Selective estrogen receptor modulators contribute to prostate cancer treatment by regulating the tumor immune microenvironment

Silencing SPP1 in M2 macrophages inhibits the progression of castration-resistant prostate cancer via the MMP9/TGFβ1 axis

Background

M2 macrophages can promote the progression of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), but the specific mechanism is still unclear. Therefore, we are preliminarily exploring the molecular mechanism by which M2 macrophages regulate the progression of CRPC.

Methods

The genes positively correlated with CRPC and with the most significant differences in the GEO32269 dataset were obtained. Database and immunofluorescence experiments were used to validate the localization of secreted phosphoprotein 1 (SPP1) in localized prostate cancer (PCa), hormone-sensitive prostate cancer (HSPC), and CRPC tumor tissues. The function of SPP1 in M2 macrophages was verified through cell scratch, Transwell, and an orthotopic PCa model. PCa database and Western blot were used to verify the relationship between SPP1 and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9), as well as the ability of MMP9 in M2 macrophages to promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in PCa cells.

Results

The primary localization of SPP1 in prostate and CRPC tissues is in macrophages. Silencing SPP1 expression in M2 macrophages promotes their polarization towards the M1 phenotype and significantly inhibits the malignant progression of PCa in vitro and in vivo. SPP1 promotes the expression of MMP9 through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in M2 macrophages. Furthermore, MMP9 enhances the EMT and migratory capabilities of PC3 cells by activating the TGFβ signaling pathway.

Conclusions

We have found that the high expression of SPP1 in M2 macrophages promotes the progression of CRPC through cell-cell interactions. These findings can contribute to the development of novel therapeutic approaches for combating this deadly disease.

Glyphosate Exposure Induces Cytotoxicity, Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Activation of ERα and ERβ Estrogen Receptors in Human Prostate PNT1A Cells

Glyphosate, the active ingredient of several broad-spectrum herbicides, is widely used throughout the world, although many adverse effects are known. Among these, it has been recognized as an endocrine disruptor. This work aimed to test the effects and potential endocrine disrupting action of glyphosate on PNT1A human prostate cells, an immortalized non-tumor epithelial cell line, possessing both ERα and ERβ estrogen receptors. The results showed that glyphosate induces cytotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and rapid activation of ERα and ERβ via nuclear translocation. Molecular analysis indicated a possible involvement of apoptosis in glyphosate-induced cytotoxicology. The apoptotic process could be attributed to alterations in mitochondrial metabolism; therefore, the main parameters of mitochondrial functionality were investigated using the Seahorse analyzer. Impaired mitochondrial function was observed in glyphosate-treated cells, with reductions in ATP production, spare respiratory capacity, and proton leakage, along with increased efficiency of mitochondrial coupling. Finally, the results of immunofluorescence analysis demonstrated that glyphosate acts as an estrogen disruptor determining the nuclear translocation of both ERs. Nuclear translocation occurred independent of dose, faster than the specific hormone, and persisted throughout treatment. In conclusion, the results collected show that in non-tumor prostate cells glyphosate can cause cell death and acts as a xenoestrogen, activating estrogen receptors. The consequent alteration of hormonal functions can have negative effects on the reproductive health of exposed animals, compromising their fertility.

Clinical value of molecular subtypes identification based on anoikis-related lncRNAs in castration-resistant prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Anoikis is a distinctive type of apoptosis. It is involved in tumor progression and metastasis. But its function in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) remains veiled. We aimed to develop a prognostic indicator based on anoikis-related long non-coding RNAs (arlncRNAs) and to investigate their biological function in CRPC.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Differentially expressed anoikis-related genes were extracted from two CRPC datasets, GSE51873, and GSE78201. Four lncRNAs associated with the anoikis-related genes were selected. A risk model based on these lncRNAs was developed and validated in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC) prostate cancer cohorts. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis, immune infiltration, immune checkpoints expression, and drug susceptibility were performed based on the model. To identify the biofunction of anoikis-related lncRNA, CCK-8 assays, colony formation assays, and flow cytometry were used.

RESULT

Twenty-nine anoikis-related genes were differentially expressed in the CRPC datasets. And 36 prognostic arlncRNAs were selected for the LASSO Cox analysis. Patients were subsequently classified into two subtypes by constructing an anoikis-related lncRNA based prognostic index (ARPI). The accuracy of this index was validated. KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that the high-ARPI group was enriched in cancer-related and immune-related pathways. Immune infiltration analysis has indicated a positive association between high-ARPI groups and increased immune infiltration. Fulvestrant, OSI-027, Lapatinib, Dabrafenib, and Palbociclib were identified as potential sensitive drugs for high-ARPI patients. In vitro experiments exhibited that silencing LINC01138 dampened the proliferation, migration and enzalutamide resistance in CRPC. Furthermore, it stimulated apoptosis and inhibited the eithelial-mesenchymal transition process.

CONCLUSION

Four arlncRNAs were identified and a risk model was established to predict the prognosis of patients with prostate cancer. Immune infiltration and drug susceptibility analysis revealed a potential therapeutic strategy for patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer.

Insights and implications of sexual dimorphism in osteoporosis

Osteoporosis, a metabolic bone disease characterized by low bone mineral density and deterioration of bone microarchitecture, has led to a high risk of fatal osteoporotic fractures worldwide. Accumulating evidence has revealed that sexual dimorphism is a notable feature of osteoporosis, with sex-specific differences in epidemiology and pathogenesis. Specifically, females are more susceptible than males to osteoporosis, while males are more prone to disability or death from the disease. To date, sex chromosome abnormalities and steroid hormones have been proven to contribute greatly to sexual dimorphism in osteoporosis by regulating the functions of bone cells. Understanding the sex-specific differences in osteoporosis and its related complications is essential for improving treatment strategies tailored to women and men. This literature review focuses on the mechanisms underlying sexual dimorphism in osteoporosis, mainly in a population of aging patients, chronic glucocorticoid administration, and diabetes. Moreover, we highlight the implications of sexual dimorphism for developing therapeutics and preventive strategies and screening approaches tailored to women and men. Additionally, the challenges in translating bench research to bedside treatments and future directions to overcome these obstacles will be discussed.

Investigation of the potential effects of estrogen receptor modulators on immune checkpoint molecules

Immune checkpoints regulate the immune system response. Recent studies suggest that flavonoids, known as phytoestrogens, may inhibit the PD-1/PD-L1 axis. We explored the potential of estrogens and 17 Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs) as inhibiting ligands for immune checkpoint proteins (CTLA-4, PD-L1, PD-1, and CD80). Our docking studies revealed strong binding energy values for quinestrol, quercetin, and bazedoxifene, indicating their potential to inhibit PD-1 and CTLA-4. Quercetin and bazedoxifene, known to modulate EGFR and IL-6R alongside estrogen receptors, can influence the immune checkpoint functionality. We discuss the impact of SERMs on PD-1 and CTLA-4, suggesting that these SERMs could have therapeutic effects through immune checkpoint inhibition. This study highlights the potential of SERMs as inhibitory ligands for immune checkpoint proteins, emphasizing the importance of considering PD-1 and CTLA-4 inhibition when evaluating SERMs as therapeutic agents. Our findings open new avenues for cancer immunotherapy by exploring the interaction between various SERMs and immune checkpoint pathways.

Role of sex and sex hormones in PD-L1 expression in NSCLC: clinical and therapeutic implications

Currently, immunotherapy based on PD-1/PD-L1 pathway blockade has improved survival of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. However, differential responses have been observed by sex, where men appear to respond better than women. Additionally, adverse effects of immunotherapy are mainly observed in women. Studies in some types of hormone-dependent cancer have revealed a role of sex hormones in anti-tumor response, tumor microenvironment and immune evasion. Estrogens mainly promote immune tolerance regulating T-cell function and modifying tumor microenvironment, while androgens attenuate anti-tumor immune responses. The precise mechanism by which sex and sex hormones may modulate immune response to tumor, modify PD-L1 expression in cancer cells and promote immune escape in NSCLC is still unclear, but current data show how sexual differences affect immune therapy response and prognosis. This review provides update information regarding anti-PD-1/PD-L immunotherapeutic efficacy in NSCLC by sex, analyzing potential roles for sex hormones on PD-L1 expression, and discussing a plausible of sex and sex hormones as predictive response factors to immunotherapy.

Nuclear Estrogen Receptors in Prostate Cancer: From Genes to Function

Estrogens are almost ubiquitous steroid hormones that are essential for development, metabolism, and reproduction. They exert both genomic and non-genomic action through two nuclear receptors (ERα and ERβ), which are transcription factors with disregulated functions and/or expression in pathological processes. In the 1990s, the discovery of an additional membrane estrogen G-protein-coupled receptor augmented the complexity of this picture. Increasing evidence elucidating the specific molecular mechanisms of action and opposing effects of ERα and Erβ was reported in the context of prostate cancer treatment, where these issues are increasingly investigated. Although new approaches improved the efficacy of clinical therapies thanks to the development of new molecules targeting specifically estrogen receptors and used in combination with immunotherapy, more efforts are needed to overcome the main drawbacks, and resistance events will be a challenge in the coming years. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art on ERα and ERβ mechanisms of action in prostate cancer and promising future therapies.

Differences in the pathogenetic characteristics of prostate cancer in the transitional and peripheral zones and the possible molecular biological mechanisms

Since the theory of modern anatomical partitioning of the prostate was proposed, the differences in the incidence and pathological parameters of prostate cancer between the peripheral zone and transition zone have been gradually revealed. It suggests that there are differences in the pathogenic pathways and molecular biology of prostate cancer between different regions of origin. Over the past decade, advances in sequencing technologies have revealed more about molecules, genomes, and cell types specific to the peripheral and transitional zones. In recent years, the innovation of spatial imaging and multiple-parameter magnetic resonance imaging has provided new technical support for the zonal study of prostate cancer. In this work, we reviewed all the research results and the latest research progress in the study of prostate cancer in the past two decades. We summarized and proposed several vital issues and focused directions for understanding the differences between peripheral and transitional zones in prostate cancer.

Single-cell omics traces the heterogeneity of prostate cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment

Prostate cancer is one of the more heterogeneous tumour types. In recent years, with the rapid development of single-cell sequencing and spatial transcriptome technologies, researchers have gained a more intuitive and comprehensive understanding of the heterogeneity of prostate cancer. Tumour-associated epithelial cells; cancer-associated fibroblasts; the complexity of the immune microenvironment, and the heterogeneity of the spatial distribution of tumour cells and other cancer-promoting molecules play a crucial role in the growth, invasion, and metastasis of prostate cancer. Single-cell multi-omics biotechnology, especially single-cell transcriptome sequencing, reveals the expression level of single cells with higher resolution and finely dissects the molecular characteristics of different tumour cells. We reviewed the recent literature on prostate cancer cells, focusing on single-cell RNA sequencing. And we analysed the heterogeneity and spatial distribution differences of different tumour cell types. We discussed the impact of novel single-cell omics technologies, such as rich omics exploration strategies, multi-omics joint analysis modes, and deep learning models, on future prostate cancer research. In this review, we have constructed a comprehensive catalogue of single-cell omics studies in prostate cancer. This article aimed to provide a more thorough understanding of the diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer. We summarised and proposed several key issues and directions on applying single-cell multi-omics and spatial transcriptomics to understand the heterogeneity of prostate cancer. Finally, we discussed single-cell omics trends and future directions in prostate cancer.

The Role of ERα and ERβ in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer and Current Therapeutic Approaches

Castration-resistant prostate cancer, or CRPC, is an aggressive stage of prostate cancer (PCa) in which PCa cells invade nearby or other parts of the body. When a patient with PCa goes through androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) and the cancer comes back or worsens, this is called CRPC. Instead of androgen-dependent signalling, recent studies show the involvement of the estrogen pathway through the regulation of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) in CRPC development. Reduced levels of testosterone due to ADT lead to low ERβ functionality in inhibiting the proliferation of PCa cells. Additionally, ERα, which possesses androgen independence, continues to promote the proliferation of PCa cells. The functions of ERα and ERβ in controlling PCa progression have been studied, but further research is needed to elucidate their roles in promoting CRPC. Finding new ways to treat the disease and stop it from becoming worse will require a clear understanding of the molecular processes that can lead to CRPC. The current review summarizes the underlying processes involving ERα and ERβ in developing CRPC, including castration-resistant mechanisms after ADT and available medication modification in mitigating CRPC progression, with the goal of directing future research and treatment.

Development of Highly Efficient Estrogen Receptor β-Targeted Near-Infrared Fluorescence Probes Triggered by Endogenous Hydrogen Peroxide for Diagnostic Imaging of Prostate Cancer

Hydrogen peroxide is one of the most important reactive oxygen species, which plays a vital role in many physiological and pathological processes. A dramatic increase in H₂O₂ levels is a prominent feature of cancer. Therefore, rapid and sensitive detection of H₂O₂ in vivo is quite conducive to an early cancer diagnosis. On the other hand, the therapeutic potential of estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) has been implicated in many diseases including prostate cancer, and this target has attracted intensive attention recently. In this work, we report the development of the first H₂O₂-triggered ERβ-targeted near-infrared fluorescence (NIR) probe and its application in imaging of prostate cancer both in vitro and in vivo. The probe showed good ERβ selective binding affinity, excellent H₂O₂ responsiveness and near infrared imaging potential. Moreover, in vivo and ex vivo imaging studies indicated that the probe could selectively bind to DU-145 prostate cancer cells and rapidly visualizes H₂O₂ in DU-145 xenograft tumors. Mechanistic studies such as high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations indicated that the borate ester group is vital for the H₂O₂ response turn-on fluorescence of the probe. Therefore, this probe might be a promising imaging tool for monitoring the H₂O₂ levels and early diagnosis studies in prostate cancer research.

Mechanisms of Prostate Cancer Cells Survival and Their Therapeutic Targeting

Prostate cancer (PCa) is today the second most common cancer in the world, with almost 400,000 deaths annually. Multiple factors are involved in the etiology of PCa, such as older age, genetic mutations, ethnicity, diet, or inflammation. Modern treatment of PCa involves radical surgical treatment or radiation therapy in the stages when the tumor is limited to the prostate. When metastases develop, the standard procedure is androgen deprivation therapy, which aims to reduce the level of circulating testosterone, which is achieved by surgical or medical castration. However, when the level of testosterone decreases to the castration level, the tumor cells adapt to the new conditions through different mechanisms, which enable their unhindered growth and survival, despite the therapy. New knowledge about the biology of the so-called of castration-resistant PCa and the way it adapts to therapy will enable the development of new drugs, whose goal is to prolong the survival of patients with this stage of the disease, which will be discussed in this review.

The role of the sex hormone-gut microbiome axis in tumor immunotherapy

Accumulating evidence suggested that both gut microbiome and sex play a critical role in the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade therapy. Considering the reciprocal relationship between sex hormones and gut microbiome, the sex hormone-gut microbiome axis may participate in the regulation of the response to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). In this review, it was attempted to summarize the current knowledge about the influences of both sex and gut microbiome on the antitumor efficacy of ICIs and describe the interaction between sex hormones and gut microbiome. Accordingly, this review discussed the potential of enhancing the antitumor efficacy of ICIs through regulating the levels of sex hormones through manipulation of gut microbiome. Collectively, this review provided reliable evidence concerning the role of the sex hormone-gut microbiome axis in tumor immunotherapy.

Knowledge mapping and current trends of immunotherapy for prostate cancer: A bibliometric study

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most common malignancy in men worldwide. Growing evidence substantiates the important role of immunotherapy in human tumors. Given that immunotherapy is often unsatisfactory on PCa, many studies have been conducted on PCa immunotherapy to improve treatment efficacy. However, no relevant bibliometric study of PCa immunotherapy has hitherto been reported. A bibliometric analysis was performed to evaluate the global scientific production of PCa immunotherapy research and characterize the development trends for future studies in this article.

METHODS

The publications related to PCa immunotherapy were extracted from the Web of Science Core Collection. The contribution and co-occurrence relationships of countries/regions, institutions, journals, references, authors, and keywords were assessed and visualized by VOSviewer and CiteSpace to identify research hotspots and potential future trends.

RESULTS

A total of 3,583 publications related to PCa immunotherapy from 1999 to 2021 were collected. The results of annual publications and citations exhibited a steady increase over the past 22 years. The National Cancer Institute in the USA published far more papers during the study than any institute. Accordingly, the USA had the most publications (n = 1,954, 54.54%). Gulley, James L. had the most number of published papers, and Small, Eric J. was the most co-cited authors in this field. Cancer Immunology Immunotherapy was the most productive journal, with 145 publications on PCa immunotherapy. Keyword cluster and keyword burst analyses showed that research in PCa immunotherapy shifted from "t cell infiltration" and "sipuleucel t" to "immune checkpoint inhibitor", "CTLA-4", and "PD-L1 expression".

CONCLUSION

PCa immunotherapy has attracted much attention, reflected by the increasing number of annual publications and citations. Much emphasis has been placed on exploring the complex immunogenicity and tumor microenvironment for PCa and identifying the patient population who can benefit from immunotherapy. Combining immune checkpoint inhibitors with other therapeutic options and cancer vaccines represents the future development trends in PCa immunotherapy.

Estrogens, Cancer and Immunity

Sex hormones are included in many physiological and pathological pathways. Estrogens belong to steroid hormones active in female sex. Estradiol (E2) is the strongest female sex hormone and, with its receptors, contributes to oncogenesis, cancer progression and response to treatment. In recent years, a role of immunosurveillance and suppression of immune response in malignancy has been well defined, forming the basis for cancer immunotherapy. The interplay of sex hormones with cancer immunity, as well as the response to immune checkpoint inhibitors, is of interest. In this review, we investigate the impact of sex hormones on natural immune response with respect to main active elements in anticancer immune surveillance: dendritic cells, macrophages, lymphocytes and checkpoint molecules. We describe the main sex-dependent tumors and the contribution of estrogen in their progression, response to treatment and especially modulation of anticancer immune response.