Incorporating age improves the Glasgow Coma Scale score for predicting mortality from traumatic brain injury

Gastrointestinal bleeding following traumatic brain injury: A clinical study on predisposing factors and outcomes

Background

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most common causes of death and disability worldwide. Stress ulcers are common in critically ill patients and can lead to life-threatening gastrointestinal bleeding (GIB). This study investigates the impact of predisposing factors on GIB and outcomes of TBI patients.

Methods

This retrospective cohort study included TBI patients admitted between February 2019 and November 2021. Patients' demographic information and clinical characteristics were collected and divided into Post-TBI GIB and No-GIB groups. During clinical follow-up, the Glasgow Outcome Score (GOS) and mortality were assessed. The correlation between predisposing factors and GIB was investigated.

Results

Out of 164 eligible patients, 66.5% were males, and the mean age was 31.38 ± 13.44 years. There was a higher rate of severe TBIs (p<0.001), intra-axial lesions (P=0.014), hypotension at admission (p<0.001), and concurrent coagulopathies (p<0.001) in the Post-TBI GIB group compared to the No-GIB group. In contrast, the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) level upon admission and discharge (p<0.001) and serum hemoglobin level at admission (p<0.001) were lower in the Post-TBI GIB group than in the other group. Moreover, primary GCS (P=0.017) and hypotension at admission (P=0.009), spinal injury (P=0.028), and intra-axial brain injury (P=0.018) were independently associated with GIB in TBI patients.

Conclusion

Primary GCS and hypotension at admission, spinal injury, and intra-axial brain injury are independent predictors for GIB in TBI patients. The presence of GIB in TBI patients is associated with worse neurological outcomes as assessed by GOS at approximately 18 months.

The Predictive Value of the Verbal Glasgow Coma Scale in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major global health concern, imposing significant burdens on individuals and healthcare systems. The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), a widely utilized instrument for evaluating neurological status, includes 3 variables: motor, verbal, and eye opening. The GCS plays a crucial role in TBI severity stratification. While extensive research has explored the predictive capabilities of the overall GCS score and its motor component, the Verbal Glasgow Coma Scale (V-GCS) has garnered less attention.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the predictive accuracy of the V-GCS in assessing outcomes in patients with TBI, with a particular focus on functional outcome and mortality. In addition, we intend to compare its predictive performance with other components of the GCS.

METHODS

A systematic review, based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, was conducted utilizing the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Inclusion criteria encompassed 10 clinical studies involving patients with TBI, wherein the level of consciousness was assessed using the verbal GCS score. Predominant statistical measures employed were odds ratios (ORs) and area under the curve (AUC).

RESULTS

Recorded findings consistently underscore that lower V-GCS scores are associated with adverse functional outcomes and mortality in patients with TBI. Despite the predictive accuracy of the V-GCS, the Motor Glasgow Coma Scale (M-GCS) emerges as a superior predictor.

CONCLUSION

In the context of TBI outcome prediction, the V-GCS demonstrates its efficacy as a prognostic tool. However, the M-GCS exhibits superior performance compared with the V-GCS. These insights underscore the multifaceted nature of TBI assessment and emphasize the necessity of considering distinct components of the Glasgow Coma Scale for comprehensive evaluation. Further research is warranted to refine and improve the application of these predictive measures in clinical practice.

Overview of Hypothermia, Its Role in Neuroprotection, and the Application of Prophylactic Hypothermia in Traumatic Brain Injury

The current standard of practice is to maintain normothermia in traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients despite the theoretical benefits of hypothermia and numerous animal studies with promising results. While targeted temperature management or induced hypothermia to support neurological function is recommended for a select patient population postcardiac arrest, similar guidelines have not been instituted for TBI. In this review, we will examine the pathophysiology of TBI and discuss the benefits and risks of induced hypothermia in this patient population. In addition, we provide an overview of the largest randomized controlled trials testing-induced hypothermia. Our literature review on hypothermia returned a myriad of studies and trials, many of which have inconclusive results. The aim of this review was to recognize the effects of hypothermia, summarize the latest trials, address the inconsistencies, and discuss future directions for the study of hypothermia in TBI.

Glasgow coma scale compared to other trauma scores in discriminating in-hospital mortality of traumatic brain injury patients admitted to urban Indian hospitals: A multicentre prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) is one of the most commonly used trauma scores and is a good predictor of outcome in traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients. There are other more complex scores with additional physiological parameters. Whether they discriminate better than GCS in predicting mortality in TBI patients is debatable. The aim of this study was to compare the discrimination of GCS with that of MGAP, GAP, RTS and KTS for 24-hour and 30-day in-hospital mortality in adult TBI patients, in a resource limited LMIC setting.

METHOD

We analysed data from the multicentre, observational trauma cohort Towards Improved Trauma Care Outcome (TITCO) in India. We included all patients 18 years or older, admitted from the emergency department with TBI. The Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic (AUROC) curve was used to quantify and compare the discrimination of all scores: GCS; Revised Trauma Score (RTS); mechanism, GCS, age, systolic blood pressure (MGAP); GCS, age, systolic blood pressure (GAP) and Kampala Trauma Score (KTS) in the prediction of 24-hour and 30-day in-hospital mortality.

RESULTS

A total of 3306 TBI patients were included in this study. The majority were within the GCS range 3-8. The commonest mechanism of injury was road traffic injuries [1907(58.0%)]. In-hospital mortality was 27.2% (899). There was no significant difference in discrimination in 24-hour in-hospital mortality when comparing GCS with MGAP and GAP. While GCS performed better than KTS, RTS performed better than GCS. For 30-day in-hospital mortality, GCS discriminated significantly better compared with KTS, but there was no significant difference when compared to MGAP and RTS. GAP discriminated significantly better when compared with GCS.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that the discrimination of GCS is comparable to that of more complex trauma scores in predicting 24-hour and 30-day in-hospital mortality in adult TBI patients in a resource limited LMIC setting.

Effects of balanced solution on short-term outcomes in traumatic brain injury patients: a secondary analysis of the BaSICS randomized trial

OBJECTIVE

To describe the effects of balanced solution use on the short-term outcomes of patients with traumatic brain injury enrolled in BaSICS trial.

METHODS

Patients were randomized to receive either 0.9% saline or balanced solution during their intensive care unit stay. The primary endpoint was 90-day mortality, and the secondary outcomes were days alive and free of intensive care unit stay at 28 days. The primary endpoint was assessed using Bayesian logistic regression. The secondary endpoint was assessed using a Bayesian zero-inflated beta binomial regression.

RESULTS

We included 483 patients (236 in the 0.9% saline arm and 247 in the balanced solution arm). A total of 338 patients (70%) with a Glasgow coma scale score ≤ 12 were enrolled. The overall probability that balanced solutions were associated with higher 90-day mortality was 0.98 (OR 1.48; 95%CrI 1.04 - 2.09); this mortality increment was particularly noticeable in patients with a Glasgow coma scale score below 6 at enrollment (probability of harm of 0.99). Balanced solutions were associated with -1.64 days alive and free of intensive care unit at 28 days (95%CrI -3.32 - 0.00) with a probability of harm of 0.97.

CONCLUSION

There was a high probability that balanced solutions were associated with high 90-day mortality and fewer days alive and free of intensive care units at 28 days.ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02875873.

Effects of balanced solution on short-term outcomes in traumatic brain injury patients: a secondary analysis of the BaSICS randomized trial

OBJECTIVE

To describe the effects of balanced solution use on the short-term outcomes of patients with traumatic brain injury enrolled in BaSICS trial.

METHODS

Patients were randomized to receive either 0.9% saline or balanced solution during their intensive care unit stay. The primary endpoint was 90-day mortality, and the secondary outcomes were days alive and free of intensive care unit stay at 28 days. The primary endpoint was assessed using Bayesian logistic regression. The secondary endpoint was assessed using a Bayesian zero-inflated beta binomial regression.

RESULTS

We included 483 patients (236 in the 0.9% saline arm and 247 in the balanced solution arm). A total of 338 patients (70%) with a Glasgow coma scale score ≤ 12 were enrolled. The overall probability that balanced solutions were associated with higher 90-day mortality was 0.98 (OR 1.48; 95%CrI 1.04 - 2.09); this mortality increment was particularly noticeable in patients with a Glasgow coma scale score below 6 at enrollment (probability of harm of 0.99). Balanced solutions were associated with -1.64 days alive and free of intensive care unit at 28 days (95%CrI -3.32 - 0.00) with a probability of harm of 0.97.

CONCLUSION

There was a high probability that balanced solutions were associated with high 90-day mortality and fewer days alive and free of intensive care units at 28 days.ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02875873.

Factors Associated with In-Patient Mortality in the Rapid Assessment of Adult Earthquake Trauma Patients

OBJECTIVE

To date, there is limited evidence for health care providers regarding the determinants of early assessment of poor outcomes of adult in-patients due to earthquakes. This study aimed to explore factors related to early assessment of adult earthquake trauma patients (AETPs).

METHODS

The data on 29,933 AETPs in the West China Earthquake Patients Database (WCEPD) were analyzed retrospectively. Then, 37 simple variables that could be obtained rapidly upon arrival at the hospital were collected. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression analyses were performed. A nomogram was then constructed.

RESULTS

Nine independent mortality-related factors that contributed to AETP in-patient mortality were identified. The variables included age (OR:1.035; 95%CI, 1.027-1.044), respiratory rate ([RR]; OR:1.091; 95%CI, 1.050-1.133), pulse rate ([PR]; OR:1.028; 95%CI, 1.020-1.036), diastolic blood pressure ([DBP]; OR:0.96; 95%CI, 0.950-0.970), Glasgow Coma Scale ([GCS]; OR:0.666; 95%CI, 0.643-0.691), crush injury (OR:3.707; 95%CI, 2.166-6.115), coronary heart disease ([CHD]; OR:4.025; 95%CI, 1.869-7.859), malignant tumor (OR:4.915; 95%CI, 2.850-8.098), and chronic kidney disease ([CKD]; OR:5.735; 95%CI, 3.209-10.019).

CONCLUSIONS

The nine mortality-related factors for ATEPs, including age, RR, PR, DBP, GCS, crush injury, CHD, malignant tumor, and CKD, could be quickly obtained on hospital arrival and should be the focal point of future earthquake response strategies for AETPs. Based on these factors, a nomogram was constructed to screen for AETPs with a higher risk of in-patient mortality.

Factors related to early and rapid assessment of in-hospital mortality among older adult trauma patients in an earthquake

BACKGROUND

There is limited evidence for emergency physicians and emergency trauma surgeons regarding the determinants of early and rapid assessment of older adult in-hospital mortality due to earthquakes. This study explored factors related to the early and rapid assessment of the mortality among older adult earthquake trauma patients (OAETPs) and created a screening model.

METHODS

Data on 7,308 OAETPs from the West China Earthquake Patients Database were analyzed retrospectively. The 35 variables that can be obtained rapidly on arrival at the hospital were collected. Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression analysis was performed. Then, the nomogram for assessing the mortality of OAETPs was constructed.

RESULTS

We identified 10 independent mortality-related factors that contributed to the in-hospital mortality of OAETPs. The 10 factors included age (odds ratio [OR]=1.061, 95% confidence interval [CI]:1.031-1.090), dementia (OR=5.146, 95%CI: 1.169-17.856), coronary heart disease (CHD; OR=23.441, 95%CI: 4.799-83.927), malignant tumor (OR=8.497, 95%CI: 3.583-17.967), deep vein thrombosis (DVT; OR=7.110, 95%CI: 1.369-27.168), chronic kidney disease(CKD; OR=11.783, 95%CI: 5.419-24.407), pulse rate (PR; OR=1.036, 95%CI: 1.022-1.048), mean artery pressure (MAP; OR=0.960, 95%CI: 0.945-0.975), Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS; OR=0.864, 95%CI: 0.760-0.972), and Triage Revised Trauma Score (T-RTS, OR=0.485, 95%CI: 0.351-0.696).

CONCLUSION

The 10 mortality-related factors could be quickly obtained on hospital arrival and should be the focal point of future earthquake response strategies regarding hospitalized older adults with trauma. A nomogram was constructed based on the factors for screening OAETPs with a higher risk of in-hospital mortality.

Recalibrating the Glasgow Coma Score as an Age-Adjusted Risk Metric for Neurosurgical Intervention

BACKGROUND

The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score is the most frequently used neurologic assessment in traumatic brain injury (TBI). The risk for neurosurgical intervention based on GCS is heavily modified by age. The objective is to create a recalibrated Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score that accounts for an interaction by age and determine the predictive performance of the recalibrated GCS (rGCS) compared to the standard GCS for predicting neurosurgical intervention.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study utilized the National Trauma Data Bank and included all patients admitted from 2010-2015 with TBI (ICD9 diagnosis code 850-854.19). The study population was divided into 2 subsets: a model development dataset (75% of patients) and a model validation dataset (remaining 25%). In the development dataset, logistic regression models were used to calculate conditional probabilities of having a neurosurgical intervention for each combination of age and GCS score, to develop a point-based risk score termed the rGCS. Model performance was examined in the validation dataset using area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) curves and calibration plots.

RESULTS

There were 472,824 patients with TBI. The rGCS ranged from 1-15, where rGCS 15 denotes the baseline risk for neurosurgical intervention (4.4%) and rGCS 1 represents the greatest risk (62.6%). In the validation dataset there was a statistically significant improvement in predictive performance for neurosurgical intervention for the rGCS compared to the standard GCS (AUROC: 0.71 versus 0.67, difference, -0.04, P<0.001), overall and by trauma level designation. The rGCS was better calibrated than the standard GCS score.

CONCLUSIONS

The relationship between GCS score and neurosurgical intervention is significantly modified by age. A revision to the GCS that incorporates age, the rGCS, provides risk of neurosurgical intervention that has better predictive performance than the standard ED GCS score.