East African running dominance: what is behind it?

Beyond the border of the athlete-centered approach: a model to understand runners' performance

Our purpose is to move beyond the borders of the athlete-centered approach by examining the runners' environment interplay as a key factor for performance. Based on the ecological systems theory, the micro-level (intrapersonal, interpersonal, and training characteristics), meso-level (a direct association with athletes is not observed, but the environment plays an influence on the relationships built at the micro-level), and macro-level (contextual features that influence athletic systems) were theorized and contextualized as important factors for the expression of different outcomes, including performance and participation. We also conceptualized the microtime, mesotime, and macrotime as a constraint. Through this model, we aimed to provide applications and conclusions about how this conceptual model provides advances in the scientific research field. By understanding how environmental factors influence their performance, runners can make informed decisions about where and how to train and compete. Furthermore, by recognizing the role of culture and social context in shaping runners' experiences and outcomes, we can work toward creating a more equitable and supportive running culture for all.

Variability in Running Economy of Kenyan World-Class and European Amateur Male Runners with Advanced Footwear Running Technology: Experimental and Meta-analysis Results

BACKGROUND

Advanced footwear technology improves average running economy compared with racing flats in sub-elite athletes. However, not all athletes benefit as performance changes vary from a 10% drawback to a 14% improvement. The main beneficiaries from such technologies, world-class athletes, have only been analyzed using race times.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to measure running economy on a laboratory treadmill in advanced footwear technology compared to a traditional racing flat in world-class Kenyan (mean half-marathon time: 59:30 min:s) versus European amateur runners.

METHODS

Seven world-class Kenyan and seven amateur European male runners completed a maximal oxygen uptake assessment and submaximal steady-state running economy trials in three different models of advanced footwear technology and a racing flat. To confirm our results and better understand the overall effect of new technology in running shoes, we conducted a systematic search and meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Laboratory results revealed large variability in both world-class Kenyan road runners, which ranged from a 11.3% drawback to a 11.4% benefit, and amateur Europeans, which ranged from a 9.7% benefit to a 1.1% drawback in running economy of advanced footwear technology compared to a flat. The post-hoc meta-analysis revealed an overall significant medium benefit of advanced footwear technology on running economy compared with traditional flats.

CONCLUSIONS

Variability of advanced footwear technology performance appears in both world-class and amateur runners, suggesting further testing should examine such variability to ensure validity of results and explain the cause as a more personalized approach to shoe selection might be necessary for optimal benefit.

A macro to micro analysis to understand performance in 100-mile ultra-marathons worldwide

The purposes of this study were (i) to describe differences in participation in 100-mile ultra-marathons by continent; (ii) to investigate differences in performance between continents; and (iii) to identify the fastest runners by continent and country. Data from 148,169 athletes (119,408 men), aged 18-81 years, and finishers in a 100-miles ultra-marathon during 1870-2020 were investigated. Information about age, gender, origin, performance level (top three, top 10, top 100) was obtained. Kruskal-Wallis tests and linear regressions were performed. Athletes were mostly from America and Europe. A macro-analysis showed that the fastest men runners were from Africa, while the fastest women runners were from Europe and Africa. Women from Sweden, Hungary and Russia presented the best performances in the top three, top 10 and top 100. Men from Brazil, Russia and Lithuania were the fastest. The lowest performance and participation were observed for runners from Asia. In summary, in 100-miles ultra-marathon running, the majority of athletes were from America, but for both sexes and performance levels, the fastest runners were from Africa. On a country level, the fastest women were from Sweden, Hungary and Russia, while the fastest men were from Brazil, Russia and Lithuania.

Amateur runners more influenced than elite runners by temperature and air pollution during the UK's Great North Run half marathon

The short- and long-term impacts of air pollution on human health are well documented and include cardiovascular, neurological, immune system and developmental damage. Additionally, the irritant qualities of air pollutants can cause respiratory and cardiovascular distress. This can be heightened during exercise and especially so for those with respiratory conditions such as asthma. Meteorological conditions have also been shown to adversely impact athletic performance; but research has mostly examined the impact of pollution and meteorology on marathon times or running under laboratory settings. This study focuses on the half marathon distance (13.1 miles/21.1 km) and utilises the Great North Run held in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, between 2006 and 2019. Local meteorological (temperature, relative humidity, heat index and wind speed) and air quality (ozone, nitrogen dioxide and PM_2.5) data is used in conjunction with finishing times of the quickest and slowest amateur participants, along with the elite field, to determine the extent to which each group is influenced in real-world conditions. Results show that increased temperatures, heat index and ozone concentrations are significantly detrimental to amateur half marathon performances. The elite field meanwhile is influenced by higher ozone concentrations. It is thought that the increased exposure time to the environmental conditions contributes to this greater decrease in performance for the slowest participants. For elite athletes that are performing closer to their maximal capacity (VO₂ max), the higher ozone concentrations likely results in respiratory irritation and decreased performance. Nitrogen dioxide and PM_2.5 pollution showed no significant relationship with finishing times. These results provide additional insight into the environmental effects on exercise, which is particularly important under the increasing effects climate change and regional air pollution. This study can be used to inform event organisation and start times for both mass participation and major elite events with the aim to reduce heat- and pollution-related incidents.

Increased Participation and Decreased Performance in Recreational Master Athletes in "Berlin Marathon" 1974-2019

The aspect of participation and performance trends in marathon running has been investigated mainly in marathons held in the United States of America (e.g., “New York City Marathon,” “Boston Marathon”), but not for the fastest course in the world, the “Berlin Marathon” held in Berlin, Germany. This study aimed to examine trends in participation and performance in the “Berlin Marathon” on all its previous 46 editions from 1974 to 2019, the largest dataset ever studied in this event with 696,225 finishers (after data cleaning). Athletes in all age groups increased their participation, except for male athletes aged 20–49 years and athletes of both sexes above 79 years of age. This overall increase in participation was more pronounced in women, but still, there are more men than women participating in “Berlin Marathon” nowadays. All age group athletes decreased their performance across years overall, whereas the top ten recreational athletes improved their performance over the years. Our findings improved the knowledge about the evolution of male and female marathoners across calendar years, especially for the fastest marathon race in the world, the “Berlin Marathon.”

No Trends in the Age of Peak Performance among the Best Half-Marathoners and Marathoners in the World between 1997-2020

Background and Objectives: We examined the possible trend in the age of peak performance in elite endurance athletes according to sex, continent of athletes’ national citizenship, and ranking position. Since performance is a multifactorial trait, this information can be used to guide the long-term training and to plan the strategies related to the selection process of athletes. Materials and methods: Information of 1852 professional athletes, classified as top 20 performance of each year in marathon and half-marathon events between 1997 and 2020 were considered. Analysis of variance was computed to test differences in age between sex, continent, and rank position. Results: A significant difference between groups in the mean age of peak performance was observed (F (3, 1884) = 42,31; p < 0.001). For both sexes, half-marathoners were younger than marathoners (male, 25.6 ± 3.6 years vs. 28.0 ± 3.9 years; female, 27.5 ± 4.4 years vs. 28.4 ± 4.1). Female half-marathoners in 2004 presented the highest mean age (31.1 ± 4.8 years) compared to their peers in the years 1997, 2001, 2018 and 2019; among male half-marathoners, those in 1999 presented the highest mean age when compared to 2011, 2018, and 2019. Differences between the continents of athletes’ national citizenship were observed (F (4, 1884) = 62,85,601; p < 0,001). Asian runners presented the lowest mean age (26.5 ± 3.7 years), while their European peers presented the highest (31.1 ± 3.9 years). No significant interaction between sex and ranking position was verified. Differences were observed between sexes for categories “4th–10th positions” and “11th–20th” (F (1, 1879) = 23,114; p < 0.001). Conclusions: Over the last two decades, no clear trend was observed in the changes in the age of peak performance among endurance athletes of both sexes, but, in general, female half-marathoners tended to be significantly older than their male peers.

Competitive Performance of Kenyan Runners Compared to their Relative Body Weight and Fat

Body fat values obtained with various measurement methods deviate substantially in many cases. The standardised brightness-mode ultrasound method was used in 32 Kenyan elite long-distance runners to measure subcutaneous adipose tissue thicknesses at an accuracy and reliability level not reached by any other method. Subcutaneous adipose tissue forms the dominating part of body fat. Additionally, body mass (m), height (h), sitting height (s), leg length, and the mass index MI₁=0.53m/(hs) were determined. MI₁ considers leg length, which the body mass index ignores. MI₁ values of all participants were higher than their body mass indices. Both indices for relative body weight were within narrow ranges, although thickness sums of subcutaneous adipose tissue deviated strongly (women: 20-82 mm; men: 3-36 mm). Men had 2.1 times more embedded fasciae in the subcutaneous adipose tissue. In the subgroup with personal best times below world record time plus 10%, no correlation between performance and body mass index was found, and there was also no correlation with sums of subcutaneous adipose tissue thicknesses. Within the data ranges found here, extremely low relative body weight or low body fat were no criteria for the level of performance, therefore, pressure towards too low values may be disadvantageous.

Disparities in prostate cancer incidence and mortality rates: Solvable or not?

Prostate cancer (PCa) is recognized as a disease possessing not only great variation in its geographic and racial distribution but also tremendous variation in its potential to cause morbidity and death and it, therefore, ought not to be considered a homogenous disease entity. Morbidity and death from PCa are disproportionately higher in men of African ancestry (MAA) who are generally observed to have more aggressive disease and worse outcomes following treatment compared to men of European ancestry (MEA). The higher rates of PCa among MAA relative to MEA appear to be multifactorial and related to inherent differences in biological aggressiveness; a continued lack of awareness of the disease and methods of prevention; a lower prevalence of screen-detected PCa; comparatively lower access to quality healthcare as well as systemic and institutionalized disparities in the administration of optimal care to MAA in developed countries such as the United States of America where high-quality care is available. Even when access to quality healthcare is assured in equal access settings, it appears that MAA still have worse outcomes after PCa treatment stage-for-stage and grade-for-grade compared to MEA, suggesting that, inherent racial, ethnic and biological differences are paramount in predicting poor outcomes. This review has explored the different contributing factors to the current disparities in PCa incidence and mortality rates with emphasis on the incongruence in how research has been conducted in understanding the disease towards developing therapies.

The Relationship Between Anthropometric Variables and Race Performance

INTRODUCTION

The key elements of success in a given sports competition have become an area of interest for researchers. The reason for the success of Ethiopian runners was not proved scientifically. This study aimed at documenting the anthropometric parameters of 10,000 meter runners and to find out the association between such parameters and performances.

METHODS

A descriptive field study was conducted. 32 elite 10,000 meter runners participated. The data were collected while the athletics team was preparing for the world athletics championship. The procedure was repeated three times for each individual. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS version 18. All the data were presented as mean ± S.D. The Pearson product-moment test was used to determine the correlation between the variables and finishing time. The level of significance for all statistical tests was set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

The experience of male and female athletes showed a negative association with finishing time. However, there was no statistically significant correlation between the age and running time in both sexes. A significant positive association of body weight to running time was observed in both sexes. Body height correlates positively to running time in males (p<0.05), but not in females. The length of the arm, the forearm, the leg in both sexes and length of the thigh in women had no significant association with finishing time. A smaller arm and calf circumferences have a positive effect on the performance of both sexes. Smaller thigh circumference showed a positive association with the performance of men.

CONCLUSION

The age of the runners did not correlate with their performance. The anthropometric variables displayed significantly higher values in men than in women. Experienced athletes performed better in both sexes. Anthropometric parameters may be useful for selection, prediction, improving running performance besides for preventing injuries and health risk assessment.

Deliberate practice in training differentiates the best Kenyan and Spanish long-distance runners

The aim of this novel research was to compare the amount of systematic training and the different training activities undertaken by elite-standard long-distance runners during their first seven years of systematic training. Participants were divided into three performance groups: world-class Kenyans (N = 19), European-standard Spanish athletes (N = 18), and Spanish national-standard athletes (N = 18). Performance and training data were obtained for two-year periods using retrospective recall (including training diaries) from the time the athletes began systematic training, until the seventh year after. These activities included high-intensity training sessions considered deliberate practice (DP) and easy runs. There was no evidence that starting systematic training at a younger age was advantageous, and easy runs (a non-DP activity) were the most used by participants as a proportion of overall running distance. As part of an overall higher accumulation of distance run (P < 0.001, d ≥ 1.35), the Kenyans completed more tempo runs and short-interval training than the other groups (P < 0.001, d ≥ 1.38), but did not complete more long intervals or races. There were few differences between the European- and national-standard athletes except for easy runs, which highlights the value of these easy runs but also the need for higher-intensity training to compete with world-class performers. When planning for training overload and progression, long-distance running coaches should consider increasing the volume of tempo runs and short intervals, in addition to easier runs that develop cardiovascular conditioning.

The "New York City Marathon": participation and performance trends of 1.2M runners during half-century

The aim of the present study was to examine trends in participation, performance, age and nationality during a ~ 50-years period in the largest dataset ever studied in the "New York City Marathon". We analysed 1,174,331 finishers (women, n= 349,145, age 39.7 ± 8.7 years; men, n= 825,186, 41.7 ± 9.2 years). The overall participation increased across calendar years for all nationalities, and this increase was more pronounced in women, which resulted in a decreasing men-to-women ratio. Men were faster and older than women. Ethiopians and Kenyans were the fastest and youngest in women and men, respectively. Japanese were the slowest and Germans were the oldest in both sexes. Race time increased across years. Coaches and fitness trainers should be aware of these trends and should emphasize the development of training programs for older and slower runners.

Performance and age of African and non-African runners in World Marathon Majors races 2000-2014

The age for the fastest marathoners is well investigated, but not the age and nationality of the fastest. We investigated the age of peak marathon performance for the annual top 100 women and men competing in four races of the "World Marathon Majors" (Boston, Berlin, Chicago and New York) and the "Stockholm Marathon" between 2000 and 2014 using mixed-effects regression analyses and one-way ANOVA. Race times of Ethiopian men decreased to 2:14 h:min, but remained unchanged for Kenyan (2:14 h:min), Moroccan (2:15 h:min) and South African (2:18 h:min) men. Race times in Ethiopian (2:34 h:min), Kenyan (2:29 h:min) and South African (2:49 h:min) women showed no changes. Age increased in Ethiopian and South African men to 29.0 ± 5.0 and 32.0 ± 1.0 years, respectively. Age for Kenyan (29.9 ± 2.0 years) and Moroccan (34.9 ± 3.9 years) men remained unchanged. Age remained unchanged for Ethiopian (26.5 ± 2.0 years), Kenyan (30.0 ± 0.8 years) and South African (36.3 ± 7.0 years) women. In summary, Ethiopian men improved marathon race times, but not Ethiopian women. Age increased in Ethiopian men, but not in Ethiopian women. For practical applications, female and male marathoners from Ethiopia were the youngest and the fastest.

Male and female Ethiopian and Kenyan runners are the fastest and the youngest in both half and full marathon

In major marathon races such as the 'World Marathon Majors', female and male East African runners particularly from Ethiopia and Kenya are the fastest. However, whether this trend appears for female and male Ethiopians and Kenyans at recreational level runners (i.e. races at national level) and in shorter road races (e.g. in half-marathon races) has not been studied yet. Thus, the aim of the present study was to examine differences in the performance and the age of female and male runners from East Africa (i.e. Ethiopians and Kenyans) between half- and full marathons. Data from 508,108 athletes (125,894 female and 328,430 male half-marathoners and 10,205 female and 43,489 male marathoners) originating from 126 countries and competing between 1999 and 2014 in all road-based half-marathons and marathons held in one country (Switzerland) were analysed using Chi square (χ(2)) tests, mixed-effects regression analyses and one-way analyses of variance. In half-marathons, 48 women (0.038 %) and 63 men (0.019 %) were from Ethiopia and 80 women (0.063 %) and 134 men (0.040 %) from Kenya. In marathons, three women (0.029 %) and 15 men (0.034 %) were from Ethiopia and two women (0.019 %) and 33 men (0.075 %) from Kenya. There was no statistically significant association between the nationality of East Africans and the format of a race. In both women and men, the fastest race times in half-marathons and marathons were achieved by East African runners (p < 0.001). Ethiopian and Kenyan runners were the youngest in both sexes and formats of race (p < 0.001). In summary, women and men from Ethiopia and Kenya, despite they accounted for <0.1 % in half-marathons and marathons, achieved the fastest race times and were the youngest in both half-marathons and marathons. These findings confirmed in the case of half-marathon the trend previously observed in marathon races for a better performance and a younger age in East African runners from Ethiopia and Kenya.

Performance and age of African and non-African runners in half- and full marathons held in Switzerland, 2000-2010

Background

Endurance running performance of African (AF) and non-African (NAF) athletes is investigated, with better performances seen for Africans. To date, no study has compared the age of peak performance between AF and NAF runners. The present research is an analysis of the age and running performance of top AF and NAF athletes, using the hypothesis that AF athletes were younger and faster than NAF athletes.

Methods

Age and performance of male and female AF and NAF athletes in half-marathons and marathons held in Switzerland in 2000–2010 were investigated using single and multilevel hierarchical regression analyses.

Results

For half-marathons, male NAF runners were older than male AF runners (P = 0.02; NAF, 31.1 years ± 6.4 years versus AF, 26.2 years ± 4.9 years), and their running time was longer (P = 0.02; NAF, 65.3 minutes ± 1.7 minutes versus AF, 64.1 minutes ± 0.9 minutes). In marathons, differences between NAF and AF male runners in age (NAF, 33.0 years ± 4.8 years versus AF, 28.6 years ± 3.8 years; P < 0.01) and running time (NAF, 139.5 minutes ± 5.6 minutes versus AF, 133.3 minutes ± 2.7 minutes; P < 0.01) were more pronounced. There was no difference in age (NAF, 31.0 years ± 7.0 years versus AF, 26.7 years ± 6.0 years; P > 0.05) or running time (NAF, 75.0 minutes ± 3.7 minutes versus AF, 75.6 minutes ± 5.3 minutes; P > 0.05) between NAF and AF female half-marathoners. For marathoners, NAF women were older than AF female runners (P = 0.03; NAF, 31.6 years ± 4.8 years versus AF, 27.8 years ± 5.3 years), but their running times were similar (NAF, 162.4 minutes ± 7.2 minutes versus AF, 163.0 minutes ± 7.0 minutes; P > 0.05).

Conclusion

In Switzerland, the best AF male half-marathoners and marathoners were younger and faster than the NAF counterpart runners. In contrast to the results seen in men, AF and NAF female runners had similar performances. Future studies need to investigate performance and age of AF and NAF marathoners in the World Marathon Majors Series.

Participation and performance trends of East-African runners in Swiss half-marathons and marathons held between 2000 and 2010

BACKGROUND

This study examined the changes in participation, performance and age of East African runners competing in half-marathons and marathons held in Switzerland between 2000 and 2010.

METHODS

Race times, sex, age and origin of East African versus Non-African finishers of half-marathon and marathon finishers were analyzed.

RESULTS

Across time, the number of Kenyan and Ethiopian finishers remained stable (P > 0.05) while the number of Non-African finishers increased for both women and men in both half-marathons and marathons (P < 0.05). In half-marathons, the top ten African women (71 ± 1.4 min) and top three (62.3 ± 0.6 min) and top ten (62.8 ± 0.4 min) African men were faster than their Non-African counterparts (P < 0.05). In marathons, however, there was no difference in race times between the top three African men (130.0 ± 0.0 min) and women (151.7 ± 2.5 min) compared to Non-African men (129.0 ± 1.0 min) and women (150.7 ± 1.2 min) (P > 0.05). In half-marathons and marathons was no difference in age between the best Non-African and the best African runners (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

During the last decade in Switzerland, the participation of Kenyan and Ethiopian runners in half- and full- marathons remained stable. In marathons there was no difference in age and performance between the top African and the top Non-African runners. Regarding half-marathons, the top African runners were faster but not younger than the top Non-African runners. Future insight should be gained by comparing the present results with participation, performance and age trends for East African runners competing in marathons held in larger countries.

Aerobic Capacity, Activity Levels and Daily Energy Expenditure in Male and Female Adolescents of the Kenyan Nandi Sub-Group

The relative importance of genetic and socio-cultural influences contributing to the success of east Africans in endurance athletics remains unknown in part because the pre-training phenotype of this population remains incompletely assessed. Here cardiopulmonary fitness, physical activity levels, distance travelled to school and daily energy expenditure in 15 habitually active male (13.9±1.6 years) and 15 habitually active female (13.9±1.2) adolescents from a rural Nandi primary school are assessed. Aerobic capacity ([Formula: see text]) was evaluated during two maximal discontinuous incremental exercise tests; physical activity using accelerometry combined with a global positioning system; and energy expenditure using the doubly labelled water method. The [Formula: see text] of the male and female adolescents were 73.9±5.7 ml(.) kg(-1.) min(-1) and 61.5±6.3 ml(.) kg(-1.) min(-1), respectively. Total time spent in sedentary, light, moderate and vigorous physical activities per day was 406±63 min (50% of total monitored time), 244±56 min (30%), 75±18 min (9%) and 82±30 min (10%). Average total daily distance travelled to and from school was 7.5±3.0 km (0.8-13.4 km). Mean daily energy expenditure, activity-induced energy expenditure and physical activity level was 12.2±3.4 MJ(.) day(-1), 5.4±3.0 MJ(.) day(-1) and 2.2±0.6. 70.6% of the variation in [Formula: see text] was explained by sex (partial R(2) = 54.7%) and body mass index (partial R(2) = 15.9%). Energy expenditure and physical activity variables did not predict variation in [Formula: see text] once sex had been accounted for. The highly active and energy-demanding lifestyle of rural Kenyan adolescents may account for their exceptional aerobic fitness and collectively prime them for later training and athletic success.

Ultramarathon runners: nature or nurture?

Ultramarathon running is increasingly popular. An ultramarathon is defined as a running event involving distances longer than the length of a traditional marathon of 42.195 km. In ultramarathon races, ~80% of the finishers are men. Ultramarathoners are typically ~45 y old and achieve their fastest running times between 30 and 49 y for men, and between 30 and 54 y for women. Most probably, ultrarunners start with a marathon before competing in an ultramarathon. In ultramarathoners, the number of previously completed marathons is significantly higher than the number of completed marathons in marathoners. However, recreational marathoners have a faster personal-best marathon time than ultramarathoners. Successful ultramarathoners have 7.6 ± 6.3 y of experience in ultrarunning. Ultramarathoners complete more running kilometers in training than marathoners do, but they run more slowly during training than marathoners. To summarize, ultramarathoners are master runners, have a broad experience in running, and prepare differently for an ultramarathon than marathoners do. However, it is not known what motivates male ultramarathoners and where ultramarathoners mainly originate. Future studies need to investigate the motivation of male ultramarathoners, where the best ultramarathoners originate, and whether they prepare by competing in marathons before entering ultramarathons.

European dominance in multistage ultramarathons: an analysis of finisher rate and performance trends from 1992 to 2010

BACKGROUND

Participation and performance trends regarding the nationality of ultraendurance athletes have been investigated in the triathlon, but not in running. The present study aimed to identify the countries in which multistage ultramarathons were held around the world and the nationalities of successful finishers.

METHODS

Finisher rates and performance trends of finishers in multistage ultramarathons held worldwide between 1992 and 2010 were investigated.

RESULTS

Between 1992 and 2010, the bulk of multistage ultramarathons were held in Germany and France, with more than 30 races organized in each country. Completion rates for men and women increased exponentially, with women representing on average 16.4% of the total field. Since 1992, 6480 athletes have competed in Morocco, 2538 in Germany, and 1842 in France. A total of 81.9% of athletes originated from Europe, and more specifically from France (22.9%), Great Britain (18.0%), and Germany (13.4%).

CONCLUSION

European ultramarathoners dominated the athletes who completed multistage ultramarathons worldwide, with specific dominance of French, British, and German athletes. Future studies should investigate social aspects, such as sport tourism, among European athletes to understand why European athletes are so interested in participating in multistage ultramarathons.

Impact of environmental parameters on marathon running performance

Purpose

The objectives of this study were to describe the distribution of all runners' performances in the largest marathons worldwide and to determine which environmental parameters have the maximal impact.

Methods

We analysed the results of six European (Paris, London, Berlin) and American (Boston, Chicago, New York) marathon races from 2001 to 2010 through 1,791,972 participants' performances (all finishers per year and race). Four environmental factors were gathered for each of the 60 races: temperature (°C), humidity (%), dew point (°C), and the atmospheric pressure at sea level (hPA); as well as the concentrations of four atmospheric pollutants: NO₂ – SO₂ – O₃ and PM₁₀ (μg.m⁻³).

Results

All performances per year and race are normally distributed with distribution parameters (mean and standard deviation) that differ according to environmental factors. Air temperature and performance are significantly correlated through a quadratic model. The optimal temperatures for maximal mean speed of all runners vary depending on the performance level. When temperature increases above these optima, running speed decreases and withdrawal rates increase. Ozone also impacts performance but its effect might be linked to temperature. The other environmental parameters do not have any significant impact.

Conclusions

The large amount of data analyzed and the model developed in this study highlight the major influence of air temperature above all other climatic parameter on human running capacity and adaptation to race conditions.

European athletes dominate performances in Double Iron ultra-triathlons--a retrospective data analysis from 1985 to 2010

We investigated the participation and performance trends of ultra-endurance triathletes from all nationalities competing in a Double Iron ultra-triathlon (7.6-km swim, 360-km cycle and 84.4-km run) from 1985 to 2010. A total of 1854 athletes participated in 92 Double Iron ultra-triathlons. The majority of the winners came from Europe with 72 victories, followed by North America with 17 victories. The race time for the European ultra-triathletes was 1340 (s=95.3) min, decreasing highly significantly (r (2)=0.28; P<0.0001) across the years. North American ultra-triathletes finished the races within 1556 (s=124.5) min; their race time showed no changes across the years (r (2)=0.045; P=0.07). The race time for the Europeans was highly significantly faster compared to the North Americans (P<0.0001). Future studies should investigate each country in Europe and North America in order to find the country with the largest participation of athletes and their best performance.

Food and macronutrient intake of elite Ethiopian distance runners

Background

Explanations for the phenomenal success of East African distance runners include unique dietary practices. The aim of the present study was to assess the food and macronutrient intake of elite Ethiopian distance runners during a period of high intensity exercise training at altitude and prior to major competition.

Methods

The dietary intake of 10 highly-trained Ethiopian long distance runners, living and training at high altitude (approximately 2400 m above sea level) was assessed during a 7 day period of intense training prior to competition using the standard weighed intake method. Training was also assessed using an activity/training diary.

Results

Body mass was stable (i.e., was well maintained) over the assessment period (pre: 56.7 ± 4.3 kg vs. post: 56.6 ± 4.2 kg, P = 0.54; mean ± SD). The diet comprised of 13375 ± 1378 kJ and was high in carbohydrate (64.3 ± 2.6%, 545 ± 49 g, 9.7 ± 0.9 g/kg). Fat and protein intake was 23.3 ± 2.1% (83 ± 14 g) and 12.4 ± 0.6% (99 ± 13 g, 1.8 ± 0.2 g/kg), respectively. Fluid intake comprised mainly of water (1751 ± 583 mL), while no fluids were consumed before or during training with only modest amounts being consumed following training.

Conclusions

Similar to previous studies in elite Kenyan distance runners, the diet of these elite Ethiopian distance runners met most recommendations of endurance athletes for macronutrient intake but not for fluid intake.

The dominance of Kenyans in distance running

Kenyan runners, and especially those originating from the Kalenjin tribe, have dominated international middle- and long-distance running for over 40 years, prompting significant interest in the factors contributing to their success. Proposed explanations have included environmental factors, psychological advantage and favourable physiological characteristics, which may be genetically conferred or environmentally determined. Running is inherent within local Kenyan tradition and culture, and the Kenyan way of life, which involves many outdoor activities and pastimes in addition to mostly unfavourable living conditions, is conducive to enhanced distance running performance. Despite economic deprivation, Kenya has produced world and international running champions repeatedly over the past few decades; these champions have become role models for the younger generations, who take up running in the hope of a better future for themselves. Favourable environmental conditions such as altitude, diet and anthropometry, in addition to the motivational and socio-economic factors mentioned above, have all been proposed as possible reasons for the unsurpassed achievements of Kenyan distance runners. However, the fact that the majority of internationally successful runners originate from a small tribe that accounts for approximately 3% of the total Kenyan population also points to a possible genetic component. Whether this is subject to influence from other co-factors, such as altitude or training effects acquired during childhood, remains as yet unresolved.

A comparison of estimated maximal oxygen uptake in 9 and 10 year old schoolchildren in Tanzania and Norway

OBJECTIVE

To compare estimated maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) in Tanzanian and Norwegian children, by using the same bicycle protocol in both samples.

METHODS

Maximal oxygen uptake was estimated from an indirect maximal watt cycle ergometer test in 156 rural boys and girls in Tanzania. Similarly aged urban Norwegian boys and girls (n = 379) who underwent the same test were used for comparison. The Tanzanian children also participated in a 20 metre shuttle run test and a test of bicycle skill. The Tanzanian children were tested at altitude (approximately 1800 metres), while the Norwegian children were tested at sea level.

RESULTS

In the cycle ergometer test, estimated relative VO2max was similar in Tanzanian and Norwegian boys, while Tanzanian girls had 8% lower estimated VO2max compared with Norwegian girls (p<0.001). Only one third of the Tanzanian children were able to ride a conventional bicycle. Excluding subjects not able to ride a bicycle, there was no difference in estimated VO2max between Norwegian and Tanzanian children. The Tanzanian boys and girls reached significantly higher estimated VO2max in the shuttle run test compared with the cycle ergometer test (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Tanzanian and Norwegian children attained similar relative VO2max in the cycle ergometer test. However, the comparison was hampered by differences in altitude and the poor cycle ergometer skills in the Tanzanian children, both of which probably underestimated their VO2max.

Y chromosome haplogroups of elite Ethiopian endurance runners

Favourable genetic endowment has been proposed as part of the explanation for the success of East African endurance athletes, but no evidence has yet been presented. The Y chromosome haplogroup distribution of elite Ethiopian athletes (n=62) was compared with that of the general Ethiopian population (n=95) and a control group from Arsi (a region producing a disproportionate number of athletes; n=85). Athletes belonged to three groups: marathon runners (M; n=23), 5-km to 10-km runners (5-10K; n=21) and other track and field athletes (TF; n=18). DNA was extracted from buccal swabs and haplogroups were assigned after the typing of binary markers in multiplexed minisequencing reactions. Frequency differences between groups were assessed by using contingency exact tests and showed that Y chromosome haplogroups are not distributed amongst elite Ethiopian endurance runners in the same proportions as in the general population, with statistically significant (P<0.05) differences being found in four of the individual haplogroups. The geographical origins and languages of the athletes and controls suggest that these differences are less likely to be a reflection of population structure and that Y chromosome haplogroups may play a significant role in determining Ethiopian endurance running success.

Demographic characteristics of elite Ethiopian endurance runners

INTRODUCTION

The dominance of East-African athletes in distance running remains largely unexplained; proposed reasons include favorable genetic endowment and optimal environmental conditions.

PURPOSE

To compare the demographics of elite Ethiopian athletes with the general Ethiopian population and assess the validity of reports linking running long distances to school with endurance success.

METHODS

Questionnaires, administered to 114 members (male and female) of the Ethiopian national athletics team and 111 Ethiopian control subjects (C) obtained information on place of birth, language, distance and method of travel to school. Athletes were separated into three groups according to athletic discipline: marathon (M; N = 34); 5,000-10,000 m (5-10 km; N = 42); and other track and field athletes (TF; N = 38). Frequency differences between groups were assessed using contingency chi-square tests.

RESULTS

Regional distributions of marathon athletes differed from controls (P < 0.001) and track and field athletes (P = 0.013), but not the 5- to 10-km athletes (P = 0.21). The 5- to 10-km athletes also differed from controls (P < 0.001). Marathon athletes exhibited excess from the regions of Arsi and Shewa (M: 73%; 5-10 km: 43%; TF: 29%; C: 15%). The language distribution of marathon athletes differed from all groups (P < 0.001), with a predominance of languages of Cushitic origin (M: 75%, 5-10 km: 52%, TF: 46%, C: 30%). A higher proportion of marathon athletes ran to school (M: 68%; 5-10 km: 31%; TF: 16%; C: 24%) and traveled greater distances.

CONCLUSION

Elite endurance athletes are of a distinct environmental background in terms of geographical distribution, ethnicity, and also having generally traveled farther to school, often by running. These findings may reflect both environmental and genetic influences on athletic success in Ethiopian endurance athletes.

East African running dominance revisited: a role for stereotype threat?

Regardless of the possible existence of physiological advantages in East African runners, belief that such differences exist creates a psychological atmosphere that can have significant consequences on performance. This is known as stereotype threat and can feature in many sports.

Nurturing sport expertise: factors influencing the development of elite athlete

The development of expertise in sport is the result of successful interaction of biological, psychological, and sociological constraints. This review examines the training and environmental factors that influence the acquisition of sport expertise. Research examining the quality and quantity of training indicate that these two elements are crucial predictors of attainment. In addition, the possession of resources such as parental support and adequate coaching are essential. Social factors such as cultural influences and the relative age effect are also considered as determinants of sport expertise. Although it is evident that environmental factors are essential to the acquisition of high levels of sport development, further research is clearly required.

Training and bioenergetic characteristics in elite male and female Kenyan runners

PURPOSE

This study compares the training characteristics and the physical profiles of top-class male and female Kenyan long-distance runners.

METHOD

The subjects were 20 elite Kenyan runners: 13 men (10-km performance time: 10-km performance time of 28 min, 36 s +/- 18 s) and 7 women (32 min, 32 s +/- 65 s). The male runners were separated into high-speed training runners (HST: N = 6) and low-speed training runners (LST: N = 7) depending on whether they train at speeds equal or higher than those associated with the maximal oxygen uptake (vVO2max ). All but one woman were high-speed training runners (female HST: N = 6). Subjects performed an incremental test on a 400-m track to determine VO2max, vVO2max, and the velocity at the lactate threshold (vLT).

RESULTS

Within each gender among the HST group, 10-km performance time was inversely correlated with vVO2max (rho = -0.86, P = 0.05, and rho = -0.95, P = 0.03, for men and women, respectively). HST male runners had a higher VO2max, a lower (but not significantly) fraction of vVO2max (FVO2max ) at the lactate threshold, and a higher energy cost of running (ECR). Among men, the weekly training distance at vVO2max explained 59% of the variance of vVO2max, and vVO2max explained 52% of the variance of 10-km performance time. Kenyan women had a high VO2max and FVO2max at vLT that was lower than their male HST counterparts. ECR was not significantly different between genders.

CONCLUSION

The velocity at the VO2max is the main factor predicting the variance of the 10-km performance both in men and women, and high-intensity training contributes to this higher VO2max among men.