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Corrales Vargas A, Peñaloza Castañeda J, Rietz Liljedahl E, Mora AM, Menezes-Filho JA, Smith DR, Mergler D, Reich B, Giffin A, Hoppin JA, Lindh CH, van Wendel de Joode B. Exposure to common-use pesticides, manganese, lead, and thyroid function among pregnant women from the Infants' Environmental Health (ISA) study, Costa Rica. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 810:151288. [PMID: 34756903 PMCID: PMC9162492 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pesticides and metals may disrupt thyroid function, which is key to fetal brain development. OBJECTIVES To evaluate if current-use pesticide exposures, lead and excess manganese alter free thyroxine (FT4), free triiodothyronine (FT3), and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations in pregnant women from the Infants' Environmental Health Study (ISA). METHODS At enrollment, we determined women's (n = 400) specific-gravity corrected urinary pesticide (μg/L) metabolite concentrations of mancozeb (ethylene thiourea (ETU)), pyrimethanil, thiabendazole, chlorpyrifos, synthetic pyrethroids, and 2,4-D. We also measured manganese hair (MnH) (μg/g) and blood (MnB) (μg/L), and blood lead (PbB) (μg/L) concentrations. To detect an immediate and late effect on thyroid homeostasis, we determined TSH, FT4 and FT3 in serum obtained at the same visit (n = 400), and about ten weeks afterwards (n = 245). We assessed associations between exposures and outcomes with linear regression and general additive models, Bayesian multivariate linear regression, and Bayesian kernel machine regression. RESULTS About 80%, 94%, and 100% of the women had TSH, FT4, and FT3 within clinical reference ranges, respectively. Women with higher urinary ETU, and pyrimethanil-metabolites, had lower FT4: β = -0.79 (95%CI = -1.51, -0.08) and β = -0.29 (95%CI = -0.62, -0.03), respectively, for each tenfold increase in exposure. MnB was positively associated with FT4 (β = 0.04 (95%CI = 0.00, 0.07 per 1 μg/L increase), and women with high urinary pyrethroid-metabolite concentrations had decreased TSH (non-linear effects). For the late-effect analysis, metabolites of pyrethroids and chlorpyrifos, as well as MnH, and PbB were associated decreased TSH, or increased FT4 and/or FT3. DISCUSSION Mancozeb (ETU) and pyrimethanil may inhibit FT4 secretion (hypothyroidism-like effect), while chlorpyrifos, pyrethroids, MnB, MnH, PbB and Mn showed hyperthyroidism-like effects. Some effects on thyroid homeostasis seemed to be immediate (mancozeb (ETU), pyrimethanil, MnB), others delayed (chlorpyrifos, MnH, PbB), or both (pyrethroids), possibly reflecting different mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Corrales Vargas
- Infants' Environmental Health Study (ISA), Central American Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances (IRET), Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica
| | - Jorge Peñaloza Castañeda
- Infants' Environmental Health Study (ISA), Central American Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances (IRET), Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica
| | - Emelie Rietz Liljedahl
- Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
| | - Ana María Mora
- Infants' Environmental Health Study (ISA), Central American Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances (IRET), Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica; Center for Environmental Research and Children's Health (CERCH), University of California at Berkeley, United States
| | - Jose Antonio Menezes-Filho
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia, Av. Barão de Jeremoabo s/n Campus Universitário de Ondina, 40170-115 Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Donald R Smith
- Microbiology and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, United States
| | - Donna Mergler
- Centre de recherche interdisciplinaire sur le bien-être, la santé, la société et l'environnement (CINBIOSE), Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Brian Reich
- Department of Statistics, North Carolina State University, United States; Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, United States
| | - Andrew Giffin
- Department of Statistics, North Carolina State University, United States; Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, United States
| | - Jane A Hoppin
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, United States; Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, United States
| | - Christian H Lindh
- Division of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, SE-221 85 Lund, Sweden
| | - Berna van Wendel de Joode
- Infants' Environmental Health Study (ISA), Central American Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances (IRET), Universidad Nacional, Heredia, Costa Rica.
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LaKind JS, Burns CJ, Naiman DQ, O'Mahony C, Vilone G, Burns AJ, Naiman JS. Critical and systematic evaluation of data for estimating human exposures to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) - quality and generalizability. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2017; 20:423-446. [PMID: 29157177 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2017.1396704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) has been commercially available since the 1940's. Despite decades of data on 2,4-D in food, air, soil, and water, as well as in humans, the quality the quality of these data has not been comprehensively evaluated. Using selected elements of the Biomonitoring, Environmental Epidemiology, and Short-lived Chemicals (BEES-C) instrument (temporal variability, avoidance of sample contamination, analyte stability, and urinary methods of matrix adjustment), the quality of 156 publications of environmental- and biomonitoring-based 2,4-D data was examined. Few publications documented steps were taken to avoid sample contamination. Similarly, most studies did not demonstrate the stability of the analyte from sample collection to analysis. Less than half of the biomonitoring publications reported both creatinine-adjusted and unadjusted urine concentrations. The scope and detail of data needed to assess temporal variability and sources of 2,4-D varied widely across the reviewed studies. Exposures to short-lived chemicals such as 2,4-D are impacted by numerous and changing external factors including application practices and formulations. At a minimum, greater transparency in reporting of quality control measures is needed. Perhaps the greatest challenge for the exposure community is the ability to reach consensus on how to address problems specific to short-lived chemical exposures in observational epidemiology investigations. More extensive conversations are needed to advance our understanding of human exposures and enable interpretation of these data to catch up to analytical capabilities. The problems defined in this review remain exquisitely difficult to address for chemicals like 2,4-D, with short and variable environmental and physiological half-lives and with exposures impacted by numerous and changing external factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy S LaKind
- f School of Arts and Sciences , University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia , PA , USA
| | - Carol J Burns
- a LaKind Associates, LLC; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health , University of Maryland School of Medicine , Catonsville , MD , USA
| | | | - Cian O'Mahony
- c Department of Applied Mathematics & Statistics , Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Giulia Vilone
- c Department of Applied Mathematics & Statistics , Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore , MD , USA
| | - Annette J Burns
- d Creme Global, Trinity Technology and Enterprise Campus , Grand Canal Quay , Dublin , Ireland
| | - Joshua S Naiman
- e Department of Anthropology , Alma College , Alma , MI , USA
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Neal BH, Bus J, Marty MS, Coady K, Williams A, Staveley J, Lamb JC. Weight-of-the-evidence evaluation of 2,4-D potential for interactions with the estrogen, androgen and thyroid pathways and steroidogenesis. Crit Rev Toxicol 2017; 47:345-401. [PMID: 28303741 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2016.1272094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive weight-of-the-evidence evaluation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) was conducted for potential interactions with the estrogen, androgen and thyroid pathways and with steroidogenesis. This assessment was based on an extensive database of high quality in vitro, in vivo ecotoxicological and in vivo mammalian toxicological studies. Epidemiological studies were also considered. Toxicokinetic data provided the basis for determining rational cutoffs above which exposures were considered irrelevant to humans based on exceeding thresholds for saturation of renal clearance (TSRC); extensive human exposure and biomonitoring data support that these boundaries far exceed human exposures and provide ample margins of exposure. 2,4-D showed no evidence of interacting with the estrogen or androgen pathways. 2,4-D interacts with the thyroid axis in rats through displacement of thyroxine from plasma binding sites only at high doses exceeding the TSRC in mammals. 2,4-D effects on steroidogenesis parameters are likely related to high-dose specific systemic toxicity at doses exceeding the TSRC and are not likely to be endocrine mediated. No studies, including high quality studies in the published literature, predict significant endocrine-related toxicity or functional decrements in any species at environmentally relevant concentrations, or, in mammals, at doses below the TSRC that are relevant for human hazard and risk assessment. Overall, there is no basis for concern regarding potential interactions of 2,4-D with endocrine pathways or axes (estrogen, androgen, steroidogenesis or thyroid), and thus 2,4-D is unlikely to pose a threat from endocrine disruption to wildlife or humans under conditions of real-world exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- B H Neal
- a Exponent® , Alexandria , VA , USA
| | - J Bus
- a Exponent® , Alexandria , VA , USA
| | - M S Marty
- b Toxicology & Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company , Midland , MI , USA
| | - K Coady
- b Toxicology & Environmental Research and Consulting, The Dow Chemical Company , Midland , MI , USA
| | | | | | - J C Lamb
- a Exponent® , Alexandria , VA , USA
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Comparison of questionnaire data and analyzed dioxin concentrations as a measure of exposure in soft-tissue sarcoma studies. Toxicol Lett 2017; 270:8-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Bevan R, Brown T, Matthies F, Sams C, Jones K, Hanlon J, La Vedrine M. Human biomonitoring data collection from occupational exposure to pesticides. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.en-1185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Barr JR, Driskell WJ, Hill RH, Ashley DL, Needham LL, Head SL, Sampson EJ, Barr DB. Strategies for biological monitoring of exposure for contemporary-use pesticides. Toxicol Ind Health 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/074823379901500114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Pesticides are used on a massive scale in the United States. The widespread use of these pesticides has made it virtually impossible for the average person to avoid exposure at some level. Generally, it is believed that low-level exposure to these pesticides does not produce acute toxic effects; however, various cancers and other noncancer health endpoints have been associated with chronic exposure to several groups of pesticides. Therefore, it is imperative that well-designed studies investigate the potential relationship between contemporary pesticide exposure and health effects. For these studies to be accurate, reliable methods for determining individual exposure must be used. Biological monitoring is a useful tool for assessing exposure to some contemporary pesticides. As with any analytical method, biological monitoring entails many difficulties, but, in many instances, they can be overcome by the logical use of available information and information acquired in carefully designed studies. At the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), we have acquired extensive experience in the development and application of specific techniques for biological monitoring of a variety of toxicants, including many of the contemporary-use pesticides. We have used these methods to measure the internal dose of pesticides received by people in acute and chronic incidents resulting from both environmental and industrial exposure. Additionally, we have established normative values, or reference ranges, of several pesticides based on measurements of their metabolites in the urine of randomly selected adults in the US population. These data have been successfully used to distinguish overt exposures from `background' exposure. In this paper, we present several examples of the usefulness of biological monitoring in urine and blood and describe the difficulties involved with developing methods in these matrices. We also present a general strategy, considerations, and recommendations for developing biological monitoring techniques for measuring the internal dose of contemporary-use pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R. Barr
- Division of Environmental Health Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - W. Jack Driskell
- Division of Environmental Health Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Robert H. Hill
- Division of Environmental Health Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - David L. Ashley
- Division of Environmental Health Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Larry L. Needham
- Division of Environmental Health Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Susan L. Head
- Division of Environmental Health Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Eric J. Sampson
- Division of Environmental Health Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Dana B. Barr
- Division of Environmental Health Laboratory Sciences, National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia,
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von Stackelberg K. A Systematic Review of Carcinogenic Outcomes and Potential Mechanisms from Exposure to 2,4-D and MCPA in the Environment. J Toxicol 2013; 2013:371610. [PMID: 23533401 PMCID: PMC3600329 DOI: 10.1155/2013/371610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Revised: 05/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlorophenoxy compounds, particularly 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)acetic acid (MCPA), are amongst the most widely used herbicides in the United States for both agricultural and residential applications. Epidemiologic studies suggest that exposure to 2,4-D and MCPA may be associated with increased risk non-Hodgkins lymphoma (NHL), Hodgkin's disease (HD), leukemia, and soft-tissue sarcoma (STS). Toxicological studies in rodents show no evidence of carcinogenicity, and regulatory agencies worldwide consider chlorophenoxies as not likely to be carcinogenic or unclassifiable as to carcinogenicity. This systematic review assembles the available data to evaluate epidemiologic, toxicological, pharmacokinetic, exposure, and biomonitoring studies with respect to key cellular events noted in disease etiology and how those relate to hypothesized modes of action for these constituents to determine the plausibility of an association between exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of 2,4-D and MCPA and lymphohematopoietic cancers. The combined evidence does not support a genotoxic mode of action. Although plausible hypotheses for other carcinogenic modes of action exist, a comparison of biomonitoring data to oral equivalent doses calculated from bioassay data shows that environmental exposures are not sufficient to support a causal relationship. Genetic polymorphisms exist that are known to increase the risk of developing NHL. The potential interaction between these polymorphisms and exposures to chlorophenoxy compounds, particularly in occupational settings, is largely unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine von Stackelberg
- E Risk Sciences, LLP, 12 Holton Street, Allston, MA 02134, USA
- Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, 401 Park Drive, Landmark 404J, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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Hays SM, Aylward LL, Driver J, Ross J, Kirman C. 2,4-D Exposure and risk assessment: Comparison of external dose and biomonitoring based approaches. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2012; 64:481-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Revised: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 09/01/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
A qualitative review of the epidemiological literature on the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and health after 2001 is presented. In order to compare the exposure of the general population, bystanders and occupational groups, their urinary levels were also reviewed. In the general population, 2,4-D exposure is at or near the level of detection (LOD). Among individuals with indirect exposure, i.e. bystanders, the urinary 2,4-D levels were also very low except in individuals with opportunity for direct contact with the herbicide. Occupational exposure, where exposure was highest, was positively correlated with behaviors related to the mixing, loading and applying process and use of personal protection. Information from biomonitoring studies increases our understanding of the validity of the exposure estimates used in epidemiology studies. The 2,4-D epidemiology literature after 2001 is broad and includes studies of cancer, reproductive toxicity, genotoxicity, and neurotoxicity. In general, a few publications have reported statistically significant associations. However, most lack precision and the results are not replicated in other independent studies. In the context of biomonitoring, the epidemiology data give no convincing or consistent evidence for any chronic adverse effect of 2,4-D in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol J Burns
- Department of Epidemiology, The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48671, USA.
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Cancer incidence of 2,4-D production workers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2011; 8:3579-90. [PMID: 22016704 PMCID: PMC3194105 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph8093579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 08/27/2011] [Accepted: 08/30/2011] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Despite showing no evidence of carcinogenicity in laboratory animals, the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) has been associated with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) in some human epidemiology studies, albeit inconsistently. We matched an existing cohort of 2,4-D manufacturing employees with cancer registries in three US states resulting in 244 cancers compared to 276 expected cases. The Standardized Incidence Ratio (SIR) for the 14 NHL cases was 1.36 (95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.74-2.29). Risk estimates were higher in the upper cumulative exposure and duration subgroups, yet not statistically significant. There were no clear patterns of NHL risk with period of hire and histology subtypes. Statistically significant results were observed for prostate cancer (SIR = 0.74, 95% CI 0.57-0.94), and "other respiratory" cancers (SIR = 3.79, 95% CI 1.22-8.84; 4 of 5 cases were mesotheliomas). Overall, we observed fewer cancer cases than expected, and a non statistically significant increase in the number of NHL cases.
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Aylward LL, Morgan MK, Arbuckle TE, Barr DB, Burns CJ, Alexander BH, Hays SM. Biomonitoring data for 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in the United States and Canada: interpretation in a public health risk assessment context using Biomonitoring Equivalents. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2010; 118:177-81. [PMID: 20123603 PMCID: PMC2831914 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0900970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Accepted: 08/12/2009] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several extensive studies of exposure to 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) using urinary concentrations in samples from the general population, farm applicators, and farm family members are now available. Reference doses (RfDs) exist for 2,4-D, and Biomonitoring Equivalents (BEs; concentrations in urine or plasma that are consistent with those RfDs) for 2,4-D have recently been derived and published. OBJECTIVE We reviewed the available biomonitoring data for 2,4-D from the United States and Canada and compared them with BE values to draw conclusions regarding the margin of safety for 2,4-D exposures within each population group. DATA SOURCES Data on urinary 2,4-D excretion in general and target populations from recent published studies are tabulated and the derivation of BE values for 2,4-D summarized. DATA SYNTHESIS The biomonitoring data indicate margins of safety (ratio of BE value to biomarker concentration) of approximately 200 at the central tendency and 50 at the extremes in the general population. Median exposures for applicators and their family members during periods of use appear to be well within acute exposure guidance values. CONCLUSIONS Biomonitoring data from these studies indicate that current exposures to 2,4-D are below applicable exposure guidance values. This review demonstrates the value of biomonitoring data in assessing population exposures in the context of existing risk assessments using the BE approach. Risk managers can use this approach to integrate the available biomonitoring data into an overall assessment of current risk management practices for 2,4-D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesa L Aylward
- Summit Toxicology, LLP, Falls Church, Virginia 22044, USA.
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Hays SM, Aylward LL. Using Biomonitoring Equivalents to interpret human biomonitoring data in a public health risk context. J Appl Toxicol 2009; 29:275-88. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.1410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Aylward LL, Hays SM. Biomonitoring Equivalents (BE) dossier for 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (CAS No. 94-75-7). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2008; 51:S37-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2008.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2008] [Revised: 05/09/2008] [Accepted: 05/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Arbuckle TE, Ritter L. Phenoxyacetic acid herbicide exposure for women on Ontario farms. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2005; 68:1359-70. [PMID: 16020195 DOI: 10.1080/15287390590953635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Women living and working on farms would be expected to have higher exposure to pesticides than the general nonoccupationally exposed population. Urinary concentrations of the herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and (4-chloro-2-methyl) phenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) were measured in 125 women living on farms in Ontario where these herbicides had recently been used for the first time that growing season. The women collected a spot urine void prior to the start of herbicide handling by spouses, followed by 2 consecutive 24-h urine samples. The pesticide applicator provided questionnaire data on pesticides that were used on the farm. Approximately 80% of the women had no detectable level of either herbicide in their urine. Geometric mean urinary concentrations of 2,4-D and MCPA in the d-2 samples were 0.7 microg/L. The responses to the questions on herbicide use on the farm were compared with urinary levels of the herbicide and the sensitivity for MCPA was determined to be 95-100%; however, the false positive rate for exposure was 70%. For 2,4-D, the sensitivity and specificity were approximately 70%, with a false positive rate of 30%. A simple question on whether the herbicide was used recently can accurately identify people who are likely not exposed; however, further research is required to be able to more validly predict those individuals who are exposed. Based on our study, it was concluded that exposure estimates based on questionnaire data alone may be fraught with uncertainties, which may differ depending on the particular pesticide of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tye E Arbuckle
- Biostatistics and Epidemiology Division, Environmental Health Science Bureau, Health Canada, Ottawa.
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Ross JH, Driver JH, Harris SA, Maibach HI. Dermal absorption of 2,4-D: a review of species differences. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2005; 41:82-91. [PMID: 15649830 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2004.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2004] [Revised: 10/05/2004] [Accepted: 10/06/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The human percutaneous absorption of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is well characterized. Five studies using human subjects have been published and the results of those studies showed remarkable reproducibility across a span of three decades and multiple laboratories, formulations, and methods. These human data provide valuable perspective for characterizing the variability (CV = 60%) and central tendency (mean = 5.7%) associated with dermal absorption of 2,4-D from 34 individuals. Mouse, rat, and rabbit absorption measurements all tend to be higher, while Rhesus monkeys provide data in the same range as humans. Inter-laboratory reproducibility for a range of other pesticides shows 60% difference in central tendency estimates of human dermal absorption, providing reassurance that commonly used methods of measurement are reliable. For purposes of estimating potential human health risks associated with systemic absorbed doses, there is far less uncertainty in using carefully collected human data than in using dermal absorption estimates from small numbers of inbred laboratory animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H Ross
- infoscientific.com, Inc., 5233 Marimoore Way, Carmichael, CA 95608, USA.
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Garry VF, Tarone RE, Kirsch IR, Abdallah JM, Lombardi DP, Long LK, Burroughs BL, Barr DB, Kesner JS. Biomarker correlations of urinary 2,4-D levels in foresters: genomic instability and endocrine disruption. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2001; 109:495-500. [PMID: 11401761 PMCID: PMC1240309 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.01109495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Forest pesticide applicators constitute a unique pesticide use group. Aerial, mechanical-ground, and focal weed control by application of herbicides, in particular chlorophenoxy herbicides, yield diverse exposure scenarios. In the present work, we analyzed aberrations in G-banded chromosomes, reproductive hormone levels, and polymerase chain reaction-based V(D)J rearrangement frequencies in applicators whose exposures were mostly limited to chlorophenoxy herbicides. Data from appliers where chlorophenoxy use was less frequent were also examined. The biomarker outcome data were compared to urinary levels of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) obtained at the time of maximum 2,4-D use. Further comparisons of outcome data were made to the total volume of herbicides applied during the entire pesticide-use season.Twenty-four applicators and 15 minimally exposed foresters (control) subjects were studied. Categorized by applicator method, men who used a hand-held, backpack sprayer in their applications showed the highest average level (453.6 ppb) of 2,4-D in urine. Serum luteinizing hormone (LH) values were correlated with urinary 2,4-D levels, but follicle-stimulating hormone and free and total testosterone were not. At the height of the application season; 6/7 backpack sprayers, 3/4 applicators who used multinozzle mechanical (boom) sprayers, 4/8 aerial applicators, and 2/5 skidder-radiarc (closed cab) appliers had two or more V(D)J region rearrangements per microgram of DNA. Only 5 of 15 minimally exposed (control) foresters had two or more rearrangements, and 3 of these 5 subjects demonstrated detectable levels of 2,4-D in the urine. Only 8/24 DNA samples obtained from the exposed group 10 months or more after their last chlorophenoxy use had two rearrangements per microgram of DNA, suggesting that the exposure-related effects observed were reversible and temporary. Although urinary 2,4-D levels were not correlated with chromosome aberration frequency, chromosome aberration frequencies were correlated with the total volume of herbicides applied, including products other than 2,4-D. In summary, herbicide applicators with high urinary levels of 2,4-D (backpack and boom spray applications) exhibited elevated LH levels. They also exhibited altered genomic stability as measured by V(D)J rearrangement frequency, which appears reversible months after peak exposure. Though highly detailed, the limited sample size warrants cautious interpretation of the data.
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Affiliation(s)
- V F Garry
- Environmental Medicine and Pathology Laboratory, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55414-3290, USA.
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Lyubimov AV, Garry VF, Carlson RE, Barr DB, Baker SE. Simplified urinary immunoassay for 2,4-D: validation and exposure assessment. THE JOURNAL OF LABORATORY AND CLINICAL MEDICINE 2000; 136:116-24. [PMID: 10945240 DOI: 10.1067/mlc.2000.108150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Urinary monitoring of exposed workers by either analytic chemical methods or radioimmunoassay suggests that urinary levels of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) exceeding 30 ppb are indicative of occupational exposure. However, the current methods do not lend themselves to clinical laboratory use in the rural medical setting. The major goal of this project was to provide medical practitioners who care for members of the agricultural community with a cost-efficient way to conduct exposure assessment. This project used a direct 2,4-D enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and measurement of the ratio between 2,4-D-spiked and non-spiked samples of the same urine to quantify 2,4-D levels. This simplified approach minimizes the effects of non-specific interfering substances in urine and eliminates the need for sample extraction and clean-up. Possible urine co-contaminants (2,4-dichlorophenol and 2,5-dichlorophenol) do not significantly interfere with this immunoassay. Twenty-two forest pesticide applicators who apply and use chlorophenoxy herbicides in their work and 14 comparable control subjects were studied to validate the assay in the occupational setting. Coded urine specimens were examined for levels of 2,4-D by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) and compared with immunoassay results from the same specimens. A correlation coefficient of r = 0.982 with a P value of .0001 for a plot of HPLC-MS/MS versus immunoassay demonstrated that the results from these methods were comparable over urinary dose levels ranging from not detectable (<19 ppb) to 1700 ppb 2,4-D, as determined by immunoassay.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Lyubimov
- Laboratory of Environmental Medicine, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis 55414, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- M Harper
- SKC, Inc., Eighty Four, Pennsylvania 15390, USA
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Sherry J. Environmental immunoassays and other bioanalytical methods: overview and update. CHEMOSPHERE 1997; 34:1011-1025. [PMID: 9134671 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(97)00403-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Immunoassays and bioanalytical techniques can aid the cost effective detection and quantification of trace contaminants in the environment, food, and human and animal populations. This overview of recent progress shows that rapid advances have occurred in the development and validation, of assays for many contaminants of both industrial and agricultural origin. Promising antibody based techniques such as immunoaffinity chromatography, biosensors, and flow injection immunoanalysis continue to evolve. Such techniques can not only help lower costs and improve efficiency, but can also allow the range of hypotheses that can be tested in many environmental studies to be broadened by permitting the determination of trace residues in small volume samples that would be otherwise difficult to analyze.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Sherry
- Aquatic Ecosystem Conservation Branch, Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario, Canada
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Dzantiev B, Zherdev A, Yulaev M, Sitdikov R, Dmitrieva N, Moreva I. Electrochemical immunosensors for determination of the pesticides 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic and 2,4,5-tricholorophenoxyacetic acids. Biosens Bioelectron 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0956-5663(96)83725-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Knopp D. Application of immunological methods for the determination of environmental pollutants in human biomonitoring. A review. Anal Chim Acta 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0003-2670(95)00147-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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