Effects of high dose inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate, 750 micrograms and 1500 micrograms twice daily, and 40 mg per day oral prednisolone on lung function, symptoms, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness in patients with non-asthmatic chronic airflow obstruction

Inhaled corticosteroids versus placebo for stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

The role of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has been the subject of much uncertainty. COPD clinical guidelines currently recommend selective use of ICS. ICS are not recommended as monotherapy for people with COPD, and are only given in combination with long-acting bronchodilators due to greater efficacy of combination therapy. Incorporating and critiquing newly published placebo-controlled trials into the monotherapy evidence base may help to resolve ongoing uncertainties and conflicting findings about their role in this population.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the benefits and harms of inhaled corticosteroids, used as monotherapy versus placebo, in people with stable COPD, in terms of objective and subjective outcomes.

SEARCH METHODS

We used standard, extensive Cochrane search methods. The latest search date was October 2022.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised trials comparing any dose of any type of ICS, given as monotherapy, with a placebo control in people with stable COPD. We excluded studies of less than 12 weeks' duration and studies of populations with known bronchial hyper-responsiveness (BHR) or bronchodilator reversibility.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard Cochrane methods. Our a priori primary outcomes were 1. exacerbations of COPD and 2. quality of life. Our secondary outcomes were 3. all-cause mortality, 4. lung function (rate of decline of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1)), 5. rescue bronchodilator use, 6. exercise capacity, 7. pneumonia and 8. adverse events including pneumonia. ]. We used GRADE to assess certainty of evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

Thirty-six primary studies with 23,139 participants met the inclusion criteria. Mean age ranged from 52 to 67 years, and females were 0% to 46% of participants. Studies recruited across the severities of COPD. Seventeen studies were of duration longer than three months and up to six months and 19 studies were of duration longer than six months. We judged the overall risk of bias as low.  Long-term (more than six months) use of ICS as monotherapy reduced the mean rate of exacerbations in those studies where pooling of data was possible (generic inverse variance analysis: rate ratio 0.88 exacerbations per participant per year, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.82 to 0.94; I2 = 48%, 5 studies, 10,097 participants; moderate-certainty evidence; pooled means analysis: mean difference (MD) -0.05 exacerbations per participant per year, 95% CI -0.07 to -0.02; I2 = 78%, 5 studies, 10,316 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). ICS slowed the rate of decline in quality of life, as measured by the St George's Respiratory Questionnaire (MD -1.22 units/year, 95% CI -1.83 to -0.60; I2 = 0%; 5 studies, 2507 participants; moderate-certainty evidence; minimal clinically importance difference 4 points). There was no evidence of a difference in all-cause mortality in people with COPD (odds ratio (OR) 0.94, 95% CI 0.84 to 1.07; I2 = 0%; 10 studies, 16,636 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). Long-term use of ICS  reduced the rate of decline in FEV1 in people with COPD (generic inverse variance analysis: MD 6.31 mL/year benefit, 95% CI 1.76 to 10.85; I2 = 0%; 6 studies, 9829 participants; moderate-certainty evidence; pooled means analysis: 7.28 mL/year, 95% CI 3.21 to 11.35; I2 = 0%; 6 studies, 12,502 participants; moderate-certainty evidence).

ADVERSE EVENTS

in the long-term studies, the rate of pneumonia was increased in the ICS group, compared to placebo, in studies that reported pneumonia as an adverse event (OR 1.38, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.88; I2 = 55%; 9 studies, 14,831 participants; low-certainty evidence). There was an increased risk of oropharyngeal candidiasis (OR 2.66, 95% CI 1.91 to 3.68; 5547 participants) and hoarseness (OR 1.98, 95% CI 1.44 to 2.74; 3523 participants). The long-term studies that measured bone effects generally showed no major effect on fractures or bone mineral density over three years. We downgraded the certainty of evidence to moderate for imprecision and low for imprecision and inconsistency.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review updates the evidence base for ICS monotherapy with newly published trials to aid the ongoing assessment of their role for people with COPD. Use of ICS alone for COPD likely results in a reduction of exacerbation rates of clinical relevance, probably results in a reduction in the rate of decline of FEV1 of uncertain clinical relevance and likely results in a small improvement in health-related quality of life not meeting the threshold for a minimally clinically important difference. These potential benefits should be weighed up against adverse events (likely to increase local oropharyngeal adverse effects and may increase the risk of pneumonia) and probably no reduction in mortality. Though not recommended as monotherapy, the probable benefits of ICS highlighted in this review support their continued consideration in combination with long-acting bronchodilators. Future research and evidence syntheses should be focused in that area.

Pharmacologic Management of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. An Official American Thoracic Society Clinical Practice Guideline

Background: This document provides clinical recommendations for the pharmacologic treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It represents a collaborative effort on the part of a panel of expert COPD clinicians and researchers along with a team of methodologists under the guidance of the American Thoracic Society.

Methods: Comprehensive evidence syntheses were performed on all relevant studies that addressed the clinical questions and critical patient-centered outcomes agreed upon by the panel of experts. The evidence was appraised, rated, and graded, and recommendations were formulated using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach.

Results: After weighing the quality of evidence and balancing the desirable and undesirable effects, the guideline panel made the following recommendations: 1) a strong recommendation for the use of long-acting β₂-agonist (LABA)/long-acting muscarinic antagonist (LAMA) combination therapy over LABA or LAMA monotherapy in patients with COPD and dyspnea or exercise intolerance; 2) a conditional recommendation for the use of triple therapy with inhaled corticosteroids (ICS)/LABA/LAMA over dual therapy with LABA/LAMA in patients with COPD and dyspnea or exercise intolerance who have experienced one or more exacerbations in the past year; 3) a conditional recommendation for ICS withdrawal for patients with COPD receiving triple therapy (ICS/LABA/LAMA) if the patient has had no exacerbations in the past year; 4) no recommendation for or against ICS as an additive therapy to long-acting bronchodilators in patients with COPD and blood eosinophilia, except for those patients with a history of one or more exacerbations in the past year requiring antibiotics or oral steroids or hospitalization, for whom ICS is conditionally recommended as an additive therapy; 5) a conditional recommendation against the use of maintenance oral corticosteroids in patients with COPD and a history of severe and frequent exacerbations; and 6) a conditional recommendation for opioid-based therapy in patients with COPD who experience advanced refractory dyspnea despite otherwise optimal therapy.

Conclusions: The task force made recommendations regarding the pharmacologic treatment of COPD based on currently available evidence. Additional research in populations that are underrepresented in clinical trials is needed, including studies in patients with COPD 80 years of age and older, those with multiple chronic health conditions, and those with a codiagnosis of COPD and asthma.

Inhaled corticosteroids for cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

The reduction of lung inflammation is one of the goals of cystic fibrosis therapy. Inhaled corticosteroids are often used in this respect to treat children and adults with cystic fibrosis. The rationale for this is their potential to reduce lung damage arising from inflammation, as well as their effect on symptomatic wheezing. It is important to establish the current level of evidence for the risks and benefits of inhaled corticosteroids, especially in the light of their known adverse effects on growth. This is an update of a previously published review; however, due to the lack of research in this area, we do not envisage undertaking any further updates.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of taking regular inhaled corticosteroids compared to not taking them in children and adults with cystic fibrosis.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Cystic Fibrosis and Genetic Disorders Group Trials Register, comprising references identified from comprehensive electronic database searches and handsearches of relevant journals and abstract books of conference proceedings. We requested information from pharmaceutical companies manufacturing inhaled corticosteroids and authors of identified trials.Date of most recent search of the Group's Trials Register: 19 November 2018.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised trials, published and unpublished, comparing inhaled corticosteroids to placebo or standard treatment in individuals with cystic fibrosis.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two independent authors assessed methodological quality and risk of bias in trials using established criteria and extracted data using standard pro formas. The quality of the evidence was assessed using the GRADE criteria.

MAIN RESULTS

The searches identified 35 citations, of which 27 (representing 13 trials) were eligible for inclusion. These 13 trials reported the use of inhaled corticosteroids in 525 people with cystic fibrosis aged between 6 and 55 years. One was a withdrawal trial in 171 individuals who were already taking inhaled corticosteroids. Methodological quality and risk of bias were difficult to assess from published information.Objective measures of airway function were reported in most trials but were often incomplete and reported at different time points. We found no difference in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) or forced vital capacity (FVC) % predicted in any of the trials, although the quality of the evidence was low due to risks of bias within the included trials and low participant numbers. We are uncertain whether inhaled corticosteroids result in an improvement in exercise tolerance, bronchial hyperreactivity or exacerbations as the quality of the evidence was very low. Data from one trial suggested that inhaled corticosteroids may make little or no difference to quality of life (low-quality evidence).Three trials reported adverse effects, but the quality of the evidence is low and so we are uncertain whether inhaled corticosteroids increase the risk of adverse effects. However, one study did show that growth was adversely affected by high doses of inhaled corticosteroids.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Evidence from these trials is of low to very low quality and insufficient to establish whether inhaled corticosteroids are beneficial in cystic fibrosis, but withdrawal in those already taking them has been shown to be safe. There is some evidence they may cause harm in terms of growth. It has not been established whether long-term use is beneficial in reducing lung inflammation, which should improve survival, but it is unlikely this will be proven conclusively in a randomised controlled trial.

Inhaled corticosteroids for cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Reduction of lung inflammation is one of the goals of cystic fibrosis therapy. Inhaled corticosteroids are often used to treat children and adults with cystic fibrosis. The rationale for this is their potential to reduce lung damage arising from inflammation, as well as their effect on symptomatic wheezing. It is important to establish the current level of evidence for the risks and benefits of inhaled corticosteroids, especially in the light of their known adverse effects on growth. This is an update of a previously published review.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of taking regular inhaled corticosteroids, compared to not taking them, in children and adults with cystic fibrosis.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Cystic Fibrosis and Genetic Disorders Group Trials Register, comprising references identified from comprehensive electronic database searches and handsearches of relevant journals and abstract books of conference proceedings. We requested information from pharmaceutical companies manufacturing inhaled corticosteroids and authors of identified trials.Date of most recent search of the Group's Trials Register: 15 August 2016.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised trials, published and unpublished, comparing inhaled corticosteroids to placebo or standard treatment in individuals with cystic fibrosis.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two independent authors assessed methodological quality and risk of bias in trials using established criteria and extracted data using standard pro formas.

MAIN RESULTS

The searches identified 34 citations, of which 26 (representing 13 trials) were eligible for inclusion. These 13 trials reported the use of inhaled corticosteroids in 506 people with cystic fibrosis aged between six and 55 years. One was a withdrawal trial in individuals who were already taking inhaled corticosteroids. Methodological quality and risk of bias were difficult to assess from published information. Many of the risk of bias judgements were unclear due to a lack of available information. Only two trials specified how participants were randomised and less than half of the included trials gave details on how allocation was concealed. Trials were generally judged to have a low risk of bias from blinding, except for two which were open label or did not use a placebo. There were some concerns that a number of trials had not been published in peer-reviewed journals, but the risk of bias from this was unclear. Inclusion criteria varied between trials, as did type and duration of treatment and timing of outcome assessments. Objective measures of airway function were reported in most trials but were often incomplete. Significant benefit has not been conclusively demonstrated. Four trials systematically documented adverse effects and growth was significantly affected in one study using high doses.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Evidence from these trials is insufficient to establish whether inhaled corticosteroids are beneficial in cystic fibrosis, but withdrawal in those already taking them has been shown to be safe. There is some evidence they may cause harm in terms of growth. It has not been established whether long-term use is beneficial in reducing lung inflammation, which should improve survival, but it is unlikely this will be proven conclusively in a randomised controlled trial.

Inhaled corticosteroids for cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Reduction of lung inflammation is one of the goals of cystic fibrosis therapy. Inhaled corticosteroids are often used to treat children and adults with cystic fibrosis. The rationale for this is their potential to reduce lung damage arising from inflammation, as well as their effect on symptomatic wheezing. It is important to establish the current level of evidence for the risks and benefits of inhaled corticosteroids, especially in the light of their known adverse effects on growth.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of taking regular inhaled corticosteroids, compared to not taking them, in children and adults with cystic fibrosis.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Cystic Fibrosis and Genetic Disorders Group Trials Register, comprising references identified from comprehensive electronic database searches and handsearches of relevant journals and abstract books of conference proceedings. We requested information from pharmaceutical companies manufacturing inhaled corticosteroids and authors of identified trials.Date of most recent search of the Group's Trials Register: 17 July 2014.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised trials, published and unpublished, comparing inhaled corticosteroids to placebo or standard treatment in individuals with cystic fibrosis.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two independent authors assessed methodological quality and risk of bias in trials using established criteria and extracted data using standard pro formas.

MAIN RESULTS

The searches identified 34 citations, of which 26 (representing 13 trials) were eligible for inclusion. These 13 trials reported the use of inhaled corticosteroids in 506 people with cystic fibrosis aged between six and 55 years. One was a withdrawal trial in individuals who were already taking inhaled corticosteroids. Methodological quality and risk of bias were difficult to assess from published information. Many of the risk of bias judgements were unclear due to a lack of available information. Only two trials specified how participants were randomised and less than half of the included trials gave details on how allocation was concealed. Trials were generally judged to have a low risk of bias from blinding, except for two which were open label or did not use a placebo. There were some concerns that a number of trials had not been published in peer-reviewed journals, but the risk of bias from this was unclear. Inclusion criteria varied between trials, as did type and duration of treatment and timing of outcome assessments. Objective measures of airway function were reported in most trials but were often incomplete. Significant benefit has not been conclusively demonstrated. Four trials systematically documented adverse effects and growth was significantly affected in one study using high doses.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Evidence from these trials is insufficient to establish whether inhaled corticosteroids are beneficial in cystic fibrosis, but withdrawal in those already taking them has been shown to be safe. There is some evidence they may cause harm in terms of growth. It has not been established whether long-term use is beneficial in reducing lung inflammation, which should improve survival, but it is unlikely this will be proven conclusively in a randomised controlled trial.

[National consensus regarding the prescription of inhaled corticosteroids in cystic fibrosis]

The conditions for the prescription of inhaled steroids (ISs) in cystic fibrosis (CF) are not well established.

AIM

To propose a formalized consensus agreement regarding the prescription of ISs in this disease.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Application of the Delphi method in five thematic fields: indications, non-indications, dosage, precautions for use, and treatment follow-up.

RESULTS

Thirty of forty-nine (61 %) reference CF centers in France participated in the process, which comprised three rounds. Experts strongly agreed that ISs are indicated in the presence of pulmonary manifestations with wheezing, personal history of atopy, and/or bronchial hyper-responsiveness. In contrast, ISs are not indicated as first-line therapy for allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Strong agreement was reached regarding the daily dose of ISs, which should be similar to what is given in asthma and adapted to control symptoms so as to prescribe the smallest possible dose. Increasing the frequency of bacterial and fungal sputum analyses and eye (cataract) assessments was not deemed necessary. However, in case of prolonged (>6months) use of high-dose ISs, monitoring bone mineral density and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, in particular if itraconazole is concomitantly prescribed, was recommended.

CONCLUSION

This consensus statement defines a perimeter for the prescription of ISs in CF, with the aim of limiting their prescription (until new data are available).

Beclometasone for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic obstructive lung condition, diagnosed in patients with dyspnoea, chronic cough or sputum production and/or a history of risk factor exposure, if their postbronchodilator forced expiratory lung volume in 1 second (FEV1)/forced vital lung capacity (FVC) ratio is less than 0.70, according to the international GOLD (Global Initiative for Obstructive Lung Disease) criteria.Inhaled corticosteroid (ICS) medications are now recommended for COPD only in combination treatment with long-acting beta2-agonists (LABAs), and only for patients of GOLD stage 3 and stage 4 severity, for both GOLD groups C and D.ICS are expensive and how effective they are is a topic of controversy, particularly in relation to their adverse effects (pneumonia), which may be linked to more potent ICS. It is unclear whether beclometasone dipropionate (BDP), an unlicensed but widely used inhaled steroid, is a safe and effective alternative to other ICS.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the effectiveness and safety in COPD of inhaled beclometasone alone compared with placebo, and of inhaled beclometasone in combination with LABAs compared with LABAs alone.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Airways Group Specialised Register of trials (CAGR) (includes Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, AMED and PsycINFO, and handsearching of respiratory journals and meeting abstracts) (February 2013), conference abstracts, ongoing studies and reference lists of articles. We contacted pharmaceutical companies and drug marketing authorisation bodies/ethics committees in 49 countries and obtained licensing information.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials of BDP compared with placebo, or BDP/LABA compared with LABA, in stable COPD. Minimum trial duration is 12 weeks.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Inclusion, bias assessment and data extraction were conducted by two review authors independently. The analysis was performed by one review author. Study authors were contacted to obtain missing information.

MAIN RESULTS

For BDP versus placebo, two studies were included, of which one trial (participants n = 194) was included in the quantitative analysis. This study was a very high-dose trial with stable stage 2 and 3 COPD participants. No statistically significant results in change in lung function, mortality, exacerbations, dyspnoea scores or withdrawal were obtained. The quality of the evidence of all these outcomes was graded low to very low. Data on risk of pneumonia were lacking.The main focus of the review was the more clinically relevant BDP/LABA versus LABA arm. Therefore the findings are reported more fully.For BDP/LABA versus LABA, one study (n = 474) was included, with a further ongoing study identified for future inclusion. The included trial was a high-dose study of stable stage 3 COPD participants. Compared with LABA, people receiving BDP/LABA showed a statistically significant improvement in FEV1 lung function measurements of 0.051 L (95% confidence Interval (CI) 0.001 to 0.102, P = 0.046) (high quality of evidence) and in (self-reported) days without rescue bronchodilators (mean difference 7.05, 95% CI 0.84 to 13.26, P = 0.03) (low quality), both of which are unlikely to be clinically significant. Participants receiving BDP/LABA also had a statistically significant increased rate of exacerbations leading to hospitalisation (risk ratio (RR) 1.84, 95% CI 1.17 to 2.90, P = 0.008) (moderate quality), although this finding is debatable as this study's post hoc analysis showed no statistically significant difference when accounting for country-specific differences in hospitalisation policies. We did not find statistically significant differences for mortality (very low quality), pneumonia (low quality), exacerbations, exercise capacity, quality of life and dyspnoea scores, adverse events and withdrawal (all moderate quality).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We found little evidence to suggest that beclometasone is a safer or more effective treatment option for people with COPD when compared with placebo or when used in combination with LABA; when statistically significant differences were found, they mostly were not clinically meaningful or were based on data from only one study. The review was limited by an inability to obtain data from one study and likely publication bias for BDP versus placebo, and by the inclusion of one study only for BDP/LABA versus LABA. An ongoing study of BDP/LABA versus LABA may have a further impact on these conclusions.

Inhaled corticosteroids for cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Reduction of lung inflammation is one of the goals of cystic fibrosis (CF) therapy. Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are often used to treat children and adults with CF. The rationale for this is their potential to reduce lung damage arising from inflammation, as well as their effect on symptomatic wheezing. It is important to establish the current level of evidence for the risks and benefits of ICS, especially in the light of their known adverse effects on growth.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of taking regular ICS, compared to not taking them, in children and adults with CF.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Cystic Fibrosis and Genetic Disorders Group Trials Register, comprising references identified from comprehensive electronic database searches and handsearches of relevant journals and abstract books of conference proceedings. We requested information from pharmaceutical companies manufacturing inhaled corticosteroids and authors of identified trials.Date of most recent search of the Group's Trials Register: 03 September 2012.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised trials, published and unpublished, comparing ICS to placebo or standard treatment in individuals with CF.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two independent authors assessed methodological quality of trials using established criteria and extracted data using standard pro formas.

MAIN RESULTS

The searches identified 34 citations, of which 26 (representing 13 trials) were eligible for inclusion. These 13 trials reported the use of ICS in 506 people with CF aged between 6 and 55 years. One trial was a withdrawal study in individuals who were already taking ICS. Methodological quality was difficult to assess from published information. Inclusion criteria varied between trials, as did type and duration of treatment and timing of outcome assessments. Objective measures of airway function were reported in most trials but were often incomplete. Significant benefit has not been conclusively demonstrated. Four trials systematically documented adverse effects and growth was significantly affected in one study using high doses.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Evidence from these trials is insufficient to establish whether ICS are beneficial in CF, but withdrawal in those already taking them has been shown to be safe. There is some evidence they may cause harm in terms of growth. It has not been established whether long-term use is beneficial in reducing lung inflammation, which should improve survival, but it is unlikely this will be proven conclusively in a randomised controlled trial.

Inhaled corticosteroids for stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

The role of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has been the subject of much controversy. Major international guidelines recommend selective use of ICS. Recently published meta-analyses have reported conflicting findings on the effects of inhaled steroid therapy in COPD.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the efficacy and safety of inhaled corticosteroids in stable patients with COPD, in terms of objective and subjective outcomes.

SEARCH METHODS

A pre-defined search strategy was used to search the Cochrane Airways Group Specialised Register for relevant literature. Searches are current as of July 2011.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised trials comparing any dose of any type of inhaled steroid with a placebo control in patients with COPD. Acute bronchodilator reversibility to short-term beta(2)-agonists and bronchial hyper-responsiveness were not exclusion criteria. The a priori primary outcome was change in lung function. We also analysed data on mortality, exacerbations, quality of life and symptoms, rescue bronchodilator use, exercise capacity, biomarkers and safety.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed trial quality and extracted data. We contacted study authors for additional information. We collected adverse effects information from the trials.

MAIN RESULTS

Fifty-five primary studies with 16,154 participants met the inclusion criteria. Long-term use of ICS (more than six months) did not consistently reduce the rate of decline in forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV(1)) in COPD patients (generic inverse variance analysis: mean difference (MD) 5.80 mL/year with ICS over placebo, 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.28 to 11.88, 2333 participants; pooled means analysis: 6.88 mL/year, 95% CI 1.80 to 11.96, 4823 participants), although one major trial demonstrated a statistically significant difference. There was no statistically significant effect on mortality in COPD patients (odds ratio (OR) 0.98, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.16, 8390 participants). Long-term use of ICS reduced the mean rate of exacerbations in those studies where pooling of data was possible (generic inverse variance analysis: MD -0.26 exacerbations per patient per year, 95% CI -0.37 to -0.14, 2586 participants; pooled means analysis: MD -0.19 exacerbations per patient per year, 95% CI -0.30 to -0.08, 2253 participants). ICS slowed the rate of decline in quality of life, as measured by the St George's Respiratory Questionnaire (MD -1.22 units/year, 95% CI -1.83 to -0.60, 2507 participants). Response to ICS was not predicted by oral steroid response, bronchodilator reversibility or bronchial hyper-responsiveness in COPD patients. There was an increased risk of oropharyngeal candidiasis (OR 2.65, 95% CI 2.03 to 3.46, 5586 participants) and hoarseness. In the long-term studies, the rate of pneumonia was increased in the ICS group compared to placebo, in studies that reported pneumonia as an adverse event (OR 1.56, 95% CI 1.30 to 1.86, 6235 participants). The long-term studies that measured bone effects generally showed no major effect on fractures and bone mineral density over three years.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Patients and clinicians should balance the potential benefits of inhaled steroids in COPD (reduced rate of exacerbations, reduced rate of decline in quality of life and possibly reduced rate of decline in FEV(1)) against the potential side effects (oropharyngeal candidiasis and hoarseness, and risk of pneumonia).

Overlap Between Asthma and COPD: Where the Two Diseases Converge

Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are traditionally recognized as distinct diseases, with some clearly separate characteristic. Asthma originates in childhood, is associated with allergies and eosinophils, and is best treated by targeting inflammation, whereas COPD occurs in adults who smoke, involves neutrophils, and is best treated with bronchodilators and the removal of risk factors. However, the distinction between the two is not always clear. Patients with severe asthma may present with fixed airway obstruction, and patients with COPD may have hyperresponsiveness and eosinophilia. Recognizing and understanding these overlapping features may offer new insight into the mechanisms and treatment of chronic airway inflammatory diseases.

Airway responsiveness to indirect challenges in COPD

Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) demonstrate airway hyperresponsiveness to a number of indirect stimuli. Hyperresponsiveness to cold air hyperventilation, exercise, and drugs like propranalol and methoxamine seem to be able to distinguish patients with COPD from those with asthma, whereas hyperresponsiveness to stimuli like adenosine 5-monophosphate (AMP) and hypertonic saline seem unable to do so. The relationship of airway responsiveness to indirect stimuli and airway inflammation has received little study. The clinical relevance of hyperresponsiveness to an indirect challenge, including the impact on the natural history, relation to types of bronchitis, baseline airway calibre, and response to treatment need to be studied.

Predicting corticosteroid response in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease using exhaled nitric oxide

RATIONALE

Predicting corticosteroid response in COPD is important but difficult. Response is more likely to occur in association with eosinophilic airway inflammation, for which the fraction of exhaled nitric oxide (Fe(NO)) is a good surrogate marker.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to establish whether Fe(NO) levels would predict the clinical response to oral corticosteroid in COPD.

METHODS

We performed a double-blind, crossover trial of steroid in patients with COPD. After a 4-week washout of inhaled steroids, patients received prednisone 30 mg/d or matching placebo, in random order, with an intervening 4-week washout. The predictive values of Fe(NO) for clinically significant changes in 6-minute-walk distance (6MWD), spirometry (FEV(1)), and St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ) were calculated.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

A total of 65 patients (mean FEV(1) = 57% predicted) were randomized. With prednisone, there was a net increase of 13 m in 6MWD (P = 0.02) and 0.06 L in postbronchodilator FEV(1) (P = 0.02) compared with placebo. The change in SGRQ was not significant. Using receiver operator characteristic analysis, the area under the curve for an increase of 0.2 L in FEV(1) was 0.69 (P = 0.04) with an optimum Fe(NO) cut-point of 50 ppb. The positive and negative predictive values were 67 and 82%, respectively. FE(NO) was not a significant predictor for changes in 6MWD or SGRQ.

CONCLUSIONS

Fe(NO) is a weak predictor of short-term response to oral corticosteroid in COPD, its usefulness being limited to predicting increase in FEV(1). Clinical trial registered with www.anzctr.org.au (ACTRN12605000683639).

Inhaled corticosteroids for cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Reduction of lung inflammation is one of the goals of cystic fibrosis (CF) therapy. Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are often used to treat children and adults with CF. The rationale for this is their potential to reduce lung damage arising from inflammation, as well as their effect on symptomatic wheezing. It is important to establish the current level of evidence for the risks and benefits of ICS, especially in the light of their known adverse effects on growth.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of taking regular ICS, compared to not taking them, in children and adults with CF.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Cystic Fibrosis and Genetic Disorders Group Trials Register, comprising references identified from comprehensive electronic database searches and handsearches of relevant journals and abstract books of conference proceedings. We requested information from pharmaceutical companies manufacturing inhaled corticosteroids and authors of identified trials.Date of most recent search of the Group's Trials Register: June 2008.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised trials, published and unpublished, comparing ICS to placebo or standard treatment in individuals with CF.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two independent authors assessed methodological quality of trials using established criteria and extracted data using standard pro formas.

MAIN RESULTS

Thirty citations were identified by the searches, of which 25, representing 13 trials were eligible for inclusion. These 13 trials reported the use of ICS in 506 people with CF aged between 6 and 55 years. One trial was a withdrawal study in individuals who were already taking ICS. Methodological quality was difficult to assess from published information. Inclusion criteria varied between trials, as did type and duration of treatment and timing of outcome assessments. Objective measures of airway function were reported in most trials but were often incomplete. Significant benefit has not been conclusively demonstrated. Four trials systematically documented adverse effects and growth was significantly affected in one study using high doses.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Evidence from these trials is insufficient to establish whether ICS are beneficial in CF, but withdrawal in those already taking them has been shown to be safe. There is some evidence they may cause harm in terms of growth. It has not been established whether long-term use is beneficial in reducing lung inflammation, which should improve survival, but it is unlikely this will be proven conclusively in a randomised controlled trial.

Clinical implications of airway hyperresponsiveness in COPD

COPD represents one of the leading causes of mortality in the general population. This study aimed at evaluating the relationship between airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and COPD and its relevance for clinical practice. We performed a MEDLINE search that yielded a total of 1919 articles. Eligible studies were defined as articles that addressed specific aspects of AHR in COPD, such as prevalence, pathogenesis, or prognosis. AHR appears to be present in at least one out of two individuals with COPD. The occurrence of AHR in COPD is influenced by multiple mechanisms, among which impairment of factors that oppose airway narrowing plays an important role. The main determinants of AHR are reduction in lung function and smoking status. We envision a dual role of AHR: in suspected COPD, specific determinants of AHR, such as reactivity and the plateau response, may help the physician to discriminate COPD from asthma; in definite COPD, AHR may be relevant for the prognosis. Indeed, AHR is an independent predictor of mortality in COPD patients. Smoking cessation has been shown to reduce AHR. Further studies are needed to elucidate whether this functional change is associated with improvement in lung function and respiratory symptoms.

Factors influencing short-term re-admission and one-year mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Fourteen day re-admission rates are deemed to be an important indicator of the quality of medical care for COPD in Taiwan. This study identified the characteristics of patients with COPD who required short-term re-admission and analysed the risk factors for 1-year mortality.

METHODS

Consecutive patients with COPD who were re-admitted to hospital within 14 days of discharge and a random computer generated selection of patients with COPD not re-admitted within 14 days of discharge were recruited to the study and their medical data collected from hospital records. Recruitment occurred over an 18-month period.

RESULTS

Fifty patients were recruited to each group. Multivariate analysis revealed statistically significant differences in oral steroid use (P = 0.013) and FEV1 (P = 0.04) between the re-admission group and non-re-admission group. Of the many variables assessed, risk of death within 1 year of discharge was significantly associated with re-admission within 14 days alone (P = 0.02; odds ratio = 15.01).

CONCLUSION

COPD patients using long-term oral corticosteroids and with a low FEV1 are at risk of re-admission with 14 days of hospital discharge, and medical care of these patients warrants much greater attention.

Inhaled corticosteroids for stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

The role of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has been the subject of much controversy. Major international guidelines recommend selective use of ICS. Recently published meta-analyses have reported conflicting findings on the effects of inhaled steroid therapy in COPD.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of the review is to determine the efficacy of regular use of inhaled corticosteroids in patients with stable COPD.

SEARCH STRATEGY

A pre-defined search strategy was used to search the Cochrane Airways Group specialised register for relevant literature. Searches are current as of October 2006.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We selected randomised trials comparing any dose of any type of inhaled steroid with a placebo control in patients with COPD. Acute bronchodilator reversibility to short term beta2-agonists and bronchial hyperresponsiveness were not exclusion criteria. The a priori primary outcome was change in lung function. Data on mortality, exacerbations, quality of life and symptoms, rescue bronchodilator use, exercise capacity, biomarkers and safety were also analysed.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed trial quality and extracted data. Study authors were contacted for additional information. Adverse effects information was collected from the trials.

MAIN RESULTS

Forty-seven primary studies with 13,139 participants met the inclusion criteria. Medium term use of ICS (> two months and up to six months) resulted in a small improvement in FEV1 in some studies. Long term use of ICS (> six months) did not significantly reduce the rate of decline in FEV1 in COPD patients (weighted mean difference (WMD) 5.80 ml/year with ICS over placebo, 95% CI -0.28 to 11.88, 2333 participants). There was no statistically significant effect on mortality in COPD patients (OR 0.98, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.16, 8390 participants). Long term use of ICS reduced the mean rate of exacerbations in those studies where pooling of data was possible (WMD -0.26 exacerbations per patient per year, 95% CI -0.37 to -0.14, 2586 participants). ICS slowed the rate of decline in quality of life, as measured by the St George's Respiratory Questionnaire (WMD -1.22 units/year, 95% CI -1.83 to -0.60, 2507 participants). Response to ICS was not predicted by oral steroid response, bronchodilator reversibility or bronchial hyper-responsiveness in COPD patients. There was an increased risk of oropharyngeal candidiasis (OR 2.49, 95% CI 1.78 to 3.49, 4380 participants) and hoarseness. The few long term studies that measured bone effects generally showed no major effect on fractures and bone mineral density over 3 years.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Patients and clinicians should balance the potential benefits of inhaled steroids in COPD (reduced rate of exacerbations, reduced rate of decline in quality of life), against the known increase in local side effects (oropharyngeal candidiasis and hoarseness). The risk of long term adverse effects is unknown.

Asthma and COPD

The two obstructive airway diseases bronchial asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) represent major global causes of disability and death, and COPD is estimated to become the third most common cause of death by 2020. The structural and pathophysiologic findings in both diseases appear to be easily differentiated in the extremes of clinical presentation. However, a significant overlap may exist in individual patients regarding features such as airway wall thickening on computer tomography or reversibility and airway hyperresponsiveness in lung function tests. Airway inflammation differs between the two diseases. In bronchial asthma, airway inflammation is characterized in most cases by an increased number of activated T-lymphocytes, particularly CD4+ Th2 cells, and sometimes eosinophils and mast cells. The most notable difference of chronic severe asthma compared with mild to moderate asthma is an increased number of neutrophils. In stable COPD, airway inflammation is characterized by an increased number of T-lymphocytes, particularly CD8+ T cells, macrophages and neutrophils. With the progression of the disease severity, macrophage and neutrophil numbers increase. Although there may be a partial overlap between asthma and COPD in some patients, the differences in functional, structural and pharmacological features clearly demonstrate the consensus that asthma and COPD are different diseases along all their stages of severity.

Oral corticosteroids for stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a common chronic lung disorder, usually related to cigarette smoking, representing a major and increasing cause of morbidity and mortality. It is defined "as a disease state characterized by airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. The airflow limitation is usually both progressive and associated with an abnormal inflammatory response of the lungs to noxious particles or gases". The use of corticosteroids for their anti-inflammatory effects has been suggested.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of oral corticosteroids on the health status of patients with stable COPD.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Searches of the Cochrane Airways Group Specialised Register and MEDLINE were carried out in December 2003 and 2004. Review articles and bibliographies were searched.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled prospective studies in adults with stable COPD ( post-bronchodilator FEV1 <80% of predicted, FEV1/FVC <70%) and a history of smoking, excluding known asthmatics, in which oral steroid use was compared with placebo and use of co-interventions was matched in both groups.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data was extracted independently by two reviewers. All trials were combined using Review Manager (version 4.2.7).

MAIN RESULTS

From 459 titles 24 studies met the inclusion criteria. Treatment lasted three weeks or less in 19 studies, high dose oral steroid was used in 21 studies and subjects had moderate or severe COPD in 15 studies. There was a significant difference in FEV1 after two weeks treatment, WMD 53.30 ml; 95% confidence interval 22.21 to 84.39 favouring oral steroid use compared to placebo when 14 studies with available data (n=396) were combined, with no significant heterogeneity. There was a significant increase in odds for individual patient FEV1 response greater than 20% from baseline with high dose oral steroid treatment compared to placebo, OR 2.71; 95% CI 1.84 to 4.01 (9 studies) . It would be necessary to treat 7 patients (95% CI 5 to 12) with oral corticosteroids to achieve one extra case of increasing FEV1 by more than 20%, with a placebo group risk of 0.13. All differences in health-related quality of life were less than the minimum clinically important difference. There were small statistically significant advantages for functional capacity and respiratory symptom of wheeze with oral steroid treatment but no significant difference in risk of withdrawal from study due to an exacerbation or rate of serious exacerbations over 2 years with low dose oral steroid treatment. There was an increased risk of adverse effects, including increased blood glucose, adrenal suppression and reduced serum osteocalcin.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is no evidence to support the long-term use of oral steroids at doses less than 10-15 mg prednisolone though some evidence that higher doses (>/= 30 mg prednisolone) improve lung function over a short period. Potentially harmful adverse effects e.g.. diabetes, hypertension, osteoporosis would prevent recommending long-term use at these high doses in most patients.

Benefits and risks of inhaled corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Inhaled corticosteroids have a proven benefit in the management of asthma, but until recently, their efficacy in non-asthmatic, smoking-related chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) was not evidence-based. Airway inflammation in COPD differs from inflammation in asthma. Some studies have shown an effect of inhaled corticosteroids on airway inflammation in COPD but the clinical relevance of these results are unknown. Short-term studies evaluating the effect of inhaled corticosteroids in patients with COPD were associated with no or modest improvements in lung function. Data from five, long-term, large studies have provided evidence that prolonged treatment with inhaled corticosteroids does not modify the rate of decline of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV(1)) in patients with COPD and no reversibility to short-acting beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists. FEV(1) was slightly improved over the first 6 months of treatment in two studies and lower airway reactivity in response to methacholine challenge has been observed. Improvement of respiratory symptoms and health status was also reported in three studies. A reduction in the rate of exacerbations was observed in two studies. No survival benefit was demonstrated in any study. The advantage of using inhaled, rather than oral, corticosteroids is a reduction in adverse effects for the same therapeutic effect, because inhaled corticosteroids rely more on topical action than systemic activity. The long-term safety of inhaled corticosteroids is not known in patients with COPD. However, topical adverse effects, and systemic effects such as a decrease of bone density of lumbar spine and femur and cutaneous adverse effects, have been reported in patients with COPD after 3 years of treatment with inhaled corticosteroids.

Effects of withdrawal of inhaled steroids in men with severe irreversible airflow obstruction

Inhaled corticosteroid therapy has proven efficacy for asthmatics, but the benefit for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is less well supported. We hypothesized that withdrawal of inhaled steroids in elderly patients with severe irreversible airway obstruction would not lead to a deterioration in respiratory function. We designed a prospective, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study to follow spirometry, quality of life questionnaire, six-minute (6-min) walk test, and sputum markers of inflammation during a 6-wk placebo treatment period and a 6-wk treatment period with beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP), 336 microg/d. There were 24 men receiving BDP who entered the study; 15 completed the study. Their mean age was 66.9 +/- 1.9 yr, and mean FEV(1) was 1.61 +/- 0.1 L (47% of predicted). There was a significant decrease in the mean FEV(1 )while using the placebo inhaler (1.70 L versus 1.60 L, baseline versus placebo: 95% CI, 0.002 to 0.195; p < 0.05). There was a decrease in the mean percentage change in FEV(1) for the study subjects during the placebo treatment period as compared with the BDP treatment period (-6.28 versus 5.03%, placebo versus BDP: 95% CI, -23.38 to 0.76; p = 0.06). Six-minute walk test results and sputum analysis for cell count and differential were not significantly different during placebo and BDP treatment periods. Borg scale assessment of dyspnea after exercise was increased while using the placebo inhaler as compared with baseline, and decreased during the BDP treatment period. Chronic Respiratory Disease Questionnaire (CRQ) scores revealed no significant difference between placebo and BDP. This study has demonstrated that in elderly patients with severe irreversible airway obstruction, withdrawal of inhaled corticosteroid therapy leads to a deterioration in ventilatory function and increased exercise-induced dyspnea.

Role of corticosteroids in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Evidence supporting or refuting the use of corticosteroids in the treatment of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has only recently become available, and evidence is still missing for a number of important clinical issues. Results from four large studies on the long-term effects of inhaled corticosteroids on COPD and other controlled studies on the more short-term effects of inhaled corticosteroids provide evidence that regular treatment with these drugs is only appropriate for a limited group of patients with COPD. These include symptomatic COPD patients with documented spirometric response to inhaled corticosteroids or those with a forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV(1)) less than 50% predicted and repeated exacerbations requiring treatments with antibiotics or oral corticosteroids.

Additive effects of prednisolone and beclomethasone dipropionate in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

It remains unclear whether inhaled corticosteroids can produce the maximum benefits of corticosteroids in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). To assess the additive effects of 30 mg/day prednisolone to high-dose, inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP), we conducted a randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over trial. The study population consisted of 21 men with stable COPD. The mean age of the patients was 69.1 +/- 6.8 years, and FEV(1)was 0.86 +/- 0.28 l. Seventeen out of the 21 patients (81%) were considered susceptible to steroids in a previous trial (FEV(1)increased at least 15% from baseline after receiving 14 days of 30 mg/day prednisolone). All of the patients had been on 1600 microg/day BDP for more than 3 months. Spirometry was performed before the entry, and at the end of 3-week placebo and prednisolone periods. The peak expiratory flow (PEF), symptoms, and Guyatt's Chronic Respiratory Disease Questionnaire (CRQ) as a disease specific health-related quality of life over the last seven days of each period were also evaluated. Although a marginal increase in PEF was found during the prednisolone period, no significant differences in FEV(1), FVC, symptoms or CRQ scores were observed between the two treatment periods. We conclude that the therapeutic effects of steroid therapy may be achieved by the long-term use of high-dose, inhaled corticosteroid in some patients with stable COPD.

Effect of inhaled triamcinolone on the decline in pulmonary function in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) results from a progressive decline in lung function, which is thought to be the consequence of airway inflammation. We hypothesized that antiinflammatory therapy with inhaled corticosteroids would slow this decline.

METHODS

We enrolled 1116 persons with COPD whose forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) was 30 to 90 percent of the predicted value in a 10-center, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of inhaled triamcinolone acetonide administered at a dose of 600 microg twice daily. The primary outcome measure was the rate of decline in FEV1 after the administration of a bronchodilator. The secondary outcome measures included respiratory symptoms, use of health care services, and airway reactivity. In a substudy of 412 participants, we measured bone density in the lumbar spine and femur at base line and one and three years after the beginning of treatment.

RESULTS

The mean duration of follow-up was 40 months. The rate of decline in the FEV1 after bronchodilator use was similar in the 559 participants in the triamcinolone group and the 557 participants in the placebo group (44.2+/-2.9 vs. 47.0+/-3.0 ml per year, P= 0.50). Members of the triamcinolone group had fewer respiratory symptoms during the course of the study (21.1 per 100 person-years vs. 28.2 per 100 person-years, P=0.005) and had fewer visits to a physician because of a respiratory illness (1.2 per 100 person-years vs. 2.1 per 100 person-years, P=0.03). Those taking triamcinolone also had lower airway reactivity in response to methacholine challenge at 9 months and 33 months (P=0.02 for both comparisons). After three years, the bone density of the lumbar spine and the femur was significantly lower in the triamcinolone group (P < or = 0.007).

CONCLUSIONS

Inhaled triamcinolone does not slow the rate of decline in lung function in people with COPD, but it improves airway reactivity and respiratory symptoms and decreases the use of health care services for respiratory problems. These benefits should be weighed against the potential long-term adverse effects of triamcinolone on bone mineral density.

Inhaled corticosteroids in stable COPD patients: do they have effects on cells and molecular mediators of airway inflammation?

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To investigate possible changes in cells and molecular mediators of airway inflammation following inhaled steroid treatment of stable COPD patients.

DESIGN

Six-week open preliminary prospective study.

SETTING

A university respiratory disease clinic.

PATIENTS

: Stable COPD patients with mild disease.

INTERVENTION

Six-week treatment with inhaled beclomethasone (1.5 mg die).

MEASUREMENTS

The levels of interleukin (IL)-8, myeloperoxidase, eosinophilic cationic protein and tryptase, and cell numbers in bronchial lavage specimens were determined, and the symptom score, the endoscopic bronchitis index, and functional parameters were recorded.

RESULTS

After treatment there were significant reductions in the lavage levels of IL-8 ([mean +/- SEM] 1,603.4 +/- 331.2 vs 1,119.2 +/- 265.3 pg/mL, respectively; p = 0. 01) and myeloperoxidase (1,614.5 +/- 682.3 vs 511.2 +/- 144.2 microg/L, respectively; p = 0.05), in cell numbers (250.6 +/- 27.7 vs 186.3 +/- 11.5 cells x 10(3)/mL, respectively; p = 0.04), neutrophil proportion (59.7 +/- 14.3% vs 31.5 +/- 10.1%; p = 0.01), symptom score (4.5 +/- 0.6 vs 1.4 +/- 0.5; p = 0.01), and bronchitis index (8.5 +/- 0.8 vs 5.5 +/- 0.7; p = 0.007).

CONCLUSIONS

In stable patients with COPD, inhaled steroid treatment may induce changes on some cellular and molecular parameters of airway inflammation.

Direct medical costs of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: chronic bronchitis and emphysema

In this study we aimed to estimate direct medical costs of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) by disease type; chronic bronchitis and emphysema. This study estimates direct costs in 1996 dollars using a prevalence approach and both aggregate and microcosting. A societal perspective is taken using prevalence, and multiple national, state and local data sources are used to estimate health-care utilization and costs. Chronic bronchitis and emphysema together account for $14.5 billion in annual direct costs. Inpatient costs are greater than outpatient and emergency costs ($8.3 vs. $7.8 billion) and hospital and medication costs account for most resources spent. The high prevalence of chronic bronchitis accounts for its larger total costs ($11.7 billion) compared with emphysema ($2.8 billion). Emphysema, which is more severe, has higher costs per prevalent case ($1341 vs. $816). Hospital stays account for the highest costs, $6.0 billion for chronic bronchitis and $1.9 billion for emphysema. The hospitalization rate, length of stay and average cost per prevalent case are higher for emphysema than for chronic bronchitis. Medication costs are the second highest cost category ($4.4 billion for chronic bronchitis, $0.693 billion for emphysema). The high hospitalization and low home care costs (0.2% of total) suggest underuse of home care and room to shift from acute to preventive care. More attention to healthcare management of chronic bronchitis and emphysema is suggested, and improving inhaler and anti-smoking compliance might be important targets.

Inhaled corticosteroids for cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Maintenance of optimal lung function is an important therapeutic goal in cystic fibrosis as it is lung damage that, in the long term, is responsible for most premature death among affected people. Inhaled corticosteroids are being increasingly used to treat children and adults with cystic fibrosis. The rationale for their use is that they have the potential to reduce lung damage arising from inflammation. However chronic use of inhaled steroids may also have adverse effects. It is thus important to establish the current level of evidence about the potential benefits and harms of this practice.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this review is to assess the effectiveness of regular use of inhaled corticosteroids when compared to no inhaled corticosteroids, in the management of patients with cystic fibrosis.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Trials were ascertained from the Cochrane Cystic Fibrosis and Genetic Disorders Specialised Register of Controlled Trials which includes published and unpublished trials identified through electronic databases such as Medline and Embase as well as those identified from handsearching of journals and conference proceedings. Pharmaceutical companies manufacturing inhaled corticosteroids were also contacted to identify any trials of inhaled corticosteroids in cystic fibrosis. Date of the most recent search of the Group's specialised register: November 1999.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All trials, both published and unpublished, in which inhaled corticosteroids were compared to either placebo or standard treatment in patients with cystic fibrosis. Trials employing random treatment allocation and those using quasi-random allocation methods such as alternate allocation to treatment and control group were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The following outcomes were assessed: objective measures of lung function, respiratory exacerbations, use of intravenous antibiotics, hospital admissions, nutritional status, symptoms, quality of life, survival and frequency of adverse effects. Methodological quality of trials was assessed independently using established criteria by two reviewers, who also extracted relevant data independently using standard proformas. Differences were resolved by discussion.

MAIN RESULTS

Nine trials were identified reporting the use of inhaled steroids in 266 subjects aged between seven and 45 years with cystic fibrosis. Methodological quality was difficult to assess from published information, specifically with respect to concealment of allocation and method used to generate random sequence. Trials were heterogeneous with respect to inclusion criteria, specifically age, severity of pulmonary involvement, clinical diagnosis of asthma and pulmonary colonisation with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Trials also differed in type and duration of treatment. Beclomethasone was given for periods of between four and 22 weeks in four trials, budesonide for six weeks and six months respectively in two, and fluticasone for periods of between six weeks and two years in the remaining three. Measures of the volume of air breathed out on a forcible expiration (forced expiratory volumes) were reported in most trials but these data could not be combined for this review partly because reports differed in the way data were summarised and partly because some data were not included in published reports. Outcomes of potentially greater relevance to affected individuals such as nutritional status or quality of life were not reported in any trial. Survival was not reported in any trial, but this may reflect the fact that maximum duration of follow up was too short to allow this outcome to be meaningfully assessed. Adverse effects were systematically documented in only two trials. Although one trial was halted prematurely because a proportion of all those taking part had acquired chronic lung infections with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, no conclusions can be reached from this one small trial as to whether this risk is increased as

Are inhaled glucocorticosteroids effective in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease?

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) constitutes an enormous, and growing, health problem, the treatment of which has been less than satisfactory so far. COPD is a chronic inflammatory process in the airway wall of the large and peripheral airways as well as in the parenchyma. Because of this inflammation, glucocorticosteroids (steroids) have been investigated in more than 100 studies. By tradition, the forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV(1)) has been utilized as the main outcome parameter. More recently, exacerbation frequency and health status (quality of life) have been added as end points. Oral steroids have been demonstrated to be useful during exacerbations, although the effects are smaller than in exacerbations of asthma. In stable COPD, 10% more patients respond favorably to a 2-wk course of steroids than to placebo. The long-term effects of oral steroids have not been evaluated in randomized controlled trials. There have now been 10 studies of inhaled steroids of short duration, defined as up to 3 mo. In general, there was no effect on FEV(1). No other parameters of lung function were consistently measured. Several studies showed a small effect on some inflammatory parameters, but none of these were comparable between studies and therefore await further confirmation and elaboration. In total, eight studies evaluated inhaled steroids over a long period, i.e., at least 6 mo. Five of these have been published, and three major large-scale studies have been presented as abstracts at major meetings but not yet published in full. On the basis of these studies, there seems to be an effect of inhaled steroids during the first 3-6 mo of use, but thereafter no effect on the subsequent decline of lung function has been found. Two studies have documented a reduction in exacerbation frequency and an improvement in health status. In summary, as far as FEV(1) is concerned, there is only a short-term benefit of inhaled steroids at best. The improvements in exacerbations and health status need to be confirmed and valued, but could well be important to patients. There is an urgent need to identify those patients within the large heterogeneous group of patients with COPD who benefit from steroids. For this, it would be useful to pool data from the long-term studies. Postma DS, Kerstjens HAM. Are inhaled glucocorticosteroids effective in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease?

Steroid reversibility test followed by inhaled budesonide or placebo in outpatients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The Danish Society of Respiratory Medicine

The aim of this study was evaluate the predictive value of a 2 week course of prednisolone on the effect of 6 months treatment with inhaled budesonide in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Forty patients with stable COPD entered the study, and received prednisolone (37.5 mg o.d.) for 2 weeks. They were subsequently divided into steroid-irreversible and steroid-irreversible, using 15% of baseline as a dividing point. In each group patients were randomized to receive budesonide 400 micrograms b.i.d. or placebo for 6 months. During treatment with prednisolone, three patients dropped out because of side effects. Of the remaining 37, only two patients (5%) were reversible with prednisolone forced expiratory volume in 1s [(FEV1) > 15% of baseline], and among the steroid-irreversible, 26 patients were evaluated after 6 months treatment with either placebo or budesonide. No significant differences in spirometry values, symptoms, or number of exacerbations were found between these two groups. Reversibility with prednisolone is rarely seen in COPD. In outpatients with stable COPD and no signs of asthma or atopy, 2 weeks treatment with prednisolone seems to be of no value in choosing subsequent long-term therapy.

Long-term treatment with inhaled budesonide in persons with mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease who continue smoking. European Respiratory Society Study on Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

BACKGROUND

Although patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) should stop smoking, some do not. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, we evaluated the effect of the inhaled glucocorticoid budesonide in patients with mild COPD who continued smoking. After a six-month run-in period, we randomly assigned 1277 subjects (mean age, 52 years; mean forced expiratory volume in one second [FEV1], 77 percent of the predicted value; 73 percent men) to twice-daily treatment with 400 microg of budesonide or placebo, inhaled from a dry-powder inhaler, for three years.

RESULTS

Of the 1277 subjects, 912 (71 percent) completed the study. Among these subjects, the median decline in the FEV1 after the use of a bronchodilator over the three-year period was 140 ml in the budesonide group and 180 ml in the placebo group (P=0.05), or 4.3 percent and 5.3 percent of the predicted value, respectively. During the first six months of the study, the FEV1 improved at the rate of 17 ml per year in the budesonide group, as compared with a decline of 81 ml per year in the placebo group (P<0.001). From nine months to the end of treatment, the FEV1 declined at similar rates in the two groups (P=0.39). Ten percent of the subjects in the budesonide group and 4 percent of those in the placebo group had skin bruising (P<0.001). Newly diagnosed hypertension, bone fractures, postcapsular cataracts, myopathy, and diabetes occurred in less than 5 percent of the subjects, and the diagnoses were equally distributed between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with mild COPD who continue smoking, the use of inhaled budesonide is associated with a small one-time improvement in lung function but does not appreciably affect the long-term progressive decline.

Airway inflammation in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with special emphasis on the antigen-presenting dendritic cell: influence of treatment with fluticasone propionate

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways characterized by variable airflow limitation and airway hyperresponsiveness. The type of inflammatory response in asthma is compatible with a major contribution of professional antigen-presenting cells. The airways in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are also markedly inflamed; however, the predominant types of inflammatory cells and the main anatomical site of the lesion appear to differ from those in asthma. COPD is characterized by reduced maximum expiratory flow and slow forced emptying of the lungs. Steroids are the most prominent medication used in the treatment of asthma and COPD; however, the beneficial effect of steroid treatment in COPD is subject of debate. We investigated the efficacy of fluticasone propionate (FP) treatment in atopic asthmatics and in COPD patients with bronchial hyperreactivity who smoke. The effect of the treatment on bronchial hyperreactivity and indices of the methacholine dose-response curve were analysed, as well as indices of inflammation of the airway mucosa with special emphasis on the antigen presenting dendritic cell. Treatment of allergic asthmatic patients resulted in improvement of lung function (FEV1), a decrease in bronchial hyperresponsiveness and a decrease of maximal airway narrowing. During the FP-treatment of COPD patients, FEV1 remained stable, while FEV1 deteriorated significantly in the placebo group. Therefore, steroid treatment may have a beneficial effect in COPD patients with bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR). Since immunohistochemical analysis of bronchial biopsy specimens from asthma and COPD patients show disease-specific aspects of inflammation, the anti-inflammatory effect of FP is obtained through modulation of different cell populations in asthma and COPD.

An observational study of inhaled corticosteroid withdrawal in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. ISOLDE Study Group

Withdrawal of inhaled corticosteroids is known to worsen disease control in bronchial asthma but similar data are lacking in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). We hypothesized that clinical exacerbations requiring treatment would occur more often in patients whose inhaled corticosteroids were stopped than in other patients not treated with these agents. We studied 272 patients in mean age 65 (SD 0.8) years, mean FEV1 42.8 (SD 12.6)% predicted, entering the run-in phase of the Inhaled Steroids in Obstructive Lung Disease (ISOLDE) trial. All had been clinically stable for at least 6 weeks and there were no differences in the degree of bronchodilator reversibility, baseline lung function or pack-years of smoking between the 160 patients receiving inhaled corticosteroids and those not so treated. Inhaled corticosteroids were withdrawn in the first week of the study and during the remaining 7 weeks of the study 38% of those previously treated with these drugs had an exacerbation compared to 6% of the chronically untreated group. Patients receiving inhaled corticosteroids reported a longer duration of symptoms but neither this or any other recorded variable predicted the risk of exacerbation. These data suggest that abrupt withdrawal of inhaled corticosteroids should be monitored carefully even in patients with apparently irreversible COPD.

The effect of high-dose inhaled beclomethasone dipropionate in patients with stable COPD

BACKGROUND

The benefits of inhaled corticosteroids in the management of COPD are less apparent than they are in asthma therapy, and the potential for adverse systemic effects of high-dose inhaled corticosteroids has been recognized recently. It is therefore essential to know the maximal obtainable benefits in order to assess the risk/benefit ratio of this treatment.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate the maximal obtainable benefits of high-dose inhaled corticosteroids, 3 mg/d of beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP), when used in combination with adequate doses of regular bronchodilators in patients with stable COPD.

STUDY DESIGN

Thirty patients with stable COPD completed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over trial with either 3 mg/d of BDP or with a matching placebo using a metered-dose inhaler with a spacer device for 4 weeks during each treatment period. All of the patients continued to inhale both 400 microg of salbutamol qid and 80 microg of ipratropium bromide qid.

RESULTS

The mean prebronchodilator FEV1 was 0.97+/-0.35 L during the placebo period and 1.08+/-0.38 L during the BDP period (p < 0.001). While on BDP, five patients demonstrated a response in their FEV1 of more than 8.5% of the predicted value, which was above the range that covered 95% of the distribution of the placebo response. The mean absolute improvement in the FEV1 in these 5 objective responders was 0.34+/-0.10 L, compared to 0.06+/-0.09 L in the 25 objective nonresponders. Symptom scores for wheezing and dyspnea were significantly better with BDP than with placebo. Hoarseness and sore throat were associated more with BDP treatment.

CONCLUSION

Although a considerable minority of patients benefited substantially from this treatment, the overall outcome does not seem to justify the widespread use of this treatment in the light of increasing recognition of the potential adverse systemic effects of high-dose inhaled corticosteroids.

Are anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory treatments effective in different subgroups of COPD? A hypothesis

The treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with inhaled corticosteroids or anti-oxidants is still under debate and the identification of sub-groups of COPD patients who may benefit from either anti-inflammatory or anti-oxidant treatment is needed. We re-analysed data from an earlier study of inhaled beclomethasone therapy in COPD (n = 28) and asthma (n = 28) patients in order to determine patient characteristics that predict a favourable inhaled steroid treatment effect. A higher bronchodilatory response, a faster decline of FEV1 prior to the treatment period and a lower Tiffeneau index were significantly related to more beneficial treatment effects. Increased smoking tended to be related to less steroid treatment benefits, though it was not statistically significant. In this paper these findings are presented in light of the available literature on anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant COPD treatment. On this basis the hypothesis is presented that anti-oxidant treatment might be relatively more effective among those COPD patients who respond less well to inhaled steroids (low reversibility and heavy smoking).

Randomised controlled trial of inhaled corticosteroids in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

BACKGROUND

Inhaled corticosteroids are known to be beneficial for patients with asthma, but their role in treating patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) remains controversial. A study was undertaken to determine whether inhaled corticosteroids are of functional benefit in patients who did not show improvement with a trial of oral corticosteroids.

METHODS

In phase I patients with stable COPD were given a two week course of oral placebo followed by two weeks of prednisone 40 mg per day in a single blind manner to distinguish between responders and non-responders to oral corticosteroids. In phase II a double blind, randomised, parallel group trial of inhaled budesonide 1600 micrograms per day versus placebo was carried out in 79 nonresponders to oral corticosteroids. The primary outcome measure was forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and secondary outcome measures were exercise capacity, dyspnoea with exertion, quality of life, peak expiration flow rate, and respiratory symptoms.

RESULTS

Randomisation allocated 39 subjects to inhaled corticosteroids and 40 to placebo. There was no difference in the change in FEV1 from baseline between the treatment and placebo groups; mean difference -12 ml (95% CI -88 to 63) at three months and -4 ml (95% CI -95 to 87) at six months. The proportion of patients with a 15% or greater improvement was no higher among those receiving inhaled corticosteroids than in the placebo group at any of the follow up visits. Changes in secondary outcomes were also no different.

CONCLUSIONS

Inhaled corticosteroids, even at high doses, were of no physiological or functional benefit in these patients with advanced COPD.

Short-term treatment with budesonide does not improve hyperresponsiveness to adenosine 5'-monophosphate in COPD

The role of inhaled corticosteroids in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is unclear. We investigated the effects of budesonide on airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) to methacholine (MCh) and adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP), to which we hypothesized the existence of greater sensitivity. Additionally, we studied the effects of budesonide on terfenadine and ipratropium bromide and on serum levels of interleukin-8 (IL-8) and histamine. Forty-four hyperresponsive smokers with moderate to severe COPD participated in the study. MCh and AMP challenges were given on three study days, after pretreatment with single doses of ipratropium bromide, terfenadine, or placebo. Thereafter, subjects were randomized to 6 wk treatment with either 1,600 microg budesonide or placebo, and the same three study days were repeated. Budesonide, as compared with placebo, did not significantly change PC20AMP, PC20MCh, or FEV1 after placebo pretreatment. Budesonide increased PC20MCh after ipratropium bromide pretreatment, from 5.05 to 10.20 mg/ml (p = 0.036). Budesonide decreased serum IL-8 from 9.2 +/- 3.7 to 6.2 +/- 2.1 pg/ml (p < 0.001). We conclude that AMP did not elicit greater sensitivity than MCh in assessing short-term effects of budesonide on AHR in smokers with COPD. We suggest that long-term treatment with inhaled corticosteroids might be beneficial, by reducing neutrophil load in the airways and improving the action of anticholinergic drugs.

Assessing quality of life in chronic non-specific lung disease--a review of empirical studies published between 1980 and 1994

Chronic non-specific lung disease (CNSLD), a chronic disease with considerable prevalence and mortality rates, is not only a medical problem, it also has significant psychological and social consequences for the patients concerned. Quality of life research on CNSLD has been rather underdeveloped for quite a long period of time, but has recently become an important topic in research as well as in patient care. In order to get insight into the state of the art of empirical research on quality of life (QOL) in CNSLD, a review of the literature between 1980-1994 on this topic is presented. Special attention is paid to definitions and operationalizations of the QOL concept as well as on questionnaires used to assess QOL and the aims of QOL research. Analysis reveals that QOL is seldom defined clearly and is operationalized in a variety of ways. Most studies have a descriptive nature or pertain to clinical trials. The negative impact of CNSLD on QOL is well-documented and shows the importance of incorporating assessment of QOL in research as well as in patient care. Future research is called for, which should be theory-driven, taking into account recent developments concerning disease-specific measures of QOL.

A comparison of the effects of prednisolone and mianserin on ventilatory, exercise and psychometric parameters in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

There is controversy as to whether effects on mood play a role in mediating the response to corticosteroids in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). If alterations in mood are important, it is conceivable that psychotropic drugs such as mianserin might produce similar responses to prednisolone in patients with COPD. Twelve patients age 62.5 y, with FEV1 29% of predicted and < 15% reversibility to salbutamol completed a randomised, double-blind crossover study. After an initial three week placebo run-in period patients received three weeks of prednisolone 40 mg daily or mianserin 60-90 mg daily with an intervening three week placebo washout period. Full respiratory function tests, bicycle ergometry and 6 minute walks were performed before and after the run-in and at the end of each period. Psychological and functional assessments were also made at each visit. Prednisolone significantly increased FVC, maximum ventilation (VEmax) and maximum heart rate (HRmax) compared with placebo, with mean for the difference of 0.25 l, 2.56 l.min-1 and 12 beats.min-1 respectively. FVC, maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) and HRmax were also significantly increased with prednisolone compared with mianserin. Anxiety scores were significantly lower with prednisolone compared with placebo. In contrast, mianserin had no significant effects on lung function, exercise or psychological parameters compared with placebo. The improvements in ventilation, exercise and anxiety scores following treatment with prednisolone were not reproduced by mianserin, suggesting that the effects of prednisolone in COPD are unlikely to be due to alterations in mood.