Working from home in Australia during the COVID-19 pandemic: cross-sectional results from the Employees Working From Home (EWFH) study

Education and pandemic SARS-CoV-2 infections in the German working population - the mediating role of working from home

OBJECTIVES

SARS-CoV-2 infections were unequally distributed during the pandemic, with those in disadvantaged socioeconomic positions being at higher risk. Little is known about the underlying mechanism of this association. This study assessed to what extent educational differences in SARS-CoV-2 infections were mediated by working from home.

METHODS

We used data of the German working population derived from the seroepidemiological study "Corona Monitoring Nationwide - Wave 2 (RKI-SOEP-2)" (N=6826). Infections were assessed by seropositivity against SARS-CoV-2 antigens and self-reports of previous PCR-confirmed infections from the beginning of the pandemic until study participation (November 2021 - February 2022). The frequency of working from home was assessed between May 2021 and January 2022.We used the Karlson-Holm-Breen (KHB) method to decompose the effect of education on SARS-CoV-2 infections.

RESULTS

Individuals with lower educational attainment had a higher risk for SARS-CoV-2 infection (adjusted prevalence ratio of low versus very high = 1.76, 95% confidence interval 1.08-2.88; P=0.023). Depending on the level of education, between 27% (high education) and 58% (low education) of the differences in infection were mediated by the frequency of working from home.

CONCLUSIONS

Working from home could prevent SARS-CoV-2 infections and contribute to the explanation of socioeconomic inequalities in infection risks. Wherever possible, additional capacities to work remotely, particularly for occupations that require lower educational attainment, should be considered as an important measure of pandemic preparedness. Limitations of this study are the observational cross-sectional design and that the temporal order between infection and working from home remained unclear.

The effect of preference and actual days spent working from home on stress and musculoskeletal pain in older workers

OBJECTIVES

The rapid shift to working from home (WFH) due to the COVID-19 pandemic provided a unique opportunity to examine the relationship between preferred and actual days spent working from home on employees musculoskeletal pain (MSP) and stress in older workers.

METHODS

This study uses three waves of data from the Employees Working from Home (EWFH) study collected in May 2021 (n = 451), November 2021 (n = 358) and May 2022 (n = 320) during the COVID-19 pandemic. A generalised mixed-effect model was used to model the relationships between preference and actual days spent WFH, stress and MSP. Exploratory mediation analysis was conducted to further explore significant relationships between actual days WFH and outcomes.

RESULTS

WFH was associated with increasing stress levels in older participants, when the actual number of days WFH increased (B: 0.051, 95% CI: 0.008, 0.094) and when the number of days WFH exceeded their preferences (B: 0.218, 95% CI: 0.087, 0.349). Actual number of days spent WFH and stress in older employees was mediated through their sense of community (Indirect effect: 0.014, 95% CI: 0.003, 0.03; p = 0.006). The relationship between WFH and MSP was variable. For older employees, WFH more than their preferred number of days was associated with a higher likelihood of reporting MSP (OR: 4.070, 95% CI: 1.204, 13.757).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings from this study support the need for flexible policies to support WFH which take into account employees preferences. For older workers, a sense of community was found to be important and proactive attempts to restore this will be important for maintain their health and supporting sustainable employment.

Do work-family conflict or family-work conflict mediate relationships between work-related hazards and stress and pain?

INTRODUCTION

Previous research has identified associations between work-family conflict (WFC) and health outcomes (e.g., musculoskeletal pain). This study investigated whether WFC and family-work conflict explain relationships between exposure to work-related hazards and musculoskeletal pain and stress for workers undertaking some or all of their work at home. Possible differences by home workspace location were also explored.

METHODS

Longitudinal survey data were collected from workers in Australia engaged in work from home for at least two days per week. Data was collected at four timepoints approximately 6 months apart (Baseline [October 2020] n = 897; Wave 1 [May/June 2021] n = 368; Wave 2 [October/November 2021] n = 336; Wave 3 [May 2022] n = 269). Subjective measures of work-related psychosocial hazards, occupational sitting and physical activity, musculoskeletal pain, and stress were collected via an online questionnaire. Mediation analyses were conducted using the R package "mediation." Analyses were also conducted with the data set stratified by home office location, using R version 4.1.3.

RESULTS

Both WFC and family-work conflict acted as mediators between psychosocial work-related hazards and musculoskeletal pain and stress. WFC mediated more relationships than family-work conflict. Location of home workspace was important, particularly for those working in a space at home where they may be subject to interruptions.

CONCLUSION

Addressing WFC is a legitimate means through which musculoskeletal pain and stress can be reduced. Organizational risk management strategies need to address all work-related risks, including those stemming from work-life interaction.

Teleworking and Musculoskeletal Disorders: A Systematic Review

Teleworking has spread drastically during the COVID-19 pandemic, but its effect on musculo-skeletal disorders (MSD) remains unclear. We aimed to make a qualitative systematic review on the effect of teleworking on MSD. Following the PRISMA guidelines, several databases were searched using strings based on MSD and teleworking keywords. A two-step selection process was used to select relevant studies and a risk of bias assessment was made. Relevant variables were extracted from the articles included, with a focus on study design, population, definition of MSD, confounding factors, and main results. Of 205 studies identified, 25 were included in the final selection. Most studies used validated questionnaires to assess MSD, six considered confounders extensively, and seven had a control group. The most reported MSD were lower back and neck pain. Some studies found increased prevalence or pain intensity, while others did not. Risk of bias was high, with only 5 studies with low/probably low risk of bias. Conflicting results on the effect of teleworking on MSD were found, though an increase in MSD related to organizational and ergonomic factors seems to emerge. Future studies should focus on longitudinal approaches and consider ergonomic and work organization factors as well as socio-economic status.

Employees Working from Home: Do Leadership Factors Influence Work-Related Stress and Musculoskeletal Pain?

In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a rapid public health response, which included mandatory working from home (WFH) for many employees. However, given the rapid change from traditional ways of working, evidence is limited on the role of leaders, managers, and supervisors in supporting their employees' physical and mental health whilst WFH. The study aimed to examine the impact of leaders through their management of psychosocial working conditions on employees' stress and musculoskeletal pain (MSP) levels whilst WFH.

METHODS

Data from 965 participants (230 males, 729 females, 6 other) involved in the Employees Working from Home (EWFH) study, collected in October 2020, and April and November 2021, were analysed. Generalised mixed-effect models were used to test relationships between psychosocial leadership factors and employees' stress and MSP levels.

RESULTS

Higher quantitative demands are associated with increased stress (B: 0.289, 95%CI 0.245, 0.333), presence of MSP (OR: 2.397, 95%CI 1.809, 3.177), and increased MSP levels (RR: 1.09, 95%CI 1.04, 1.14). Higher levels of vertical trust decreased stress (B: -0.094, 95%CI -0.135, -0.052) and presence of MSP (OR: 0.729, 95%CI 0.557, 0.954). Role clarity decreased stress (B: -0.055, 95%CI -0.104, -0.007) and levels of MSP (RR: 0.93, 95%CI 0.89, 0.96). Working with interruptions was associated with increased stress (B: 0.199, 95%CI 0.119, 0.280) and MSP (OR: 1.834, 95%CI 1.094, 3.072).

CONCLUSION

Leaders will need to take a broad view of job design, taking into account physical and psychosocial aspects of work, to effectively support employees WFH and manage stress and MSP.

Working from home during the COVID 19 pandemic: a longitudinal examination of employees' sense of community and social support and impacts on self-rated health

BACKGROUND

The COVID 19 pandemic resulted in the introduction of public health measures including mandated and recommended work from home orders to reduce transmission. This provided a unique opportunity to examine sense of community and social support within the workplace and self-rated general health. This paper examines employees' workplace sense of community and social support across one year of the COVID 19 pandemic and associated self-rated general health.

METHODS

Analysis of longitudinal data (October 2020, May 2021, and November 2021) from the Employees Working from Home study conducted in Victoria, Australia during the COVID 19 pandemic was undertaken. Trajectory analyses were used to describe workplace sense of community and social support over time. Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine the associations between demographics, gender, caring responsibilities, and group membership based on the Growth Mixture Modelling. Generalised Mixed Models were used to measure effects of sense of community and social support on self-rated health.

RESULTS

Increasing sense of community and social support in the workplace resulted in increased self-rated health. Trajectory analysis found two stable and distinct groups for sense of community. Social support varied with time; however, trajectory membership was not dependent on gender or caring responsibilities and had no relationship with return to the office.

CONCLUSION

Sense of community and social support in the workplace are important determinants of employees' health, and as such, workplace strategies to improve sense of community and social support are required not only for employees working from home, but also those who have returned to the office, particularly as hybrid work arrangements become more common.

Mental and physical health and well-being of canadian employees who were working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic has drastically changed various aspects of our lives, including how we work. Since the start of the pandemic, numerous organizations in Canada have mandated their employees to work from home (WFH) on a full-time basis. The rapid rise in the number of remote workers and the possibility for WFH continuing in the future signifies the importance of understanding the health and well-being of employees working from home over the course of the pandemic in Canada. We present the findings of two surveys (initial and 6-month follow-up) to examine the health and well-being of WFH employees during the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada. We analyzed the changes in mental and physical health and well-being of employees who were working from home between two time points during the pandemic.

METHODS

Initial survey was completed between October 2020 and December 2020 (n = 1617); follow-up survey was completed between May 2021 and June 2021 (n = 382). We calculated the frequencies for survey questions involving demographics, WFH preferences, workstation setup training, employment situation, provision of hardware technologies, provision and usage of software technologies, and organization's return to work plan. We conducted Wilcoxon signed-rank tests to analyze the within-individual changes in mental and physical health and well-being of the 382 respondents who completed both the initial and follow-up surveys.

RESULTS

Our analyses showed significant changes in various aspects of employee mental and physical health and well-being. Burnout, stress, general mental health, and job insecurity levels significantly decreased between the two time periods. Work-related sedentary behaviour reduced over time; however, the average proportion of time spent sitting during work hours was more than 80% in both surveys. Employees received more help and feedback from their colleagues and experienced a better sense of community with their co-workers over time.

CONCLUSION

The findings can inform workers and organizations on the changes in mental and physical health and well-being of employees working from home during the pandemic. By understanding the changes in worker health and well-being, employers can develop effective strategies and implement policies that help protect employees' health and well-being.

Working From Home During COVID-19: Does Work-Family Conflict Mediate the Relationship Between Workplace Characteristics, Job Satisfaction, and General Health?

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study is to investigate whether work-family conflict and/or family-work conflict mediated the relationship between workplace characteristics and general health and job satisfaction in a sample of workers working from home in a recommended/mandatory context due to COVID-19 measures.

METHODS

Data were collected via online questionnaire as part of the Employees Working from Home study. Analyses in this article used data collected at 2 time points 6 months apart, including 965 complete responses from the first questionnaire and 451 complete responses from the second questionnaire.

RESULTS

Relationships between predictor and outcome variables were in the directions expected, and both work-family conflict and family-work conflict mediated these relationships.

CONCLUSIONS

Work-life interaction partly explains the relationship between work characteristics and general health and job satisfaction health in a population undertaking involuntary working from home.

Associations of Work-Family Conflict with Family-Specific, Work-Specific, and Well-Being-Related Variables in a Sample of Polish and Ukrainian Adults during the Second Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Sectional Study

The conflict between work and family demands increased during the COVID-19 pandemic due to changes in lifestyle related to the lockdown. This study examines the associations between work-family conflict (WFC) and family-work conflict (FWC) with work-specific, family-specific, and well-being-related variables during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. The results may be used in practice to improve the well-being of employees by adjusting home-based work and family areas of life to dynamic changes during the pandemic. The sample of 736 adults from Poland (53.26%) and Ukraine (46.74%), aged between 19 and 72 (M = 39.40; SD = 10.80), participated in the study. The cross-sectional study was performed using an online survey, including sociodemographic variables, measures of WFC, time pressure, remote work assessment (RWAS), physical health (GSRH), life satisfaction (SWLS), perceived stress (PSS-10), anxiety (GAD-7), and depression (PHQ-9). This study showed numerous inter-group differences in all variables across the country, gender, relationship status, parenthood, caring for children under 12, and remote working status. A high WFC is more likely among Polish workers (than Ukrainian workers), people with a low level of self-perceived time pressure, and high symptoms of stress. Caring for children under 12, low self-perceived time pressure, and high stress can predict FWC. Various paths lead from perceived stress via WFC and FWC, physical health, anxiety, and depression to life satisfaction, as suggested by the structural equation modeling analysis. Parents of children under 12 and women are the most vulnerable groups for increased WFC, FWC, and worse mental health and well-being. Prevention programs should focus on reducing stress, anxiety, and work demands in these adult populations. A unique contribution to the existing knowledge revealed patterns of associations between WFC and FWC in relation to well-being dimensions in a cross-cultural context during the pandemic.

Strategies to manage working from home during the pandemic: the employee experience

Many Australian workers were mandated to work from home during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using a qualitative approach, this study aimed to identify optimal work from home management strategies, by analysing the experience of Australian employees working from home (WFH) during this time. A purposive sample, drawn from the Australian Employees Working from Home Study, of managers and non-managers from a range of sectors, was invited to participate in focus groups. Data were analysed using thematic analysis and mapped to the work-systems framework approach to determine strategies implemented to support WFH. Most participants' experiences were more negative than positive, in part due to extreme lockdowns including curfews, with childcare and school closures compounding their WFH experiences. Effective workplace-initiated strategies to optimise WFH included: management support of flexible work hours; provision of necessary equipment with ICT support; regular online communication; performance management adjustments; and manager training.

Musculoskeletal pain trajectories of employees working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic

Objectives

In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated a rapid public health response which included mandatory working from home (WFH) for many employees. This study aimed to identify different trajectories of multisite musculoskeletal pain (MSP) amongst employees WFH during the COVID-19 pandemic and examined the influence of work and non-work factors.

Methods

Data from 488 participants (113 males, 372 females and 3 other) involved in the Employees Working from Home (EWFH) study, collected in October 2020, April and November 2021 were analysed. Age was categorised as 18–35 years (n = 121), 36–55 years (n = 289) and 56 years and over (n = 78). Growth Mixture Modelling (GMM) was used to identify latent classes with different growth trajectories of MSP. Age, gender, working hours, domestic living arrangements, workstation comfort and location, and psychosocial working conditions were considered predictors of MSP. Multivariate multinomial logistic regression was used to identify work and non-work variables associated with group membership.

Results

Four trajectories of MSP emerged: high stable (36.5%), mid-decrease (29.7%), low stable (22.3%) and rapid increase (11.5%). Decreased workstation comfort (OR 1.98, CI 1.02, 3.85), quantitative demands (OR 1.68, CI 1.09, 2.58), and influence over work (OR 0.78, CI 0.54, 0.98) was associated with being in the high stable trajectory group compared to low stable. Workstation location (OR 3.86, CI 1.19, 12.52) and quantitative work demands (OR 1.44, CI 1.01, 2.47) was associated with the rapid increase group.

Conclusions

Findings from this study offer insights into considerations for reducing MSP in employees WFH. Key considerations include the need for a dedicated workstation, attention to workstation comfort, quantitative work demands, and ensuring employees have influence over their work.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00420-022-01885-1.