects their ability in migration and tube formation, and Notch2 blockade can partially protect endothelial cell functions from MTX damage.

SFRP1 Negatively Modulates Pyroptosis of Fibroblast‐Like Synoviocytes in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Review

Secreted frizzled-related protein 1 (SFRP1) is a member of secretory glycoprotein SFRP family. As a primitive gene regulating cell growth, development and transformation, SFRP1 is widely expressed in human cells, including various cancer cells and fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Deletion or silencing of SFRP1 involves epigenetic and other mechanisms, and participates in biological behaviors such as cell proliferation, migration and cell pyroptosis, which leads to disease progression and poor prognosis. In this review, we discuss the role of SFRP1 in the pathogenesis of RA-FLS and summarize different experimental platforms and recent research results. These are helpful for understanding the biological characteristics of SFRP1 in RA, especially the mechanism by which SFRP1 regulates RA-FLS pyroptosis through Wnt/β-catenin and Notch signaling pathways. In addition, the epigenetic regulation of SFRP1 in RA-FLS is emphasized, which may be considered as a promising biomarker and therapeutic target of RA.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Rheumatoid Arthritis

Control of excessive mitochondrial oxidative stress could provide new targets for both preventive and therapeutic interventions in the treatment of chronic inflammation or any pathology that develops under an inflammatory scenario, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Increasing evidence has demonstrated the role of mitochondrial alterations in autoimmune diseases mainly due to the interplay between metabolism and innate immunity, but also in the modulation of inflammatory response of resident cells, such as synoviocytes. Thus, mitochondrial dysfunction derived from several danger signals could activate tricarboxylic acid (TCA) disruption, thereby favoring a vicious cycle of oxidative/mitochondrial stress. Mitochondrial dysfunction can act through modulating innate immunity via redox-sensitive inflammatory pathways or direct activation of the inflammasome. Besides, mitochondria also have a central role in regulating cell death, which is deeply altered in RA. Additionally, multiple evidence suggests that pathological processes in RA can be shaped by epigenetic mechanisms and that in turn, mitochondria are involved in epigenetic regulation. Finally, we will discuss about the involvement of some dietary components in the onset and progression of RA.

Promising role of polymeric nanoparticles in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory illness caused by an autoimmune disorder of synovial membrane resulting in synovial membrane dysfunction. The available treatment particularly focuses on inhibiting macrophage proliferation and reducing the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, therapeutic success of current treatment options at targeted site is limited; therefore, development of promising therapeutic strategy is the need of time that may provide better targeted delivery of drug with added safety. In development of precision medicine to manage RA, nanotechnology is a viable option to be considered. Recent research using nanoparticles for the treatment of RA, particularly polymeric nanoparticles, has been discussed in this article. Using polymeric nanoparticles as a therapeutic method has shown considerable promise of enhancing treatment success over standard medications used in routine. It is exclusively evident that the viability of using nanoparticles is mainly owed due to their biocompatibility, chemical stability, controlled drug release, and selective drug delivery to inflamed tissues in RA model animals. The current analysis focuses on the critical design characteristics of RA-targeted nanotechnology-based strategies in quest of better therapeutic strategies for RA, and to identify leading polymer as the most effective medications in RA therapy.

γ-secretase inhibitors suppress IL-20-mediated osteoclastogenesis via Notch signaling and are affected by Notch2 in vitro

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic immune disease involving the small joints, which often causes irreversible damage. In recent years, elevated interleukin 20 (IL-20) has been observed in synovial fluid, while IL-20 receptor overexpression has been observed in synovial cells. IL-20 is a pleiotropic cytokine that participates in various immune diseases. Further understanding of the relationship between IL-20 and RA can help to identify a potential clinical treatment for RA. This study demonstrated that IL-20 can regulate osteoclast differentiation and function in a dose-dependent manner, while influencing the expression of Notch signaling. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and western blotting showed that γ-secretase-inhibiting drugs can reverse the effects of IL-20. The effects of Notch2 on IL-20-induced osteoclastogenesis were investigated by immunofluorescence and Notch2 gene silencing via transfection of small interfering RNA; the results showed that Notch2 obviously affected the expression levels of the key protein NFATc1 and downstream osteoclastic proteins. In conclusion, we found that IL-20 regulated the osteoclastogenesis in a dose-dependent manner via Notch signaling, primarily by means of Notch2 activity. This study may help to find new targets for RA treatment.

Nucleic Acids for Potential Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common systemic inflammatory autoimmune disease that severely affects the life quality of patients. Current therapeutics in clinic mainly focus on alleviating the development of RA or relieving the pain of patients. The emerging biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) require long-term treatment to achieve the expected efficacy. With the development of bionanotechnology, nucleic acids fulfill characters as therapeutics or nanocarriers and can therefore be alternatives to combat RA. This review summarizes the therapeutic RNAs developed through RNA interference (RNAi), nucleic acid aptamers, DNA nanostructures-based drug delivery systems, and nucleic acid vaccines for the applications in RA therapy and diagnosis. Furthermore, prospects of nucleic acids for RA therapy are intensively discussed as well.

MOSES: A New Approach to Integrate Interactome Topology and Functional Features for Disease Gene Prediction

Disease gene prediction is to date one of the main computational challenges of precision medicine. It is still uncertain if disease genes have unique functional properties that distinguish them from other non-disease genes or, from a network perspective, if they are located randomly in the interactome or show specific patterns in the network topology. In this study, we propose a new method for disease gene prediction based on the use of biological knowledge-bases (gene-disease associations, genes functional annotations, etc.) and interactome network topology. The proposed algorithm called MOSES is based on the definition of two somewhat opposing sets of genes both disease-specific from different perspectives: warm seeds (i.e., disease genes obtained from databases) and cold seeds (genes far from the disease genes on the interactome and not involved in their biological functions). The application of MOSES to a set of 40 diseases showed that the suggested putative disease genes are significantly enriched in their reference disease. Reassuringly, known and predicted disease genes together, tend to form a connected network module on the human interactome, mitigating the scattered distribution of disease genes which is probably due to both the paucity of disease-gene associations and the incompleteness of the interactome.

Fibroblast pathology in inflammatory diseases

Fibroblasts are important cells for the support of homeostatic tissue function. In inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease, fibroblasts take on different roles (a) as inflammatory cells themselves and (b) in recruiting leukocytes, driving angiogenesis, and enabling chronic inflammation in tissues. Recent advances in single-cell profiling techniques have transformed the ability to examine fibroblast states and populations in inflamed tissues, providing evidence of previously underappreciated heterogeneity and disease-associated fibroblast populations. These studies challenge the preconceived notion that fibroblasts are homogeneous and provide new insights into the role of fibroblasts in inflammatory pathology. In addition, new molecular insights into the mechanisms of fibroblast activation reveal powerful cell-intrinsic amplification loops that synergize with primary fibroblast stimuli to result in striking responses. In this Review, we focus on recent developments in our understanding of fibroblast heterogeneity and fibroblast pathology across tissues and diseases in rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel diseases. We highlight new approaches to, and applications of, single-cell profiling techniques and what they teach us about fibroblast biology. Finally, we address how these insights could lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches to targeting fibroblasts in disease.

Adding a "Notch" to Cardiovascular Disease Therapeutics: A MicroRNA-Based Approach

Dysregulation of the Notch pathway is implicated in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), but, as of today, therapies based on the re-establishing the physiological levels of Notch in the heart and vessels are not available. A possible reason is the context-dependent role of Notch in the cardiovascular system, which would require a finely tuned, cell-specific approach. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short functional endogenous, non-coding RNA sequences able to regulate gene expression at post-transcriptional levels influencing most, if not all, biological processes. Dysregulation of miRNAs expression is implicated in the molecular mechanisms underlying many CVDs. Notch is regulated and regulates a large number of miRNAs expressed in the cardiovascular system and, thus, targeting these miRNAs could represent an avenue to be explored to target Notch for CVDs. In this Review, we provide an overview of both established and potential, based on evidence in other pathologies, crosstalks between miRNAs and Notch in cellular processes underlying atherosclerosis, myocardial ischemia, heart failure, calcification of aortic valve, and arrhythmias. We also discuss the potential advantages, as well as the challenges, of using miRNAs for a Notch-based approach for the diagnosis and treatment of the most common CVDs.

Individual functions of the histone acetyl transferases CBP and p300 in regulating the inflammatory response of synovial fibroblasts

Chromatin remodeling, and a persistent histone 3 lysine 27 acetylation (H3K27ac) in particular, are associated with a sustained inflammatory response of synovial fibroblasts (SF) in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Here we investigated individual functions of the writers of H3K27ac marks, the homologues histone acetyl transferases (HAT) CBP and p300, in controlling the constitutive and inflammatory gene expression in RA SF. We applied a silencing strategy, followed by RNA-sequencing and pathway analysis, complemented with the treatment of SF with inhibitors targeting the HAT (C646) or bromo domains (I-CBP) of CBP and p300. We showed that CBP and p300 undertook overlapping and, in particular at gene levels, distinct regulatory functions in SF. p300 is the major HAT for H3K27ac in SF and regulated more diverse pathways than CBP. Whereas both factors regulated genes associated with extracellular matrix remodeling, adhesion and proliferation, p300 specifically controlled developmental genes associated with limb development. Silencing of CBP specifically down regulated the TNF-induced expression of interferon-signature genes. In contrast, silencing of p300 resulted in anti- and pro-inflammatory effects. Integration of data sets derived from RNA-sequencing and chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing for H3K27ac revealed that changes in gene expression after CBP or p300 silencing could be only partially explained by changes in levels of H3K27ac. Inhibition of CBP/p300 using HAT and bromo domain inhibitors strongly mirrored effects obtained by silencing of p300, including anti- and pro-inflammatory effects, indicating that such inhibitors are not sufficient to be used as anti-inflammatory drugs.

Notch Signaling Pathway Is Activated by Sulfate Reducing Bacteria

Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB), usually rare residents of the gut, are often found in increased numbers (called a SRB bloom) in inflammatory conditions such as Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), pouchitis, and periodontitis. However, the underlying mechanisms of this association remain largely unknown. Notch signaling, a conserved cell-cell communication pathway, is usually involved in tissue development and differentiation. Dysregulated Notch signaling is observed in inflammatory conditions such as IBD. Lipolysaccharide and pathogens also activate Notch pathway in macrophages. In this study, we tested whether Desulfovibrio, the most dominant SRB genus in the gut, may activate Notch signaling. RAW 264.7 macrophages were infected with Desulfovibrio vulgaris (DSV) and analyzed for the expression of Notch signaling pathway-related proteins. We found that DSV induced protein expression of Notch1 receptor, Notch intracellular domain (NICD) and p21, a downstream Notch target, in a dose-and time-dependent manner. DSV also induced the expression of pro-IL1β, a precursor of IL-1β, and SOCS3, a regulator of cytokine signaling. The gamma secretase inhibitor DAPT or Notch siRNA dampened DSV-induced Notch-related protein expression as well the expression of pro-IL1β and SOCS3. Induction of Notch-related proteins by DSV was not affected by TLR4 -IN -C34(C34), a TLR4 receptor antagonist. Additionally, cell-free supernatant of DSV-infected macrophages induced NICD expression in uninfected macrophages. DSV also activated Notch pathway in the human epithelial cell line HCT116 and in mouse small intestine. Thus, our study uncovers a novel mechanism by which SRB interact with host cells by activating Notch signaling pathway. Our study lays a framework for examining whether the Notch pathway induced by SRB contributes to inflammation in conditions associated with SRB bloom and whether it can be targeted as a therapeutic approach to treat these conditions.

Reactive oxygen species-responsive dendritic cell-derived exosomes for rheumatoid arthritis

Although tolerogenic dendritic cell-derived exosomes (TolDex) have emerged as promising therapeutics for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), their clinical applications have been hampered by their poor in vivo disposition after systemic administration. Herein, we report the development of stimuli-responsive TolDex that induces lesion-specific immunoregulation in RA. Responsiveness to reactive oxygen species (ROS), a physiological stimulus in the RA microenvironment, was conferred on TolDex by introducing a thioketal (TK) linker-embedded poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) on TolDex surface via hydrophobic insertion. The detachment of PEG following overproduction of ROS facilitates the cellular uptake of ROS-responsive TolDex (TKDex) into activated immune cells. Notably, TolDex and TKDex downregulated CD40 in mature dendritic cells (mDCs) and regulated secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin-6 (IL-6) at the cellular level. In the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model, PEG prolonged the blood circulation of TKDex following intravenous administration and enhanced their accumulation in the joints. In addition, TKDex decreased IL-6, increased transforming growth factor-β, and induced the CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells in CIA mice. Overall, ROS-responsive TolDex might have potential as therapeutic agents for RA. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Tolerogenic dendritic cell-derived exosomes (TolDex) are emerging immunoregulators of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, their lack of long-term stability and low targetability are still challenging. To overcome these issues, we developed reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive TolDex (TKDex) by incorporating the ROS-sensitive functional group-embedded poly(ethylene glycol) linker into the exosomal membrane of TolDex. Surface-engineered TKDex were internalized in mature DCs because of high ROS-sensitivity and enhanced accumulation in the inflamed joint in vivo. Further, for the first time, we investigated the potential mechanism of action of TolDex relevant to CD40 downregulation and attenuation of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α secretion. Our strategy highlighted the promising nanotherapeutic effects of stimuli-sensitive TolDex, which induces immunoregulation.

Therapeutic Targeting of Notch Signaling: From Cancer to Inflammatory Disorders

Over the past two decades, the Notch signaling pathway has been investigated as a therapeutic target for the treatment of cancers, and more recently in the context of immune and inflammatory disorders. Notch is an evolutionary conserved pathway found in all metazoans that is critical for proper embryonic development and for the postnatal maintenance of selected tissues. Through cell-to-cell contacts, Notch orchestrates cell fate decisions and differentiation in non-hematopoietic and hematopoietic cell types, regulates immune cell development, and is integral to shaping the amplitude as well as the quality of different types of immune responses. Depriving some cancer types of Notch signals has been shown in preclinical studies to stunt tumor growth, consistent with an oncogenic function of Notch signaling. In addition, therapeutically antagonizing Notch signals showed preclinical potential to prevent or reverse inflammatory disorders, including autoimmune diseases, allergic inflammation and immune complications of life-saving procedures such allogeneic bone marrow and solid organ transplantation (graft-versus-host disease and graft rejection). In this review, we discuss some of these unique approaches, along with the successes and challenges encountered so far to target Notch signaling in preclinical and early clinical studies. Our goal is to emphasize lessons learned to provide guidance about emerging strategies of Notch-based therapeutics that could be deployed safely and efficiently in patients with immune and inflammatory disorders.

Finding associations in a heterogeneous setting: statistical test for aberration enrichment

Most two-group statistical tests find broad patterns such as overall shifts in mean, median, or variance. These tests may not have enough power to detect effects in a small subset of samples, e.g., a drug that works well only on a few patients. We developed a novel statistical test targeting such effects relevant for clinical trials, biomarker discovery, feature selection, etc. We focused on finding meaningful associations in complex genetic diseases in gene expression, miRNA expression, and DNA methylation. Our test outperforms traditional statistical tests in simulated and experimental data and detects potentially disease-relevant genes with heterogeneous effects.

Targeting the Notch Signaling Pathway in Chronic Inflammatory Diseases

The Notch signaling pathway regulates developmental cell-fate decisions and has recently also been linked to inflammatory diseases. Although therapies targeting Notch signaling in inflammation in theory are attractive, their design and implementation have proven difficult, at least partly due to the broad involvement of Notch signaling in regenerative and homeostatic processes. In this review, we summarize the supporting role of Notch signaling in various inflammation-driven diseases, and highlight efforts to intervene with this pathway by targeting Notch ligands and/or receptors with distinct therapeutic strategies, including antibody designs. We discuss this in light of lessons learned from Notch targeting in cancer treatment. Finally, we elaborate on the impact of individual Notch members in inflammation, which may lay the foundation for development of therapeutic strategies in chronic inflammatory diseases.

Notch-1 and Notch-3 Mediate Hypoxia-Induced Activation of Synovial Fibroblasts in Rheumatoid Arthritis

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the molecular mechanism of hypoxia-induced rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblast (RASF) activation via Notch-1 and Notch-3 signaling, and to evaluate its potential as a therapeutic target.

METHODS

Expression of Notch-1 intracellular domain (N1ICD), N3ICD, and hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) was assessed by immunhistology in synovial tissue from patients with RA. RASFs were cultured under hypoxic conditions and normoxic conditions with or without small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), and N1ICD and N3ICD were overexpressed under normoxic conditions. Rats with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) were administered LY411575 (inhibitor of N1ICD and N3ICD) for 15 days and 28 days, and its therapeutic efficacy was assessed by histologic and radiologic evaluation of the rat synovial tissue, and by analysis of inflammatory cytokine production in the serum of rats.

RESULTS

N1ICD, N3ICD, and HIF-1α were expressed abundantly in the synovial tissue of RA patients. HIF-1α was shown to directly regulate the expression of Notch-1 and Notch-3 genes under hypoxic conditions. Moreover, hypoxia-induced N1ICD and N3ICD expression in RASFs was blocked by HIF-1α siRNA. Notch-1 siRNA and Notch-3 siRNA inhibited hypoxia-induced RASF invasion and angiogenesis in vitro, whereas overexpression of N1ICD and N3ICD promoted these processes. In addition, Notch-1 was shown to regulate RASF migration and epithelial-mesenchymal transition under hypoxic conditions, whereas Notch-3 was shown to regulate the processes of anti-apoptosis and autophagy. Furthermore, in vivo studies in rats with CIA showed that the N1ICD and N3ICD inhibitor LY411575 had a therapeutic effect in terms of ameliorating the symptoms and severity of the disease.

CONCLUSION

This study identified a functional link between HIF-1α, Notch-1, and Notch-3 signaling in regulating activation of RASFs and the processes involved in the pathogenesis of RA.

Carbon Nanotubes-Potent Carriers for Targeted Drug Delivery in Rheumatoid Arthritis

Two types of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), HiPco- and carboxyl-SWCNT, are evaluated as drug carriers for the traditional anti-inflammatory drug methotrexate (MTX) and a small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting NOTCH1 gene. The nanotubes are solubilized by PEGylation and covalently loaded with MTX. The coupling efficiency (CE%) of MTX is 77–79% for HiPco-SWCNT and 71–83% for carboxyl-SWCNT. siRNA is noncovalently attached to the nanotubes with efficiency of 90–97% for HiPco-SWCNT and 87–98% for carboxyl-SWCNT. Through whole body imaging in the second near-infrared window (NIR-II window, 1000–1700 nm), SWCNTs were found to be selectively accumulated in inflamed joints in a serum transfer mouse model. We further investigated the interactions of the siRNA/MTX loaded nanotubes with human blood and mice bone marrow cells. In human blood, both types of unloaded SWCNTs were associated with B cells, monocytes and neutrophils. Interestingly, loading with MTX suppressed SWCNTs targeting specificity to immune cells, especially B cells; in contrast, loading siRNA alone enhanced the targeting specificity. Loading both MTX and siRNA to carboxyl-SWCNT enhanced targeting specificity to neutrophils and monocytes but not B cells. The targeting specificity of SWCNTs can potentially be adjusted by altering the ratio of MTX and siRNA loaded. The combined results show that carbon nanotubes have the potential for delivery of cargo drugs specifically to immune cells involved in rheumatoid arthritis.

Orchestrated modulation of rheumatoid arthritis via crosstalking intracellular signaling pathways

Cell signaling is considered a part of a network for communication that regulates basic cellular activities. The ability of cells to communicate correctly to the surrounding environment has an important role in development, tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue homeostasis. Dysregulated activation and crosstalk between many intracellular signaling pathways are implicated in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), such as the Janus Kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT), Toll-like receptor/nuclear factor kappa B (TLR/NF-κB), phosphatidylinositide-3Kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI-3K/AKT/mTOR), the stress activated protein kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase (SAPK/MAPK), and spleen tyrosine kinase (SYK) pathways. Other interrelated pathways that can be targeted to halt the inflammatory status in the disease are purinergic 2X7 receptor (P2X7R)/nucleotide binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 or inflammasome (NLRP-3)/NF-κB and Notch pathways. In this review, we will show the orchestrated modulation in the pathogenesis of RA via the crossregulation between dysregulated signaling pathways which can mediate a sustained loop of activation for these signaling pathways as well as aggrevate the inflammatory condition. Also, this review will highlight many targets that can be useful in the development of more effective therapeutic options.

Treatment of collagen-induced arthritis rat model by using Notch signalling inhibitor

Background

The Notch signalling pathway has been reported to play a key role in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) development. Thus, inhibition of the activation of this signalling pathway may be a promising approach to the treatment of RA. In this study, the Notch signalling inhibitor LY411575, which can inhibit both Notch1 and Notch3, was used for the treatment of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rats.

Methods

Wistar rats were immunised with bovine type II collagen (CII) to establish rats CIA model. The inhibitory effects of LY411575 on Notch1 intracellular domain (N1ICD) and Notch3 intracellular domain (N3ICD) protein was verified by western blot (WB) in vitro. CIA rats were treated with different doses of LY411575 for 15 and 28 days, respectively. Methotrexate and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-Na) were used as positive and negative (vehicle) control respectively. Destruction of the rat ankle joint and the bone loss on the periarticular side were evaluated by micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT). In addition, destruction of the ankle articular cartilage and the osteoclast numbers were determined by histology. Expression of N1ICD and N3ICD in the ankle joint was detected by immunohistochemistry.

Results

LY411575 could significantly inhibit the expression of N1ICD and N3ICD in vitro. Micro-CT test showed that the ankle joint destruction significantly improved after treatment with LY411575 (5 ​mg/kg and 10 ​mg/kg, respectively). The bone quality in the LY411575 (5 ​mg/kg and 10 ​mg/kg, respectively) groups were improved compared with the vehicle group. Histological analysis showed that LY411575 (5 ​mg/kg and 10 ​mg/kg, respectively) treatment reduced the severity of ankle joint inflammation in CIA rats (including ankle joint destruction, pannus formation, and cartilage damage) and reduced the expression of N1ICD and N3ICD in CIA rats ankle joints significantly.

Conclusion

The inhibitor of Notch signalling LY411575 is an effective treatment for CIA.

The translational potential of this article

Our study provides new evidence to support the potential clinical application of Notch signalling pathway inhibitor LY411575 as a drug candidate for the treatment of RA.

Methylmercury chloride exposure aggravates proinflammatory mediators and Notch-1 signaling in CD14+ and CD40+ cells and is associated with imbalance of neuroimmune function in BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J mice

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors. A key role for immune dysfunction has been suggested in ASD. Recent studies have indicated that inflammatory mediators and Notch-1 signaling may contribute to the development of ASD. Methylmercury chloride (MeHgCl) is an environmental pollutant that primarily affects the central nervous system, causing neurological alterations. Its effects on immunological responses have not been fully investigated in ASD. In this study, we examined the influence of MeHgCl exposure on inflammatory mediators and Notch-1 signaling in BTBR T⁺ Itpr3tf/J (BTBR) mice, a model of ASD. We examined the effects of MeHgCl on the IL-6-, GM-CSF-, NF-κB p65-, Notch-1-, and IL-27-producing CD14⁺ and CD40⁺ cells in the spleen. We assessed the effect of MeHgCl on IL-6, GM-CSF, NF-κB p65, Notch-1, and IL-27 mRNA levels in brain tissue. We also measured IL-6, GM-CSF, and NF-κB p65 protein expression levels in brain tissue. MeHgCl exposure of BTBR mice significantly increased IL-6-, GM-CSF-, NF-κB p65-, and Notch-1-, and decreased IL-27-producing CD14⁺, and CD40⁺ cells in the spleen. MeHgCl exposure of BTBR mice upregulated IL-6, GM-CSF, NF-κB p65, and Notch-1, and decreased IL-27 mRNA expression levels in brain tissue. Moreover, MeHgCl resulted in elevated expression of the IL-6, GM-CSF, and NF-κB p65 proteins in brain tissue. Taken together, these results indicate that MeHgCl exposure aggravates proinflammatory mediators and Notch-1 signaling which are associated with imbalance of neuroimmune function in BTBR mice.

Inflammation-Targeted Celastrol Nanodrug Attenuates Collagen-Induced Arthritis through NF-κB and Notch1 Pathways

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic inflammatory disorder which can cause bone and cartilage damage leading to disability, yet the treatment remains unsatisfactory nowadays. Celastrol (Cel) has shown antirheumatic activity against RA. However, the frequent parenteral delivery and poor water solubility of Cel restrict its further therapeutic applications. Here, aiming at effectively overcoming the poor water solubility and short half-life of Cel to boost its beneficial effects for treating RA, we developed a polymeric micelle for Cel delivery based on a reactive oxygen species (ROS) sensitive polymer. Our results demonstrated that Cel may inhibit the repolarization of macrophages toward the pro-inflammatory M1 pheno-type via regulating the NF-κB and Notch1 pathways, which resulted in significantly decreased secretion of multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines to suppress the RA progression. Consequently, the Cel-loaded micelle effectively alleviated the major RA-associated symptoms including articular scores, ankle thickness, synovial inflammation, bone erosion, and cartilage degradation.

Notch and the regulation of osteoclast differentiation and function

Notch 1 through 4 are transmembrane receptors that play a pivotal role in cell differentiation and function; this review addresses the role of Notch signaling in osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption. Notch receptors are activated following interactions with their ligands of the Jagged and Delta-like families. In the skeleton, Notch signaling controls osteoclast differentiation and bone-resorbing activity either directly acting on osteoclast precursors, or indirectly acting on cells of the osteoblast lineage and cells of the immune system. NOTCH1 inhibits osteoclastogenesis, whereas NOTCH2 enhances osteoclast differentiation and function by direct and indirect mechanisms. NOTCH3 induces the expression of RANKL in osteoblasts and osteocytes and as a result induces osteoclast differentiation. There is limited expression of NOTCH4 in skeletal cells. Selected congenital disorders and skeletal malignancies are associated with dysregulated Notch signaling and enhanced bone resorption. In conclusion, Notch signaling is a critical pathway that controls osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation and function and regulates skeletal homeostasis in health and disease.

RGS12 Is a Novel Critical NF-κB Activator in Inflammatory Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is the most common inflammatory disease, which currently lacks effective treatment. Here, we discovered that the Regulator of G Protein Signaling 12 (RGS12) plays a key role in regulating inflammation. Transcriptional and protein analysis revealed that RGS12 was upregulated in human and mouse RA macrophages. Deletion of RGS12 in myeloid lineage or globally inhibits the development of collagen-induced arthritis including joint swelling and bone destruction. Mechanistically, RGS12 associates with NF-κB(p65) to activate its phosphorylation and nuclear translocation through PTB domain, and NF-κB(p65) regulates RGS12 expression in a transcriptional manner. The nuclear translocation ability of NF-κB(p65) and RGS12 can both be enhanced by cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2). Furthermore, ablation of RGS12 via RNA interference significantly blocks the inflammatory process in vivo and in vitro. These results demonstrate that RGS12 plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory arthritis.

Notch signaling at the crossroads of innate and adaptive immunity

Notch signaling is an evolutionarily conserved cell-to-cell signaling pathway that regulates cellular differentiation and function across multiple tissue types and developmental stages. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of Notch signaling in mammalian innate and adaptive immunity. The importance of Notch signaling is pervasive throughout the immune system, as it elicits lineage and context-dependent effects in a wide repertoire of cells. Although regulation of binary cell fate decisions encompasses many of the functions first ascribed to Notch in the immune system, recent advances in the field have refined and expanded our view of the Notch pathway beyond this initial concept. From establishing T cell identity in the thymus to regulating mature T cell function in the periphery, the Notch pathway is an essential, recurring signal for the T cell lineage. Among B cells, Notch signaling is required for the development and maintenance of marginal zone B cells in the spleen. Emerging roles for Notch signaling in innate and innate-like lineages such as classical dendritic cells and innate lymphoid cells are likewise coming into view. Lastly, we speculate on the molecular underpinnings that shape the activity and versatility of the Notch pathway.

Notch receptors and ligands in inflammatory arthritis - a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Notch pathway is highly conserved across species and is involved in the regulation of cell differentiation and activity both in embryonic development and adult life. Notch signaling has an important role in the development of hematopoietic stem cells and their differentiation to committed lineages, as well as in the regulation of several non-hematopoietic cell lines.

OBJECTIVE

As Notch signaling has been implicated in various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, it is of interest to elucidate what role do Notch receptors and ligands have in inflammatory arthritides.

METHODS

We performed a search on the role of Notch receptors (1-4) and Notch ligands Delta-like (DLL) 1, 3, 4 and Jagged (Jag) 1 and 2 in animal models of inflammatory arthritis and most common types of human inflammatory arthritis (rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis or ankylosing spondylitis). The initial search identified 135 unique articles, of which 24 were ultimately deemed relevant and included in this systematic review.

RESULTS

Overall, identified articles describe roles for Notch ligands and receptors in inflammatory arthritis, with Notch activation resulting in enhanced Th1/17 polarization, osteoclast differentiation, macrophage activation and fibroblast-like synoviocyte proliferation. However, the inhibitory role of Notch signaling, especially by Jag1 is also described.

CONCLUSION

There is evidence that Notch pathway activation affects multiple cell lineages present within the arthritic environment, therefore potentially acting as one of the drivers of disease pathogenesis. Since cell lineage-selective transgenic mouse models and specific Notch receptor inhibitors are becoming increasingly available, it can be expected that future research will evaluate whether Notch signaling components initiate crucial pathogenic impulses and, therefore, present viable therapeutic targets in inflammatory arthritis.

Notch signalling drives synovial fibroblast identity and arthritis pathology

The synovium is a mesenchymal tissue composed mainly of fibroblasts with a lining and sublining that surrounds the joints. In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), the synovial tissue undergoes marked hyperplasia, becomes inflamed and invasive and destroys the joint^1,2. Recently, we and others found that a subset of fibroblasts located in the sublining undergoes major expansion in RA and is linked to disease activity^3,4,5. However, the molecular mechanism by which these fibroblasts differentiate and expand in RA remains unknown. Here, we identified a critical role for NOTCH3 signaling in the differentiation of perivascular and sublining CD90(THY1)+ fibroblasts. Using single cell RNA-sequencing and synovial tissue organoids, we found that NOTCH3 signaling drives both transcriptional and spatial gradients in fibroblasts emanating from vascular endothelial cells outward. In active RA, NOTCH3 and NOTCH target genes are markedly upregulated in synovial fibroblasts. Importantly, genetic deletion of Notch3 or monoclonal antibody-blockade of NOTCH3 signaling attenuates inflammation and prevents joint damage in inflammatory arthritis. Our results indicate that synovial fibroblasts exhibit positional identity regulated by endothelium-derived Notch signaling and that this stromal crosstalk pathway underlies inflammation and pathology in inflammatory arthritis.

COVID-19 in the heart and the lungs: could we "Notch" the inflammatory storm?

From January 2020, coronavirus disease (COVID-19) originated in China has spread around the world. The disease is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The presence of myocarditis, cardiac arrest, and acute heart failure in COVID-19 patients suggests the existence of a relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and cardiac disease. The Notch signalling is a major regulator of cardiovascular function and it is also implicated in several biological processes mediating viral infections. In this report we discuss the possibility to target Notch signalling to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection and interfere with the progression of COVID-19- associated heart and lungs disease.

Alagille Syndrome and Chronic Arthritis: An International Case Series

We describe 10 children with Alagille syndrome and inflammatory arthritis. In our centers, the prevalence of chronic arthritis in patients with Alagille syndrome is approximately 50 times higher compared with the general population. Arthritis was refractory to most treatment. Patients with Alagille syndrome should routinely be screened for musculoskeletal symptoms.

Therapeutic senescence via GPCR activation in synovial fibroblasts facilitates resolution of arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis affects individuals commonly during the most productive years of adulthood. Poor response rates and high costs associated with treatment mandate the search for new therapies. Here we show that targeting a specific G-protein coupled receptor promotes senescence in synovial fibroblasts, enabling amelioration of joint inflammation. Following activation of the melanocortin type 1 receptor (MC₁), synovial fibroblasts acquire a senescence phenotype characterized by arrested proliferation, metabolic re-programming and marked gene alteration resembling the remodeling phase of wound healing, with increased matrix metalloproteinase expression and reduced collagen production. This biological response is attained by selective agonism of MC₁, not shared by non-selective ligands, and dependent on downstream ERK1/2 phosphorylation. In vivo, activation of MC₁ leads to anti-arthritic effects associated with induction of senescence in the synovial tissue and cartilage protection. Altogether, selective activation of MC₁ is a viable strategy to induce cellular senescence, affording a distinct way to control joint inflammation and arthritis.

The Role of Notch Signaling in Macrophages during Inflammation and Infection: Implication in Rheumatoid Arthritis?

Notch signaling coordinates numerous cellular processes and has been implicated in many pathological conditions, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Although the role of Notch signaling in development, maturation, differentiation, and activation of lymphocytes has been comprehensively reported, less is known about its role in myeloid cells. Certainly, limited data are available about the role of Notch signaling in macrophages during inflammation and infection. In this review, we discuss the recent advances pertaining to the role of Notch signaling in differentiation, activation, and metabolism of macrophages during inflammation and infection. We also highlight the reciprocal interplay between Notch signaling and other signaling pathways in macrophages under different inflammatory and infectious conditions including pathogenesis of RA. Finally, we discuss approaches that could consider Notch signaling as a potential therapeutic target against infection- and inflammation-driven diseases.

Molecular Regulation of Notch Signaling by Gremlin

Gremlin is a member of the TGF-β superfamily that can act as a BMP antagonist, and recently, has been described as a ligand of the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2). Gremlin shares properties with the Notch signaling pathway. Both participate in embryonic development and are reactivated in pathological conditions. Gremlin is emerging as a potential therapeutic target and biomarker of renal diseases. Here we review the role of the Gremlin-VEGFR2 axis in renal damage and downstream signaling mechanisms, such as Notch pathway.

Identification of susceptibility locus shared by IgA nephropathy and inflammatory bowel disease in a Chinese Han population

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) had discovered several genetic risk loci for IgA nephropathy (IgAN), where the susceptibility genes of CARD9 and HORMAD2 for IgAN were also implicated in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), suggesting a shared genetic etiology of these two diseases. The aim of this study is to explore the common susceptibility loci between IgAN and IBD and provide evidences to elucidate the shared pathogenesis between these two autoimmune diseases. Nineteen single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with IBD in Asian populations were selected through the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) GWAS Catalog, and 2078 IgAN patients and 2085 healthy individuals of Chinese Han ancestry were included in the two-stage case-control association study. Serum levels of complement factor B (CFB) and complement split product C3a were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). One significant shared association at rs4151657 (OR = 1.28, 95%CI = 1.13-1.45, P = 1.42 × 10^-4) was discovered between these two diseases, which implicated CFB as a susceptibility gene for IgAN. Genotype-phenotype correlation analysis found significant association of the rs4151657-C allele with decreased serum C3 levels. In addition, the rs4151657-C allele was also associated with higher CFB levels and C3a levels, which suggested a certain degree of systemic complement activation in IgAN patients with the rs4151657-CT or CC genotypes. Our study identified one risk locus (CFB) shared by IgAN and IBD, and genetic variants of CFB may affect complement activation and associate with the predisposition to IgAN.

Targeting Notch-activated M1 macrophages attenuate lung tissue damage in a rat model of ventilator induced lung injury

Ventilator induced lung injury (VILI) may be involved in the activation of alveolar macrophages. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the Notch signaling pathway and macrophage polarization in VILI. The VILI model was established using rats. Hematoxylineosin staining was used to test the lung tissue morphology. Bicinchoninic acid assay and ELISA were performed to detect protein and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10 levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF), respectively. The ratio of alveolar M1 and M2 macrophages was detected by flow cytometry. The mRNA and protein expression levels of Notch pathway-related proteins were determined using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting. The present study found that high-frequency mechanical ventilation could cause pulmonary edema and increase the levels of protein, TNF-α and IL-6 in BALF while decreasing the level of IL-10 in BALF. High-frequency mechanical ventilation also induced polarization of alveolar macrophages to M1. The results also showed a significant increase in the levels of Notch pathway-related proteins including notch intracellular domain, Hes1, Hes5 and Hey1. Injection of N-[N-(3,5-difluorophenylacetyl)-1-alanyl] phenylglycine t-butyl ester could inhibit the Notch pathway and such an inhibition protected lung tissue and reduced lung inflammation caused by mechanical ventilation. After the Notch pathway was inhibited, the level of M1 polarization of macrophages caused by high-frequency mechanical ventilation was reduced. VILI caused pulmonary inflammation and macrophages to polarize to M1 and upregulated the expression levels of Notch pathway-related proteins. The inhibition of Notch pathway also reduced the proportion of M1 macrophages and inflammatory responses.

Exposure to PM2.5 affects blood lipid levels in asthmatic rats through notch signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological studies have confirmed atmospheric PM_2.5 could affect asthma, and dyslipidemia may be related to pathogenesis of asthma. Recent studies show Notch ligands had lipid combination domains which are responsible for regulating lipid levels. However, the effect of PM_2.5 on asthmatic rats' lipid levels and the role of Notch signaling pathway is unclear.

METHODS

Rats were treat with ovalbumin (OVA) to establish asthma models. Notch signaling pathway inhibitor (DAPT) was injected intraperitoneally. Asthmatic and healthy rats were exposed to different concentrations of PM_2.5. Lung tissues were collected and the expression of Hes1 protein was detected by Western Blot. Blood samples were collected to detect the serum lipid levels.

RESULTS

Hes1 expression levels in healthy and asthma pathway inhibition groups were lower than those in control groups. Compared with control group, rats exposed to PM_2.5 in middle and high dose, the levels of TG and TC were decreased. Similar results were observed after exposure to the same concentration of PM_2.5 in asthmatic rats. Rats, which were exposed to PM_2.5 after being established the asthma model successfully, could exhibit more significant dyslipidemia than those with direct exposure. After Notch signaling pathway inhibited, TC and LDL in asthma pathway inhibition group were lower than those in healthy group.

CONCLUSIONS

PM_2.5 can affect the lipid levels of asthmatic rats through the Notch signaling pathway.

Lipidoid-siRNA Nanoparticle-Mediated IL-1β Gene Silencing for Systemic Arthritis Therapy in a Mouse Model

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) plays a central role in the induction of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In the present study, we demonstrated that lipidoid-polymer hybrid nanoparticle (FS14-NP) can efficiently deliver siRNA against IL-1β (siIL-1β) to macrophages and effectively suppress the pathogenesis of experimental arthritis induced by collagen antibody (CAIA mice). FS14-NP/siIL-1β achieved approximately 70% and 90% gene-silencing efficiency in the RAW 264.7 cell line and intraperitoneal macrophages, respectively. Intravenous administration of FS14-NP/siRNA led to rapid accumulation of siRNA in macrophages within the arthritic joints. Furthermore, FS14-NP/siIL-1β treatment lowered the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in arthritic joints and dramatically attenuated ankle swelling, bone erosion, and cartilage destruction. These results demonstrate that FS14-NP/siIL-1β may represent an effective therapy for systemic arthritis and other inflammatory disorders.

Inhibition of Notch1 induces population and suppressive activity of regulatory T cell in inflammatory arthritis

Inhibition of Notch signalling has shown anti-inflammatory properties in vivo and in vitro models of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The objective of this study was to determine whether Notch1 might play a role in regulating T-regulatory cells (Tregs) in animal models of RA.

Methods: Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and collagen antibody-induced arthritis (CAIA) were induced in C57BL/6, Notch1 antisense transgenic (NAS) or DBA1/J mice. We examined whether pharmacological inhibitors of γ-secretase (an enzyme required for Notch1 activation) and antisense-mediated knockdown of Notch1 could attenuate the severity of inflammatory arthritis in CIA and CAIA mice. Proportions of CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ Treg cells were measured by flow cytometry. To assess the suppressive capacity of Treg toward responder cells, CFSE-based suppression assay of Treg was performed.

Results: γ-secretase inhibitors and antisense-mediated knockdown of Notch1 reduced the severity of inflammatory arthritis in both CIA and CAIA mice. Pharmacological and genetic inhibition of Notch1 signalling induced significant elevation of Treg cell population in CIA and CAIA mice. We also demonstrated that inhibition of Notch signalling suppressed the progression of inflammatory arthritis through modulating the expansion and suppressive function of regulatory T (Treg) cells.

Conclusion: Pharmacological and genetic inhibition of Notch1 signalling suppresses the progression of inflammatory arthritis through modulating the population and suppressive function of Treg cells in animal models of RA.

Notch-1 siRNA and Methotrexate towards a Multifunctional Approach in Rhematoid Arthritis Management: a Nanomedicine Approach

PURPOSE

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease and Notch pathway plays a pivotal role in synoviocytes involved in progression of RA.

METHODS

Herein, we have designed a self-assembled polymeric micelles based on polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol (PCL-PEG) and polyethylenimine-polyethylene glycol (PEI-PEG) was prepared and loaded with methotrexate and Notch-1 siRNA for the effective treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

RESULTS

The MTX/siRNA-loaded polymeric micelles (siM-PM) showed appreciable cellular uptake in Raw264.7 cells which were activated with LPS and did not exhibit any toxicity to Raw264.7 and HUVEC cells. The AUC of siM-PM was 4-fold higher compared to that of free MTX while t1/2 was 6 fold for siM-PM compared to that of free drug indicating the superior pharmacokinetic parameters. Importantly, siM-PM significantly reduced the paw thickness and slowed the disease progression remarkably, indicating that siM-PM is very effective in recovering the edema in arthritic animals. Importantly, 2-fold decrease in arthritic score was observed in siM-PM treated group at the end of day 24. The data clearly reveals anti-inflammatory effect of combinational nanoparticle due to the sequence specific downregulation of Notch-1 expression in the RA clinical models.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, nanomedicine-based delivery of MTX and siRNA could overcome the side effects of small molecules and could improve the therapeutic effect of siRNA in rheumatoid arthritis.

Inhibition of Endothelial NOTCH1 Signaling Attenuates Inflammation by Reducing Cytokine-Mediated Histone Acetylation at Inflammatory Enhancers

OBJECTIVE

Endothelial upregulation of adhesion molecules serves to recruit leukocytes to inflammatory sites and appears to be promoted by NOTCH1; however, current models based on interactions between active NOTCH1 and NF-κB components cannot explain the transcriptional selectivity exerted by NOTCH1 in this context.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Observing that Cre/Lox-induced conditional mutations of endothelial Notch modulated inflammation in murine contact hypersensitivity, we found that IL (interleukin)-1β stimulation induced rapid recruitment of RELA (v-rel avian reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A) to genomic sites occupied by NOTCH1-RBPJ (recombination signal-binding protein for immunoglobulin kappa J region) and that NOTCH1 knockdown reduced histone H3K27 acetylation at a subset of NF-κB-directed inflammatory enhancers.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings reveal that NOTCH1 signaling supports the expression of a subset of inflammatory genes at the enhancer level and demonstrate how key signaling pathways converge on chromatin to coordinate the transition to an infla mmatory endothelial phenotype.

PEGylated TRAIL ameliorates experimental inflammatory arthritis by regulation of Th17 cells and regulatory T cells

TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a death ligand that can induce apoptosis in cells expressing its cognate death receptors (DRs). Previously, we demonstrated the therapeutic potential of recombinant human TRAIL in experimental rheumatoid arthritis (RA) models. However, the mechanisms of how DR-mediated apoptosis elicits these actions is not known. Here, we show that systemically administering a potent, long-acting PEGylated TRAIL (TRAIL_PEG) is profoundly anti-rheumatic against two complementary experimental RA mouse models, collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and collagen antibody-induced arthritis (CAIA), via targeting IL-17 secreting Th17 cells and regulatory T cells (Treg). Systemic administration of TRAIL_PEG after disease onset ameliorated the severity of inflammatory arthritis including arthritis indices, paw thickness, cartilage damage and neutrophil infiltration in both CIA and CAIA models. Additionally, the levels of inflammatory molecules (p-p65, ICAM-1, Cox-2, MMP3, and iNOS), pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-17) and accumulation of activated macrophages were significantly reduced after the TRAIL_PEG treatment. Importantly, TRAIL_PEG decreased the number of pro-inflammatory Th17 cells in inflamed arthritic joints through TRAIL-induced apoptosis while increasing anti-inflammatory Treg population in vivo. These results suggest that TRAIL_PEG ameliorates autoimmunity by targeting the Th 17-Tregs axis, making it a promising candidate drug for the treatment of RA.

Absence of Notch1 in murine myeloid cells attenuates the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by affecting Th1 and Th17 priming

Inhibition of Notch signalling in T cells attenuates the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Growing evidence indicates that myeloid cells are also key players in autoimmune processes. Thus, the present study evaluates the role of the Notch1 receptor in myeloid cells on the progression of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)_35-55 -induced EAE, using mice with a myeloid-specific deletion of the Notch1 gene (MyeNotch1KO). We found that EAE progression was less severe in the absence of Notch1 in myeloid cells. Thus, histopathological analysis revealed reduced pathology in the spinal cord of MyeNotch1KO mice, with decreased microglia/astrocyte activation, demyelination and infiltration of CD4⁺ T cells. Moreover, these mice showed lower Th1 and Th17 cell infiltration and expression of IFN-γ and IL-17 mRNA in the spinal cord. Accordingly, splenocytes from MyeNotch1KO mice reactivated in vitro presented reduced Th1 and Th17 activation, and lower expression of IL-12, IL-23, TNF-α, IL-6, and CD86. Moreover, reactivated wild-type splenocytes showed increased Notch1 expression, arguing for a specific involvement of this receptor in autoimmune T cell activation in secondary lymphoid tissues. In summary, our results reveal a key role of the Notch1 receptor in myeloid cells for the initiation and progression of EAE.

Is macrophage polarization important in rheumatoid arthritis?

Macrophages are myeloid immune cells which are strategically positioned throughout the body, where they engulf and degrade debris, dead cells, and foreign substances, and coordinating the inflammatory processes. Macrophages can be divided into two extreme subsets, classical activation (M1), and alternatively activation (M2). The symptoms and signs of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) would exacerbate with the increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines, whereas anti-inflammatory cytokines will alleviate the symptoms and signs of RA. This review, mainly discusses the effects of Notch, JNK and ERK signaling pathways on the regulation of macrophage polarization, and the effects of pro-inflammatory factors and/or anti-inflammatory cytokines produced by polarized macrophages in RA. Also, we will make an attempt to find out the importance of macrophage polarization in RA treatment as a drug target.

Targeting Notch-Activated M1 Macrophages Attenuates Joint Tissue Damage in a Mouse Model of Inflammatory Arthritis

Expression levels of Notch signaling molecules are increased in synovium from patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, it is not known which cell type(s) in RA synovium have Notch activation or if they play a pathogenetic role in RA. Here, we used Hes1-GFP/TNF-transgenic (TNF-Tg) mice to investigate the role of cells with active Notch signaling (GFP+) in RA. The number of GFP+ cells was significantly increased in synovium in Hes1-GFP/TNF-Tg mice and about 60% of them were F4/80+ macrophages expressing the inflammatory macrophage (M1) marker. TNF-Tg mice transplanted with Hes1-GFP/TNF-Tg bone marrow (BM) had significantly more GFP+ cells in their synovium than in BM. Intraarticular injection of Hes1-GFP/TNF-Tg or Hes1-GFP+ BM macrophages into WT and TNF-Tg mice showed the highest synovial GFP+ cells in the TNF-Tg mice that received Hes1-GFP/TNF-Tg cells. Thapsigargin (THAP), a Notch inhibitor, decreased TNF-induced M1 and increased M2 numbers and reduced joint lesion, synovial M1s, and GFP+ cells in Hes1-GFP/TNF-Tg mice. THAP did not affect M1s from mice carrying a constitutively active Notch1. Thus, the main cells with activated Notch signaling in the inflamed synovium of TNF-Tg mice are M1s derived from BM and targeting them may represent a new therapeutic approach for patients with inflammatory arthritis. © 2017 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Erzhi Pill® Repairs Experimental Liver Injury via TSC/mTOR Signaling Pathway Inhibiting Excessive Apoptosis

The present study aimed to investigate the mechanism of hepatoprotective effect of Erzhi Pill (EZP) on the liver injury via observing TSC/mTOR signaling pathway activation. The experimental liver injury was induced by 2-acetylaminofluorene (2-AAF) treatment combined with partial hepatectomy (PH). EZP treated 2-AAF/PH-induced liver injury by the therapeutic and prophylactic administration. After the administration of EZP, the activities of aspartic transaminase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (AKP), and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (γ-GT) were decreased, followed by the decreased levels of hepatocyte apoptosis and caspase-3 expression. However, the secretion of albumin, liver weight, and index of liver weight were elevated. Microscopic examination showed that EZP restored pathological liver injury. Meanwhile, Rheb and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activation were suppressed, and tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) expression was elevated in liver tissues induced by 2-AAF/PHx and accompanied with lower-expression of Bax, Notch1, p70S6K, and 4E-EIF and upregulated levels of Bcl-2 and Cyclin D. Hepatoprotective effect of EZP was possibly realized via inhibiting TSC/mTOR signaling pathway to suppress excessive apoptosis of hepatocyte.