Effects of D-allulose on glucose tolerance and insulin response to a standard oral sucrose load: results of a prospective, randomized, crossover study

D-allulose enhances lipid oxidation in HepG2 cells via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα)

Lipid accumulation in hepatocytes in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is attributed partly to loss of insulin-responsiveness and/or an increased pro-inflammatory state. Since the rare sugar D-allulose has insulin mimetic and anti-inflammatory properties, its effects on lipid accumulation in liver-derived cells was tested. In HepG2 cells exposed to 200 μM oleic acid for 72 h, D-allulose treatment decreased intracellular lipid accumulation with an IC50 = 0.45 ± 0.07 mM. A similar effect was observed in cells treated with 10 μM gemfibrozil. D-allulose and gemfibrozil treatment increased oleic acid β-oxidation. Both D-allulose and gemfibrozil increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) expression (two-fold) relative to control cells, while retinoid X receptor was unchanged. D-allulose and gemfibrozil increased PPARα-dependent genes including those involved in fatty acid β-oxidation (acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1, long-chain-fatty-acid-coenzyme A ligase 5, and carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 A). D-allulose and gemfibrozil also increased PPARα reporter gene expression and phosphorylation (Serine 12) which were both inhibited by the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase inhibitor PD098059. Other MAP kinase inhibitors, including SB203580, SP600125, and BIX10289 had no effect on reporter gene expression. Oleic acid treatment, but not D-allulose or gemfibrozil, decreased sterol response element binding protein 1 and sterol response element binding protein 2 expression relative to cells not exposed to oleic acid, while peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ expression did not change. These results indicate that D-alluose mimics gemfibrozil effects on lipid content in HepG2 cells by promoting fatty acid β-oxidation via PPARα .

Pathway Analysis of Allulose as a Sugar Substitute in Mitigating Thrombotic Risks in Sickle Cell Disease Patients

Long-term consumption of erythritol, a widely used sugar substitute, has been associated with increased risks of thrombosis and cardiometabolic diseases. In this study, we investigated the effects and mechanisms of allulose in mitigating these risks compared to erythritol using the clusterProfiler tool in R (version 4.12.6). Since a high-fat diet (HFD) is known to enhance platelet aggregation, we compared the pathways related to these processes between groups of mice treated with allulose and those treated with erythritol. While erythritol exacerbated HFD-induced increased platelet aggregation, allulose treatment significantly reduced it. Further analysis of platelet gene expression in sickle cell disease (SCD) patients to explore the potential of using sugar substitutes revealed that platelet coagulation mechanisms could be exacerbated by HFD. Additionally, the top up- and downregulated pathways in SCD were significantly reduced in the allulose-treated group compared to the erythritol group. Specific mechanisms related to this include the mitochondrial complex I and mitochondrial translational process as potential pathological factors in platelet coagulation related to SCD. Therefore, this study demonstrates that allulose may offer a safer alternative to erythritol in dietary applications, especially in individuals susceptible to thrombotic events, by modulating critical pathways associated with platelet function and mitochondrial activity.

Impact of allulose on blood glucose in type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis of clinical trials

Objective

This meta-analysis aims to evaluate the impact of allulose on blood glucose levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Primary outcomes include postprandial blood glucose, while secondary outcomes are time in range (TIR), time above range (TAR), fasting plasma glucose (FPG), and insulin area under the curve (AUC).

Methods

A systematic search was conducted across PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane Library until May 20, 2024. Randomized controlled trials assessing the effect of allulose on glycemic parameters in T2DM patients were included. Data were synthesized using a random-effects meta-analysis model, and the quality of studies was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool.

Results

Six studies involving 126 participants were included. Allulose significantly reduced glucose AUC (SMD: -0.6662, 95 % CI [-1.1360, -0.1964], p = 0.0054) with moderate heterogeneity (I2 = 58.3 %). Insulin AUC showed a non-significant reduction (SMD: -0.3648, 95 % CI [-0.7783, 0.0488], p = 0.0839). FPG demonstrated a non-significant reduction (MD: -5.8925, 95 % CI [-20.4892, 8.7043], p = 0.4288), while TAR significantly decreased (MD: -8.8204, 95 % CI [-14.4101, -3.2307], p = 0.0020). No significant changes were observed in TIR (MD: 7.1211, 95 % CI [-1.6028, 15.8450], p = 0.1096).

Conclusion

Allulose demonstrated a significant reduction in postprandial glucose levels and TAR, supporting its role as a dietary intervention for glycemic control in T2DM patients. The findings are robust, though further research is needed to confirm its long-term effects on insulin sensitivity and metabolic health.

Gut Microbial Utilization of the Alternative Sweetener, D-Allulose, via AlsE

D-allulose, a rare sugar with emerging potential as a low-calorie sweetener, has garnered attention as an alternative to other commercially available alternative sweeteners, such as sugar alcohols, which often cause severe gastrointestinal discomfort. D-allulose-6-phosphate 3-epimerase (AlsE) is a prokaryotic enzyme that converts D-allulose-6-phosphate into D-fructose-6-phopshate, enabling its use as a carbon source. However, the taxonomic breadth of AlsE across gut bacteria remains poorly understood, hindering insights into the utilization of D-allulose by microbial communities. In this study, we provide experimental evidence showing that Clostridium innocuum is capable of D-allulose metabolism via a homologous AlsE. A bioinformatics search of 85,202 bacterial genomes identified 116 bacterial species with AlsE homologs, suggesting a limited distribution of AlsE in bacteria. Additionally, Escherichia coli contains a copy of alsE , but it does not grow on D-allulose as a sole carbon source unless alsE is heterologously expressed. A metagenomic analysis revealed that 15.8% of 3,079 adult healthy human metagenomic samples that we analyzed contained alsE , suggesting a limited prevalence of the enzyme in the gut microbiome. These results suggest that the gut microbiome has limited capacity to metabolize D-allulose via alsE , supporting its use as an alternative sweetener with minimal impact on microbial composition and gastrointestinal symptoms. This finding also enables personalized nutrition, allowing diabetic individuals to assess their gut microbiota for alsE , and manage glycemic response while reducing gastrointestinal distress.

Advances in the biosynthesis of D-allulose

D-allulose is a rare monosaccharide and a C-3 epimer of D-fructose. It has physiological functions, such as antihyperglycemic, obesity-preventing, neuroprotective, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging effects, making it an ideal sugar substitute. The synthesis methods for D-allulose include chemical synthesis and biosynthesis. Chemical synthesis requires strict reaction conditions and tends to produce byproducts. Biosynthesis is mainly an enzymatic process. Enzymatic catalysis for the conversion of starch or glycerol to D-allulose is performed mainly by enzymes such as isoamylase (IA), glucose isomerase (GI), D-allulose 3-epimerase (DPE), D-allulose-6-phosphate 3-epimerase (A6PE), D-allulose 6-phosphate phosphatase (A6PP), ribitol 2-dehydrogenase (RDH), glycerophosphate kinase (GK), glycerophosphate oxidase (GPO), and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)-dependent aldolase. Biosynthesis is a more energy-efficient process, producing fewer harmful by-products and pollutants, and significantly reducing negative environmental impacts. Furthermore, the specific catalytic activity of enzymes facilitates the production of compounds of higher purity, thereby facilitating the isolation and purification of the products. It has thus become the main method for producing D-allulose. This article reviews the progress in research on the biosynthetic production of D-allulose, focusing on the enzymes involved and their enzymatic properties, and discusses the production prospects for D-allulose.

Sugar or Sweetener?

Human beings have a natural craving for sweets. The intensity of this craving varies with genetic and environmental factors; however, excessive use of table sugar has been associated with adverse health outcomes, including increased risk of obesity, diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease. As such, the World Health Organization has called for restricting sugar consumption to less than 5% of total energy intake. For those who have a "sweet tooth," implementing these guidelines is not easy. Hence, the interest in alternative sweeteners. There are eight high-intensity sweeteners that are either approved by the Food and Drug Administration or designated as generally regarded to be safe. The safety of the currently available sweeteners has been questioned. Large cohort studies have reported a positive correlation between sweetener use with weight gain and metabolic risk. A recent meta-analysis, however, concluded that using low- or no-calorie sweetener was associated with small improvements in body weight and cardiometabolic risk factors without evidence of harm. Nevertheless, the World Health Organization advises against the use of nonsugar sweeteners. The biological effects of natural sweeteners such as steviol, monk fruit extract, tagatose, allulose, and sweet proteins (eg, brazzien, miraculin, thaumatin) are not well studied. Eating less sugar is a prudent thing to do, but for people with diabetes mellitus and those at risk of diabetes mellitus, diversifying the type of the sweetener and limiting the quantity may be reasonable.

The Effect of Allulose on the Attenuation of Glucose Release from Rice in a Static In Vitro Digestion Model

Allulose is a rare sugar that provides <10% of the energy but 70% of the sweetness of sucrose. Allulose has been shown to attenuate glycemic responses to carbohydrate-containing foods in vivo. This study aimed to determine the optimal allulose dose for minimizing in vitro glucose release from rice compared to a rice control and fructose. A triphasic static in vitro digestion method was used to evaluate the in vitro digestion of a rice control compared to the co-digestion of rice with allulose (10 g, 20 g, and 40 g) and fructose (40 g). In vitro glucose release was affected by treatment (p < 0.001), time (p < 0.001), and treatment-by-time interaction (p = 0.002). Allulose (40 g) resulted in a reduction in in vitro glucose release from rice alone and rice digested with allulose (10 g), allulose (20 g), and fructose. The incremental area under the curve (iAUC) for in vitro glucose release was lower after allulose (40 g) (p = 0.005) compared to rice control and allulose (10 g) but did not differ from allulose (20 g) or fructose. This study demonstrates that allulose reduces glucose release from carbohydrates, particularly at higher doses, underscoring its potential as a food ingredient with functional benefits.

D-allulose 3-epimerase for low-calorie D-allulose synthesis: microbial production, characterization, and applications

D-allulose, an epimer of D-fructose at C-3 position, is a low-calorie rare sugar with favorable physiochemical properties and special physiological functions, which displays promising perspectives in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Currently, D-allulose is extremely sparse in nature and is predominantly biosynthesized through the isomerization of D-fructose by D-allulose 3-epimerase (DAEase). In recent years, D-allulose 3-epimerase as the key biocatalyst for D-allulose production has received increasing interest. The current review begins by providing a summary of D-allulose regarding its characteristics and applications, as well as different synthesis pathways dominated by biotransformation. Then, the research advances of D-allulose 3-epimerase are systematically reviewed, focusing on heterologous expression and biochemical characterization, crystal structure and molecular modification, and application in D-allulose production. Concerning the constraint of low yield of DAEase for industrial application, this review addresses the various attempts made to promote the production of DAEase in different expression systems. Also, various strategies have been adopted to improve its thermotolerance and catalytic activity, which is mainly based on the structure-function relationship of DAEase. The application of DAEase in D-allulose biosynthesis from D-fructose or low-cost feedstocks through single- or multi-enzymatic cascade reaction has been discussed. Finally, the prospects for related research of D-allulose 3-epimerase are also proposed, facilitating the industrialization of DAEase and more efficient and economical bioproduction of D-allulose.

The Metabolic and Endocrine Effects of a 12-Week Allulose-Rich Diet

The global rise in type 2 diabetes (T2D) and obesity necessitates innovative dietary interventions. This study investigates the effects of allulose, a rare sugar shown to reduce blood glucose, in a rat model of diet-induced obesity and T2D. Over 12 weeks, we hypothesized that allulose supplementation would improve body weight, insulin sensitivity, and glycemic control. Our results showed that allulose mitigated the adverse effects of high-fat, high-sugar diets, including reduced body weight gain and improved insulin resistance. The allulose group exhibited lower food consumption and increased levels of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), enhancing glucose regulation and appetite control. Additionally, allulose prevented liver triglyceride accumulation and promoted mitochondrial uncoupling in adipose tissue. These findings suggest that allulose supplementation can improve metabolic health markers, making it a promising dietary component for managing obesity and T2D. Further research is needed to explore the long-term benefits and mechanisms of allulose in metabolic disease prevention and management. This study supports the potential of allulose as a safe and effective intervention for improving metabolic health in the context of dietary excess.

Enhancing the stability of a novel D-allulose 3-epimerase from Ruminococcus sp. CAG55 by interface interaction engineering and terminally attached a self-assembling peptide

D-allulose, a highly desirable sugar substitute, is primarily produced using the D-allulose 3-epimerase (DAE). However, the availability of usable DAE enzymes is limited. In this study, we discovered and engineered a novel DAE Rum55, derived from a human gut bacterium Ruminococcus sp. CAG55. The activity of Rum55 was strictly dependent on the presence of Co2+, and it exhibited an equilibrium conversion rate of 30.6 % and a half-life of 4.5 h at 50 °C. To enhance its performance, we engineered the interface interaction of Rum55 to stabilize its tetramer structure, and the best variant E268R was then attached with a self-assembling peptide to form active enzyme aggregates as carrier-free immobilization. The half-life of the best variant E268R-EKL16 at 50 °C was dramatically increased 30-fold to 135.3 h, and it maintained 90 % of its activity after 13 consecutive reaction cycles. Additionally, we identified that metal ions played a key role in stabilizing the tetramer structure of Rum55, and the dependence on metal ions for E268R-EKL16 was significantly reduced. This study provides a useful route for improving the thermostability of DAEs, opening up new possibilities for the industrial production of D-allulose.

D-Allulose Reduces Hypertrophy and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Induced by Palmitic Acid in Murine 3T3-L1 Adipocytes

Natural rare sugars are an alternative category of sweeteners with positive physiologic and metabolic effects both in in vitro and animal models. D-allulose is a D-fructose epimer that combines 70% sucrose sweetness with the advantage of an extremely low energy content. However, there are no data about the effect of D-allulose against adipose dysfunction; thus, it remains to be confirmed whether D-allulose is useful in the prevention and in treatment of adipose tissue alterations. With this aim, we evaluated D-allulose's preventive effects on lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 murine adipocytes exposed to palmitic acid (PA), a trigger for hypertrophic adipocytes. D-allulose in place of glucose prevented adipocyte hypertrophy and the activation of adipogenic markers C/EBP-β and PPARγ induced by high PA concentrations. Additionally, D-allulose pretreatment inhibited the NF-κB pathway and endoplasmic reticulum stress caused by PA, through activation of the Nrf2 pathway. Interestingly, these effects were also observed as D-allulose post PA treatment. Although our data need to be confirmed through in vivo models, our findings suggest that incorporating D-allulose as a glucose substitute in the diet might have a protective role in adipocyte function and support a unique mechanism of action in this sugar as a preventive or therapeutic compound against PA lipotoxicity through the modulation of pathways connected to lipid transport and metabolism.

Allulose mitigates chronic enteritis by reducing mitochondria dysfunction via regulating cathepsin B production

Metabolic changes have been linked to the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes colitis. Allulose, an endogenous bioactive monosaccharide, is vital to the synthesis of numerous compounds and metabolic processes within living organisms. Nevertheless, the precise biochemical mechanism by which allulose inhibits colitis remains unknown. Allulose is an essential and intrinsic protector of the intestinal mucosal barrier, as it maintains the integrity of tight junctions in the intestines, according to the current research. It is also important to know that there is a link between the severity of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colorectal cancer (CRC), chemically-induced colitis in rodents, and lower levels of allulose in the blood. Mice with colitis, either caused by dextran sodium sulphate (DSS) or naturally occurring colitis in IL-10-/- mice, had less damage to their intestinal mucosa after being given allulose. Giving allulose to a colitis model starts a chain of reactions because it stops cathepsin B from ejecting and helps lysosomes stick together. This system effectively stops the activity of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) when intestinal epithelial damage happens. This stops the breakdown of tight junction integrity and the start of mitochondrial dysfunction. To summarise, the study's findings have presented data that supports the advantageous impact of allulose in reducing the advancement of colitis. Its ability to stop the disruption of the intestinal barrier enables this. Therefore, allulose has potential as a medicinal supplement for treating colitis.

Metabolic Effects of Selected Conventional and Alternative Sweeteners: A Narrative Review

Sugar consumption is known to be associated with a whole range of adverse health effects, including overweight status and type II diabetes mellitus. In 2015, the World Health Organization issued a guideline recommending the reduction of sugar intake. In this context, alternative sweeteners have gained interest as sugar substitutes to achieve this goal without loss of the sweet taste. This review aims to provide an overview of the scientific literature and establish a reference tool for selected conventional sweeteners (sucrose, glucose, and fructose) and alternative sweeteners (sucralose, xylitol, erythritol, and D-allulose), specifically focusing on their important metabolic effects. The results show that alternative sweeteners constitute a diverse group, and each substance exhibits one or more metabolic effects. Therefore, no sweetener can be considered to be inert. Additionally, xylitol, erythritol, and D-allulose seem promising as alternative sweeteners due to favorable metabolic outcomes. These alternative sweeteners replicate the benefits of sugars (e.g., sweetness and gastrointestinal hormone release) while circumventing the detrimental effects of these substances on human health.

D-Allulose Ameliorates Dysregulated Macrophage Function and Mitochondrial NADH Homeostasis, Mitigating Obesity-Induced Insulin Resistance

D-allulose, a rare sugar, has been proposed to have potential benefits in addressing metabolic disorders such as obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, the precise mechanisms underlying these effects remain poorly understood. We aimed to elucidate the mechanisms by which D-allulose influences obesity-induced insulin resistance. We conducted gene set enrichment analysis on the liver and white adipose tissue of mice exposed to a high-fat diet (HFD) along with the white adipose tissue of individuals with obesity. Our study revealed that D-allulose effectively suppressed IFN-γ, restored chemokine signaling, and enhanced macrophage function in the livers of HFD-fed mice. This implies that D-allulose curtails liver inflammation, alleviating insulin resistance and subsequently impacting adipose tissue. Furthermore, D-allulose supplementation improved mitochondrial NADH homeostasis and translation in both the liver and white adipose tissue of HFD-fed mice. Notably, we observed decreased NADH homeostasis and mitochondrial translation in the omental tissue of insulin-resistant obese subjects compared to their insulin-sensitive counterparts. Taken together, these results suggest that supplementation with allulose improves obesity-induced insulin resistance by mitigating the disruptions in macrophage and mitochondrial function. Furthermore, our data reinforce the crucial role that mitochondrial energy expenditure plays in the development of insulin resistance triggered by obesity.

Metabolic Effects and Safety Aspects of Acute D-allulose and Erythritol Administration in Healthy Subjects

The rapid increase in sugar consumption is associated with various negative metabolic and inflammatory effects; therefore, alternative sweeteners become of interest. The aim of this study was to investigate the metabolic effects and safety aspects of acute D-allulose and erythritol on glucose, insulin, ghrelin, blood lipids, uric acid, and high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP). In three study visits, 18 healthy subjects received an intragastric administration of 25 g D-allulose or 50 g erythritol, or 300 mL tap water (placebo) in a randomized, double-blind and crossover order. To measure the aforementioned parameters, blood samples were drawn at fixed time intervals. Glucose and insulin concentrations were lower after D-allulose compared to tap water (p = 0.001, dz = 0.91 and p = 0.005, dz = 0.58, respectively); however, Bayesian models show no difference for insulin in response to D-allulose compared to tap water, and there was no effect after erythritol. An exploratory analysis showed that ghrelin concentrations were reduced after erythritol compared to tap water (p = 0.026, dz = 0.59), with no effect after D-allulose; in addition, both sweeteners had no effect on blood lipids, uric acid and hsCRP. This combination of properties identifies both sweeteners as excellent candidates for effective and safe sugar alternatives.

A Systematic Review of Literature on the Representation of Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups in Clinical Nutrition Interventions

The racial and ethnic disparities in diet-related chronic diseases are major concerns. This systematic review examines the extent to which diet-induced changes in health outcomes, such as cardiometabolic, inflammation, cancer, bone health, and kidney function outcomes, etc., have been reported and discussed by race or ethnicity in randomized trials with 2 or more diet arms that recruited both minority and non-Hispanic White groups. Databases (i.e., PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science) were searched up to August 2021. Thirty-four studies that discussed effects of defined dietary interventions on health outcomes by racial or ethnic minority group compared with non-Hispanic Whites were included in the systematic review (PROSPERO registration number: CRD42021229256). Acute trials and those with 1 diet arm that accounted for race or ethnicity in their analyses and studies that focused on a single racial or ethnic group were discussed separately. Most studies were conducted in Black compared with White adults testing effects of energy restriction, macronutrient modification, sodium reduction, or variations of the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet on cardiometabolic outcomes. There was limited focus on other minority groups. Evidence suggests greater blood pressure reduction for Black adults compared with Whites particularly with DASH (or similar) diets. Overall, there was limited consideration for group-specific eating patterns and diet acceptability. Overall risk of bias was low. With emerging precision nutrition initiatives that aim to optimize metabolic responses in population subgroups through tailored approaches, it is imperative to ensure adequate representation of racial and ethnic subgroups for addressing health disparities. Factors that help explain variability in responses such as socioecological context should be included and adequately powered. Given the racial and ethnic disparities in chronic diseases, studying the adoption, maintenance, and effectiveness of dietary interventions on health outcomes among different groups is critical for developing approaches that can mitigate diet-related health disparities.

Allulose in human diet: the knowns and the unknowns

D-Allulose, also referred to as psicose, is a C3-epimer of D-fructose used as a sugar substitute in low energy products. It can be formed naturally during processing of food and drinks containing sucrose and fructose or is prepared by chemical synthesis or via enzymatic treatment with epimerases from fructose. Estimated intakes via Western style diets including sweetened beverages are below 500 mg per d but, when used as a sugar replacement, intake may reach 10 to 30 g per d depending on the food consumed. Due to its structural similarity with fructose, allulose uses the same transport and distribution pathways. But in contrast to fructose, the human genome does not encode for enzymes that are able to metabolise allulose leading to an almost complete renal excretion of the absorbed dose and near-to-zero energetic yield. However, in vitro studies have shown that certain bacteria such as Klebsiella pneumonia are able to utilise allulose as a substrate. This finding has been a subject of concern, since Klebsiella pneumoniae represents an opportunistic human pathogen. It therefore raised the question of whether a high dietary intake of allulose may cause an undesirable growth advantage for potentially harmful bacteria at mucosal sites such as the intestine or at systemic sites following invasive infection. In this brief review, we discuss the current state of science on these issues and define the research needs to better understand the fate of allulose and its metabolic and microbiological effects when ingested as a sugar substitute.

A pilot study on the effect of D-allulose on postprandial glucose levels in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus during Ramadan fasting

BACKGROUND

During Ramadan fasting, postprandial hyperglycemia is commonly observed after iftar (break of fast at sunset) meal. D-allulose is a rare sugar and is reported to have several health benefits, including the suppression of increase in postprandial glucose levels. This study investigates whether D-allulose (a C-3 epimer of D-fructose) improves the postprandial glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) during Ramadan.

METHODS

This was a pilot, prospective single-arm study design that was conducted for 10 consecutive days; 5 days of control and 5 days of consumption. The primary outcome was postprandial peak glucose levels. During the consumption period, 8.5 g of D-allulose was consumed by the participants before iftar meal. Postprandial glucose was measured using a continuous glucose monitoring system.

RESULTS

A total of 12 participants completed the study. Significant lower (p < 0.01) postprandial glucose values and the glucose incremental area under the curve (iAUC) were observed from 0 to 180 min during the consumption period compared to the control period. The consumption period demonstrated significantly higher percentages of time in which glucose values were found in the target range (p = 0.0032), and when the glucose levels above the target range were reduced (p = 0.0015).

CONCLUSIONS

The supplementation with D-allulose has the potential to improve postprandial hyperglycemia in patients with T2DM after iftar during Ramadan. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05071950. Retrospectively registered, 8 October 2021.

The Role of D-allulose and Erythritol on the Activity of the Gut Sweet Taste Receptor and Gastrointestinal Satiation Hormone Release in Humans: A Randomized, Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Glucose induces the release of gastrointestinal (GI) satiation hormones, such as glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and peptide tyrosine tyrosine (PYY), in part via the activation of the gut sweet taste receptor (T1R2/T1R3).

OBJECTIVES

The primary objective was to investigate the importance of T1R2/T1R3 for the release of cholecystokinin (CCK), GLP-1, and PYY in response to D-allulose and erythritol by assessing the effect of the T1R2/T1R3 antagonist lactisole on these responses and as secondary objectives to study the effect of the T1R2/T1R3 blockade on gastric emptying, appetite-related sensations, and GI symptoms.

METHODS

In this randomized, controlled, double-blind, crossover study, 18 participants (5 men) with a mean ± SD BMI (in kg/m2) of 21.9 ± 1.7 and aged 24 ± 4 y received an intragastric administration of 25 g D-allulose, 50 g erythritol, or tap water, with or without 450 parts per million (ppm) lactisole, respectively, in 6 different sessions. 13C-sodium acetate was added to all solutions to determine gastric emptying. At fixed time intervals, blood and breath samples were collected, and appetite-related sensations and GI symptoms were assessed. Data were analyzed with linear mixed-model analysis.

RESULTS

D-allulose and erythritol induced a significant release of CCK, GLP-1, and PYY compared with tap water (all PHolm < 0.0001, dz >1). Lactisole did not affect the D-allulose- and erythritol-induced release of CCK, GLP-1, and PYY (all PHolm > 0.1). Erythritol significantly delayed gastric emptying, increased fullness, and decreased prospective food consumption compared with tap water (PHolm = 0.0002, dz = -1.05; PHolm = 0.0190, dz = 0.69; and PHolm = 0.0442, dz = -0.62, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

D-allulose and erythritol stimulate the secretion of GI satiation hormones in humans. Lactisole had no effect on CCK, GLP-1, and PYY release, indicating that D-allulose- and erythritol-induced GI satiation hormone release is not mediated via T1R2/T1R3 in the gut.

Caloric Restriction Mimetics in Nutrition and Clinical Trials

The human diet and dietary patterns are closely linked to the health status. High-calorie Western-style diets have increasingly come under scrutiny as their caloric load and composition contribute to the development of non-communicable diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, obesity, and cardiovascular disorders. On the other hand, calorie-reduced and health-promoting diets have shown promising results in maintaining health and reducing disease burden throughout aging. More recently, pharmacological Caloric Restriction Mimetics (CRMs) have gained interest of the public and scientific community as promising candidates that mimic some of the myriad of effects induced by caloric restriction. Importantly, many of the CRM candidates activate autophagy, prolong life- and healthspan in model organisms and ameliorate diverse disease symptoms without the need to cut calories. Among others, glycolytic inhibitors (e.g., D-allulose, D-glucosamine), hydroxycitric acid, NAD+ precursors, polyamines (e.g., spermidine), polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol, dimethoxychalcones, curcumin, EGCG, quercetin) and salicylic acid qualify as CRM candidates, which are naturally available via foods and beverages. However, it is yet unclear how these bioactive substances contribute to the benefits of healthy diets. In this review, we thus discuss dietary sources, availability and intake levels of dietary CRMs. Finally, since translational research on CRMs has entered the clinical stage, we provide a summary of their effects in clinical trials.