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Marti H, Biggel M, Shima K, Onorini D, Rupp J, Charette SJ, Borel N. Chlamydia suis displays high transformation capacity with complete cloning vector integration into the chromosomal rrn-nqrF plasticity zone. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0237823. [PMID: 37882558 PMCID: PMC10715202 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02378-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE The obligate intracellular Chlamydia genus contains many pathogens with a negative impact on global health and economy. Despite recent progress, there is still a lack of genetic tools limiting our understanding of these complex bacteria. This study provides new insights into genetic manipulation of Chlamydia with the opportunistic porcine pathogen Chlamydia suis, the only chlamydial species naturally harboring an antibiotic resistance gene, originally obtained by horizontal gene transfer. C. suis is transmissible to humans, posing a potential public health concern. We report that C. suis can take up vectors that lack the native plasmid, a requirement for most chlamydial transformation systems described to date. Additionally, we show that C. trachomatis, the most common cause for bacterial sexually transmitted infections and infectious blindness worldwide, can be transformed with C. suis vectors. Finally, the chromosomal region that harbors the resistance gene of C. suis is highly susceptible to complete vector integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Biggel
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kensuke Shima
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Delia Onorini
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jan Rupp
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Steve J. Charette
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Bioinformatics, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Quebec City, Canada
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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2
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De Puysseleyr L, De Puysseleyr K, Rybarczyk J, Vander Donck P, De Vos WH, Vanrompay D. Transferrins Reduce Replication of Chlamydia suis in McCoy Cells. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10070858. [PMID: 34358007 PMCID: PMC8308531 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10070858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia suis (C. suis) resides in the intestines of pigs and tetracycline-resistant strains are emerging worldwide. Intestinal infections are often subclinical. However, the gut is regarded as a C. suis reservoir and clinical infections have been associated with enteritis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia and reproductive failure. C. suis was found in boar semen and venereal transmission occurred. We studied the anti-Chlamydia suis activity of ovotransferrin (ovoTF) and bovine lactoferrin (bLF). Pre-incubation of C. suis with bLF or ovoTF had no significant effect on overall chlamydia replication (mean fluorescence area) in McCoy cells. The addition of ovoTF to the culture medium had no effect on bacterial replication, but the addition of 0.5 or 5 mg/mL of bLF significantly reduced the inclusion size by 17% and 15% respectively. Egg components are used for cryopreservation of boar semen. When inoculating an ovoTF-containing and Chlamydia suis-spiked semen sample in McCoy cells, a significant reduction in inclusion number (by 7%) and overall replication (by 11%) was observed. Thus, we showed that transferrins possess anti-chlamydial activity. Moreover, ovoTF addition to semen extenders might reduce C. suis venereal transmission. Further research is needed to unravel the mechanisms behind the observations and to enhance the effect of transferrins on C. suis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leentje De Puysseleyr
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
| | - Kristien De Puysseleyr
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
| | - Joanna Rybarczyk
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
| | - Paulien Vander Donck
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
| | - Winnok H. De Vos
- Laboratory of Cell Biology and Histology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium;
| | - Daisy Vanrompay
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (L.D.P.); (K.D.P.); (J.R.); (P.V.D.)
- Correspondence:
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3
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Marti H, Bommana S, Read TD, Pesch T, Prähauser B, Dean D, Borel N. Generation of Tetracycline and Rifamycin Resistant Chlamydia Suis Recombinants. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:630293. [PMID: 34276577 PMCID: PMC8278220 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.630293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Chlamydiaceae are a family of obligate intracellular, gram-negative bacteria known to readily exchange DNA by homologous recombination upon co-culture in vitro, allowing the transfer of antibiotic resistance residing on the chlamydial chromosome. Among all the obligate intracellular bacteria, only Chlamydia (C.) suis naturally integrated a tetracycline resistance gene into its chromosome. Therefore, in order to further investigate the readiness of Chlamydia to exchange DNA and especially antibiotic resistance, C. suis is an excellent model to advance existing co-culture protocols allowing the identification of factors crucial to promote homologous recombination in vitro. With this strategy, we co-cultured tetracycline-resistant with rifamycin group-resistant C. suis, which resulted in an allover recombination efficiency of 28%. We found that simultaneous selection is crucial to increase the number of recombinants, that sub-inhibitory concentrations of tetracycline inhibit rather than promote the selection of double-resistant recombinants, and identified a recombination-deficient C. suis field isolate, strain SWA-110 (1-28b). While tetracycline resistance was detected in field isolates, rifampicin/rifamycin resistance (RifR) had to be induced in vitro. Here, we describe the protocol with which RifR C. suis strains were generated and confirmed. Subsequent whole-genome sequencing then revealed that G530E and D461A mutations in rpoB, a gene encoding for the β-subunit of the bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAP), was likely responsible for rifampicin and rifamycin resistance, respectively. Finally, whole-genome sequencing of recombinants obtained by co-culture revealed that recombinants picked from the same plate may be sibling clones and confirmed C. suis genome plasticity by revealing variable, apparently non-specific areas of recombination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sankhya Bommana
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Timothy D Read
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Theresa Pesch
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Barbara Prähauser
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Deborah Dean
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco School of Medicine, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Nicole Borel
- Vetsuisse Faculty, Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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4
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Dimond ZE, Hefty PS. Comprehensive genome analysis and comparisons of the swine pathogen, Chlamydia suis reveals unique ORFs and candidate host-specificity factors. Pathog Dis 2020; 79:5868767. [PMID: 32639528 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftaa035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia suis, a ubiquitous swine pathogen, has the potential for zoonotic transmission to humans and often encodes for resistance to the primary treatment antibiotic, tetracycline. Because of this emerging threat, comparative genomics for swine isolate R19 with inter- and intra-species genomes was performed. A 1.094 Mb genome was determined through de novo assembly of Illumina high throughput sequencing reads. Annotation and subsystem analyses were conducted, revealing 986 putative genes (Chls_###) that are predominantly orthologs to other known Chlamydia genes. Subsequent comparative genomics revealed a high level of genomic synteny and overall sequence identity with other Chlamydia while 92 unique C. suis open reading frames were annotated. Direct comparison of Chlamydia-specific gene families that included the plasticity zone, inclusion membrane proteins, polymorphic membrane proteins and the major outer membrane protein, demonstrated high gene content identity with C. trachomatis and C. muridarum. These comparisons also identified diverse components that potentially could contribute to host-specificity. This study constitutes the first genome-wide comparative analysis for C. suis, generating a fully annotated reference genome. These studies will enable focused efforts on factors that provide key species specificity and adaptation to cognate hosts that are attributed to chlamydial infections, including humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe E Dimond
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Ave. Lawrence KS 66044
| | - P Scott Hefty
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside Ave. Lawrence KS 66044
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Isolation of Tetracycline-Resistant Chlamydia suis from a Pig Herd Affected by Reproductive Disorders and Conjunctivitis. Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9:antibiotics9040187. [PMID: 32316412 PMCID: PMC7235844 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics9040187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to various challenges in diagnosing chlamydiosis in pigs, antibiotic treatment is usually performed before any molecular or antibiotic susceptibility testing. This could increase the occurrence of tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia (C.) suis isolates in the affected pig population and potentiate the reoccurrence of clinical signs. Here, we present a case of an Austrian pig farm, where tetracycline resistant and sensitive C. suis isolates were isolated from four finishers with conjunctivitis. On herd-level, 10% of the finishers suffered from severe conjunctivitis and sows showed a high percentage of irregular return to estrus. Subsequent treatment of whole-herd using oxytetracycline led to a significant reduction of clinical signs. Retrospective antibiotic susceptibility testing revealed tetracycline resistance and decreased susceptibility to doxycycline in half of the ocular C. suis isolates, and all isolates were able to partially recover following a single-dose tetracycline treatment in vitro. These findings were later confirmed in vivo, when all former clinical signs recurred three months later. This case report raises awareness of tetracycline resistance in C. suis and emphasizes the importance of preventative selection of tetracycline resistant C. suis isolates.
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PREVALENCE OF CHLAMYDIACEAE AND TETRACYCLINE RESISTANCE GENES IN WILD BOARS OF CENTRAL EUROPE. J Wildl Dis 2020; 56:512-522. [PMID: 32216676 DOI: 10.7589/2019-11-275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Our aim was to investigate the occurrence and distribution of Chlamydia suis and other Chlamydiaceae in the wild boar (Sus scrofa) population of Switzerland and Northern Italy and the detection of tetracycline resistance genes by PCR. We collected a total of 471 conjunctival swabs (n=292), rectal swabs (n=147), and lung tissue samples (n=32) belonging to 292 wild boars. The prevalence of Chlamydiaceae in the investigated wild boar populations was very low (1.4%, 4/292). We found C. suis in rectal or conjunctival swabs but not in lung samples. The low chlamydial prevalence might be attributed to limited contacts between wild boars and outdoor domestic pigs due to strict biosecurity measures or limited numbers of rural pig herds. The tetA(C) gene fragment was detected in six samples, which were all negative for Chlamydiaceae, and was probably not of chlamydial origin but more likely from other bacteria. The low tetracycline resistance rate in wild boar might be explained by the lack of selective pressure. However, transmission of resistance genes from domestic pigs to wild boar or selective pressure in the environment could lead to the development and spread of tetracycline-resistant C. suis strains in wild boars.
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7
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Chlamydiaceae: Diseases in Primary Hosts and Zoonosis. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7050146. [PMID: 31137741 PMCID: PMC6560403 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7050146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 05/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria of the Chlamydiaceae family are a type of Gram-negative microorganism typified by their obligate intracellular lifestyle. The majority of the members in the Chlamydiaceae family are known pathogenic organisms that primarily infect the host mucosal surfaces in both humans and animals. For instance, Chlamydia trachomatis is a well-known etiological agent for ocular and genital sexually transmitted diseases, while C. pneumoniae has been implicated in community-acquired pneumonia in humans. Other chlamydial species such as C. abortus, C. caviae, C. felis, C. muridarum, C. pecorum, and C. psittaci are important pathogens that are associated with high morbidities in animals. Importantly, some of these animal pathogens have been recognized as zoonotic agents that pose a significant infectious threat to human health through cross-over transmission. The current review provides a succinct recapitulation of the characteristics as well as transmission for the previously established members of the Chlamydiaceae family and a number of other recently described chlamydial organisms.
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Zwirzitz B, Pinior B, Metzler-Zebeli B, Handler M, Gense K, Knecht C, Ladinig A, Dzieciol M, Wetzels SU, Wagner M, Schmitz-Esser S, Mann E. Microbiota of the Gut-Lymph Node Axis: Depletion of Mucosa-Associated Segmented Filamentous Bacteria and Enrichment of Methanobrevibacter by Colistin Sulfate and Linco-Spectin in Pigs. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:599. [PMID: 31031713 PMCID: PMC6470194 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms are translocated from the gut to lymphatic tissues via immune cells, thereby challenging and training the mammalian immune system. Antibiotics alter the gut microbiome and consecutively might also affect the corresponding translocation processes, resulting in an imbalanced state between the intestinal microbiota and the host. Hence, understanding the variant effects of antibiotics on the microbiome of gut-associated tissues is of vital importance for maintaining metabolic homeostasis and animal health. In the present study, we analyzed the microbiome of (i) pig feces, ileum, and ileocecal lymph nodes under the influence of antibiotics (Linco-Spectin and Colistin sulfate) using 16S rRNA gene sequencing for high-resolution community profiling and (ii) ileocecal lymph nodes in more detail with two additional methodological approaches, i.e., cultivation of ileocecal lymph node samples and (iii) metatranscriptome sequencing of a single lymph node sample. Supplementation of medicated feed showed a local effect on feces and ileal mucosa-associated microbiomes. Pigs that received antibiotics harbored significantly reduced amounts of segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB) along the ileal mucosa (p = 0.048; 199.17-fold change) and increased amounts of Methanobrevibacter, a methanogenic Euryarchaeote in fecal samples (p = 0.005; 20.17-fold change) compared to the control group. Analysis of the porcine ileocecal lymph node microbiome exposed large differences between the viable and the dead fraction of microorganisms and the microbiome was altered to a lesser extent by antibiotics compared with feces and ileum. The core microbiome of lymph nodes was constituted mainly of Proteobacteria. RNA-sequencing of a single lymph node sample unveiled transcripts responsible for amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism as well as protein turnover, DNA replication and signal transduction. The study presented here is the first comparative study of microbial communities in feces, ileum, and its associated ileocecal lymph nodes. In each analyzed site, we identified specific phylotypes susceptible to antibiotic treatment that can have profound impacts on the host physiological and immunological state, or even on global biogeochemical cycles. Our results indicate that pathogenic bacteria, e.g., enteropathogenic Escherichia coli, could escape antibiotic treatment by translocating to lymph nodes. In general ileocecal lymph nodes harbor a more diverse and active community of microorganisms than previously assumed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Zwirzitz
- Institute of Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.,Austrian Competence Centre for Feed and Food Quality, Safety and Innovation, FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln an der Donau, Austria
| | - Beate Pinior
- Institute for Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara Metzler-Zebeli
- University Clinic for Swine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.,Institute of Animal Nutrition and Functional Plant Compounds, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Monika Handler
- Institute of Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kristina Gense
- Institute of Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian Knecht
- University Clinic for Swine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Andrea Ladinig
- University Clinic for Swine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Monika Dzieciol
- Institute of Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stefanie U Wetzels
- Institute of Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.,Austrian Competence Centre for Feed and Food Quality, Safety and Innovation, FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln an der Donau, Austria
| | - Martin Wagner
- Institute of Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.,Austrian Competence Centre for Feed and Food Quality, Safety and Innovation, FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln an der Donau, Austria
| | | | - Evelyne Mann
- Institute of Milk Hygiene, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.,Austrian Competence Centre for Feed and Food Quality, Safety and Innovation, FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln an der Donau, Austria
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9
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Antimicrobial Resistance in Chlamydiales, Rickettsia, Coxiella, and Other Intracellular Pathogens. Microbiol Spectr 2018; 6. [PMID: 29651977 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.arba-0003-2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This article will provide current insights into antimicrobial susceptibilities and resistance of an important group of bacterial pathogens that are not phylogenetically related but share lifestyle similarities in that they are generally considered to be obligate intracellular microbes. As such, there are shared challenges regarding methods for their detection and subsequent clinical management. Similarly, from the laboratory perspective, susceptibility testing is rarely undertaken, though molecular approaches might provide new insights. One should also bear in mind that the highly specialized microbial lifestyle restricts the opportunity for lateral gene transfer and, consequently, acquisition of resistance.
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Kieckens E, Van den Broeck L, Van Gils M, Morré S, Vanrompay D. Co-Occurrence of Chlamydia suis DNA and Chlamydia suis-Specific Antibodies in the Human Eye. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2018; 18:677-682. [PMID: 30251925 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2017.2256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia suis is a swine pathogen that causes economic losses due to reproductive failure. Recently, C. suis has been detected in human eyes. However, knowledge of the zoonotic potential is still limited. C. suis infections in swine could present a risk for public health because (1) tetracycline-resistant C. suis strains are emerging in the pork industry, (2) tetracycline resistance gene transfers in vitro from C. suis to the human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis and as previously demonstrated, (3) C. suis and C. trachomatis can be both present in the human eye. Pig farmers were sampled during a seminar in West-Flanders. Conjunctival swabs for detection of C. suis and C. trachomatis and for the detection of mucosal antibodies against C. suis and C. trachomatis were collected. The farmers completed a questionnaire designed to assess information on the following: (1) the health status of their pigs, (2) administration of veterinary drugs, (3) their professional and nonprofessional activities, (4) general health status, (5) smoking habits, (6) use of medication, (7) allergies, and (8) clinical signs/history. Thirty-three on 40 (82.5%) farmers participated. None of the conjunctival swabs contained C. trachomatis DNA and mucosal antibodies against C. trachomatis were not detected. Six of 33 (18.2%) farmers had C. suis DNA in their eyes and 22 of 33 (67%) swabs contained C. suis-specific mucosal antibodies. The older the farmer, higher the chance of finding C. suis antibodies in the eye. There was a significant correlation between the presence of conjunctivitis in the pigs and the occurrence of C. suis DNA in the eye of their owner. This study shows that C. suis may transfer from pigs to the human eye as specific mucosal antibodies were detected in conjunctivae of pig farmers. Veterinarians, general practitioners, and occupational physicians should be aware of the zoonotic potential of C. suis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelien Kieckens
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Laura Van den Broeck
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mathias Van Gils
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Servaas Morré
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Control, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute for Public Health Genomics, Research School GROW (School for Oncology and Developmental Biology), University of Maastricht, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Daisy Vanrompay
- Laboratory for Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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11
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Marti H, Borel N, Dean D, Leonard CA. Evaluating the Antibiotic Susceptibility of Chlamydia - New Approaches for in Vitro Assays. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1414. [PMID: 30018602 PMCID: PMC6037721 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pigs are the natural hosts of Chlamydia suis, the only Chlamydia species known to spontaneously acquire homotypic resistance conferred by a class C tetracycline resistance gene. Various susceptibility assays have existed for several years, but there is no widely accepted, standardized assay to determine chlamydial antibiotic susceptibility. In this study, we developed new approaches to determine the in vitro susceptibility of Chlamydia to different antibiotics in view of existing protocols. Specifically, the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) is based on a consensus of both inclusion number reduction and alteration of inclusion size and morphology upon antibiotic exposure. In addition to these, we employed a recovery assay, allowing observation of the chlamydial response to drug removal and subsequent recovery, as compared to both continued exposure and to the unexposed control. We propose a simple and fast screening method to detect tetracycline resistant C. suis strains within 2 to 3 days with minimal use of consumables. For proof of principle, we evaluated the susceptibility of three C. suis field strains and the reference strain S45/6 to tetracycline, sulfamethoxazole, and penicillin, antibiotics commonly used to prevent respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases on fattening pig farms. We found that tetracycline sensitive strains can easily be distinguished from resistant strains using the evaluation parameters proposed in this study. Moreover, we report that S45/6 is sensitive to sulfamethoxazole while all evaluated C. suis field strains showed some degree of sulfamethoxazole resistance. Finally, we confirm that Penicillin G induces the chlamydial stress response in all evaluated C. suis strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA, United States
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Deborah Dean
- Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States.,Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States.,School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Cory A Leonard
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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12
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De Puysseleyr K, Kieckens E, De Puysseleyr L, Van den Wyngaert H, Ahmed B, Van Lent S, Creasy HH, Myers GSA, Vanrompay D. Development of a Chlamydia suis-specific antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on the use of a B-cell epitope of the polymorphic membrane protein C. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 65:e457-e469. [PMID: 29314736 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia suis infections lead to economic loss in the pork industry. Chlamydia suis infections could be successfully treated with tetracyclines until the appearance of a tetracycline resistant phenotype, which was acquired via horizontal gene transfer of the tet(C) gene. Given the importance of C. suis as a swine pathogen and as a recently emerged tetracycline resistant pathogen with zoonotic potential, our aim was to develop a sensitive C. suis-specific antibody ELISA based on the polymorphic membrane proteins (Pmps). Chlamydia Pmps are important virulence factors and candidate antigens for serodiagnosis. We identified nine Pmps (PmpA to I) in C. suis strain MD56 using a recently developed Hidden-Markov model. PmpC was the most promising candidate for the development of a C. suis-specific antibody ELISA as the protein was absent in C. abortus, C. pecorum and C. psittaci which also infect pigs and as the protein contained C. suis-specific amino acid regions, absent in C. trachomatis PmpC. We identified an immunodominant B-cell epitope in C. suis PmpC using experimental porcine sera. The sensitivity and specificity of the PmpC ELISA was compared to the complement fixation test (CFT) and to a recombinant MOMP ELISA using experimental sera. The PmpC ELISA detected all positive control sera and was in contrast to CFT and the rMOMP ELISA 100% C. suis specific as positive control sera against other Chlamydia species did not react in the PmpC ELISA. The test was successfully validated using slaughterhouse sera and sera from clinically affected pigs. The PmpC ELISA could assist in diminishing the spread of C. suis infections in the pork industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- K De Puysseleyr
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - E Kieckens
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - L De Puysseleyr
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - H Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - B Ahmed
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - S Van Lent
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - H H Creasy
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - G S A Myers
- i3 Institute, University of Technology, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - D Vanrompay
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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13
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Li M, Jelocnik M, Yang F, Gong J, Kaltenboeck B, Polkinghorne A, Feng Z, Pannekoek Y, Borel N, Song C, Jiang P, Li J, Zhang J, Wang Y, Wang J, Zhou X, Wang C. Asymptomatic infections with highly polymorphic Chlamydia suis are ubiquitous in pigs. BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:370. [PMID: 29191191 PMCID: PMC5710075 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1295-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Chlamydia suis is an important, globally distributed, highly prevalent and diverse obligate intracellular pathogen infecting pigs. To investigate the prevalence and genetic diversity of C. suis in China, 2,137 nasal, conjunctival, and rectal swabs as well as whole blood and lung samples of pigs were collected in 19 regions from ten provinces of China in this study. Results We report an overall positivity of 62.4% (1,334/2,137) of C. suis following screening by Chlamydia spp. 23S rRNA-based FRET-PCR and high-resolution melting curve analysis and confirmatory sequencing. For C. suis-positive samples, 33.3 % of whole blood and 62.5% of rectal swabs were found to be positive for the C. suis tetR(C) gene, while 13.3% of whole blood and 87.0% of rectal swabs were positive for the C. suis tet(C) gene. Phylogenetic comparison of partial C. suis ompA gene sequences revealed significant genetic diversity in the C. suis strains. This genetic diversity was confirmed by C. suis-specific multilocus sequence typing (MLST), which identified 26 novel sequence types among 27 examined strains. Tanglegrams based on MLST and ompA sequences provided evidence of C. suis recombination amongst the strains analyzed. Conclusions Genetically highly diverse C. suis strains are exceedingly prevalent in pigs. As it stands, the potential pathogenic effect of C. suis on pig health and production of C. suis remains unclear and will be the subject of further investigations. Further study is also required to address the transmission of C. suis between pigs and the risk of 'spill-over' and 'spill-back' of infections to wild animals and humans. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12917-017-1295-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Li
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Martina Jelocnik
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, Faculty of Science, Health, Education & Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD, Maroochydore, Australia
| | - Feng Yang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianseng Gong
- Poultry Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | | | - Adam Polkinghorne
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, Faculty of Science, Health, Education & Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD, Maroochydore, Australia
| | - Zhixin Feng
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences; Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Engineering and Technology, Ministry of Agriculture, National Center for Engineering Research of Veterinary Bio-Products, Nanjing, China
| | - Yvonne Pannekoek
- Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Chunlian Song
- Yunnan Agricultural University College of Animal Science & Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Ping Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Diseases Diagnostic and Immunology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jing Li
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jilei Zhang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaoyao Wang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiawei Wang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Zhou
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengming Wang
- Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China. .,College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, USA.
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14
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Seth-Smith HM, Wanninger S, Bachmann N, Marti H, Qi W, Donati M, di Francesco A, Polkinghorne A, Borel N. The Chlamydia suis Genome Exhibits High Levels of Diversity, Plasticity, and Mobile Antibiotic Resistance: Comparative Genomics of a Recent Livestock Cohort Shows Influence of Treatment Regimes. Genome Biol Evol 2017; 9:750-760. [PMID: 28338777 PMCID: PMC5381551 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evx043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia suis is an endemic pig pathogen, belonging to a fascinating genus of obligate intracellular pathogens. Of particular interest, this is the only chlamydial species to have naturally acquired genes encoding for tetracycline resistance. To date, the distribution and mobility of the Tet-island are not well understood. Our study focused on whole genome sequencing of 29 C. suis isolates from a recent porcine cohort within Switzerland, combined with data from USA tetracycline-resistant isolates. Our findings show that the genome of C. suis is very plastic, with unprecedented diversity, highly affected by recombination and plasmid exchange. A large diversity of isolates circulates within Europe, even within individual Swiss farms, suggesting that C. suis originated around Europe. New World isolates have more restricted diversity and appear to derive from European isolates, indicating that historical strain transfers to the United States have occurred. The architecture of the Tet-island is variable, but the tetA(C) gene is always intact, and recombination has been a major factor in its transmission within C. suis. Selective pressure from tetracycline use within pigs leads to a higher number of Tet-island carrying isolates, which appear to be lost in the absence of such pressure, whereas the loss or gain of the Tet-island from individual strains is not observed. The Tet-island appears to be a recent import into the genome of C. suis, with a possible American origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena M.B. Seth-Smith
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sabrina Wanninger
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nathan Bachmann
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, Australia
| | - Hanna Marti
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Weihong Qi
- Functional Genomics Centre Zurich, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Manuela Donati
- DIMES, Microbiology, Policlinico S. Orsola, University of Bologna, Italy
| | - Antonietta di Francesco
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Ozzano Emilia, Bologna, Italy
| | - Adam Polkinghorne
- Centre for Animal Health Innovation, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore DC, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Switzerland
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15
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Marti H, Kim H, Joseph SJ, Dojiri S, Read TD, Dean D. Tet(C) Gene Transfer between Chlamydia suis Strains Occurs by Homologous Recombination after Co-infection: Implications for Spread of Tetracycline-Resistance among Chlamydiaceae. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:156. [PMID: 28223970 PMCID: PMC5293829 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia suis is a swine pathogen that has also recently been found to cause zoonotic infections of the human eye, pharynx, and gastrointestinal tract. Many strains contain a tetracycline class C gene [tet(C)] cassette that confers tetracycline resistance. The cassette was likely originally acquired by horizontal gene transfer from a Gram-negative donor after the introduction of tetracycline into animal feed in the 1950s. Various research groups have described the capacity for different Chlamydia species to exchange DNA by homologous recombination. Since over 90% of C. suis strains are tetracycline resistant, they represent a potential source for antibiotic-resistance spread within and between Chlamydiaceae species. Here, we examined the genetics of tet(C)-transfer among C. suis strains. Tetracycline-sensitive C. suis strain S45 was simultaneously or sequentially co-infected with tetracycline-resistant C. suis strains in McCoy cells. Potential recombinants were clonally purified by a harvest assay derived from the classic plaque assay. C. suis strain Rogers132, lacking transposases IS200 and IS605, was the most efficient donor, producing two unique recombinants detected in three of the 56 (5.4%) clones screened. Recombinants were found to have a minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 8-16 μg/mL for tetracycline. Resistance remained stable over 10 passages as long as recombinants were initially grown in tetracycline at twice the MIC of S45 (0.032 μg/mL). Genomic analysis revealed that tet(C) had integrated into the S45 genome by homologous recombination at two unique sites depending on the recombinant: a 55 kb exchange between nrqF and pckG, and a 175 kb exchange between kdsA and cysQ. Neither site was associated with inverted repeats or motifs associated with recombination hotspots. Our findings show that cassette transfer into S45 has low frequency, does not require IS200/IS605 transposases, is stable if initially grown in tetracycline, and results in multiple genomic configurations. We provide a model for stable cassette transfer to better understand the capability for cassette acquisition by Chlamydiaceae species that infect humans, a matter of public health importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, University of California at San Francisco/Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland CA, USA
| | - Hoyon Kim
- Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, University of California at San Francisco/Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland CA, USA
| | - Sandeep J Joseph
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, AtlantaGA, USA; Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, AtlantaGA, USA
| | - Stacey Dojiri
- Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, University of California at San Francisco/Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland CA, USA
| | - Timothy D Read
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, AtlantaGA, USA; Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, AtlantaGA, USA
| | - Deborah Dean
- Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development, University of California at San Francisco/Benioff Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, OaklandCA, USA; Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, San Francisco, San FranciscoCA, USA; Joint Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, BerkeleyCA, USA; Departments of Medicine and Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, San FranciscoCA, USA
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16
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Selective Pressure Promotes Tetracycline Resistance of Chlamydia Suis in Fattening Pigs. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0166917. [PMID: 27893834 PMCID: PMC5125646 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0166917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In pigs, Chlamydia suis has been associated with respiratory disease, diarrhea and conjunctivitis, but there is a high rate of inapparent C. suis infection found in the gastrointestinal tract of pigs. Tetracycline resistance in C. suis has been described in the USA, Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, Cyprus and Israel. Tetracyclines are commonly used in pig production due to their broad-spectrum activity and relatively low cost. The aim of this study was to isolate clinical C. suis samples in cell culture and to evaluate their antibiotic susceptibility in vitro under consideration of antibiotic treatment on herd level. Swab samples (n = 158) identified as C. suis originating from 24 farms were further processed for isolation, which was successful in 71% of attempts with a significantly higher success rate from fecal swabs compared to conjunctival swabs. The farms were divided into three treatment groups: A) farms without antibiotic treatment, B) farms with prophylactic oral antibiotic treatment of the whole herd consisting of trimethoprime, sulfadimidin and sulfathiazole (TSS), or C) farms giving herd treatment with chlortetracycline with or without tylosin and sulfadimidin (CTS). 59 isolates and their corresponding clinical samples were selected and tested for the presence or absence of the tetracycline resistance class C gene [tet(C)] by conventional PCR and isolates were further investigated for their antibiotic susceptibility in vitro. The phenotype of the investigated isolates was either classified as tetracycline sensitive (Minimum inhibitory concentration [MIC] < 2 μg/ml), intermediate (2 μg/ml ≤ MIC < 4 μg/ml) or resistant (MIC ≥ 4 μg/ml). Results of groups and individual pigs were correlated with antibiotic treatment and time of sampling (beginning/end of the fattening period). We found clear evidence for selective pressure as absence of antibiotics led to isolation of only tetracycline sensitive or intermediate strains whereas tetracycline treatment resulted in a greater number of tetracycline resistant isolates.
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17
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Emancipating Chlamydia: Advances in the Genetic Manipulation of a Recalcitrant Intracellular Pathogen. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2016; 80:411-27. [PMID: 27030552 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00071-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia species infect millions of individuals worldwide and are important etiological agents of sexually transmitted disease, infertility, and blinding trachoma. Historically, the genetic intractability of this intracellular pathogen has hindered the molecular dissection of virulence factors contributing to its pathogenesis. The obligate intracellular life cycle of Chlamydia and restrictions on the use of antibiotics as selectable markers have impeded the development of molecular tools to genetically manipulate these pathogens. However, recent developments in the field have resulted in significant gains in our ability to alter the genome of Chlamydia, which will expedite the elucidation of virulence mechanisms. In this review, we discuss the challenges affecting the development of molecular genetic tools for Chlamydia and the work that laid the foundation for recent advancements in the genetic analysis of this recalcitrant pathogen.
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18
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Tetracycline Susceptibility in Chlamydia suis Pig Isolates. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149914. [PMID: 26913523 PMCID: PMC4767523 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The aims of the present study were to assess the prevalence of Chlamydia suis in an Italian pig herd, determine the tetracycline susceptibility of C. suis isolates, and evaluate tet(C) and tetR(C) gene expression. Conjunctival swabs from 20 pigs were tested for C. suis by real-time polymerase chain reaction, and 55% (11) were positive. C. suis was then isolated from 11 conjunctival swabs resampled from the same herd. All positive samples and isolates were positive for the tet(C) resistance gene. The in vitro susceptibility to tetracycline of the C. suis isolates showed MIC values ranging from 0.5 to 4 μg/mL. Tet(C) and tetR(C) transcripts were found in all the isolates, cultured both in the absence and presence of tetracycline. This contrasts with other Gram-negative bacteria in which both genes are repressed in the absence of the drug. Further investigation into tet gene regulation in C. suis is needed.
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19
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Chlamydial Antibiotic Resistance and Treatment Failure in Veterinary and Human Medicine. CURRENT CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2016; 3:10-18. [PMID: 27218014 PMCID: PMC4845085 DOI: 10.1007/s40588-016-0028-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The Chlamydiaceae are widespread pathogens of both humans and animals. Chlamydia trachomatis infection causes blinding trachoma and reproductive complications in humans. Chlamydia pneumoniae causes human respiratory tract infections and atypical pneumonia. Chlamydia suis infection is associated with conjunctivitis, diarrhea, and failure to gain weight in domestic swine. Chlamydial infections in humans and domesticated animals are generally controlled by antibiotic treatment—particularly macrolides (usually azithromycin) and tetracyclines (tetracycline and doxycycline). Tetracycline-containing feed has also been used to limit infections and promote growth in livestock populations, although its use has decreased because of growing concerns about antimicrobial resistance development. Because Sandoz and Rockey published an elegant review of chlamydial anti-microbial resistance in 2010, we will review the following: (i) antibiotic resistance in C. suis, (ii) recent evidence for acquired resistance in human chlamydial infections, and (iii) recent non-genetic mechanisms of antibiotic resistance that may contribute to treatment failure.
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20
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21
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Hoffmann K, Schott F, Donati M, Di Francesco A, Hässig M, Wanninger S, Sidler X, Borel N. Prevalence of Chlamydial Infections in Fattening Pigs and Their Influencing Factors. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143576. [PMID: 26619187 PMCID: PMC4664257 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydial infections in pigs are associated with respiratory disease, diarrhea, conjunctivitis and other pathologies. The aim of this study was to define the prevalence of Chlamydiaceae in Swiss fattening pigs by applying sensitive and specific detection methods and to correlate prior antibiotic treatment and farm related factors with differences in prevalence. Conjunctival and fecal swabs were collected from 636 pigs in 29 Swiss fattening pig farms with and without antibiotic treatment, at the beginning and the end of the fattening period. The swabs were screened by real-time PCR for Chlamydiaceae. For the chlamydial detection and species-identification, a DNA-microarray analysis was performed. All farms were positive for Chlamydiaceae with 94.3 and 92.0% prevalence in fecal swabs as well as 45.9 and 32.6% in conjunctival swabs at the first and second time points, respectively. Antibiotic treatment could not clear the infection on herd level. Potential contact with wild boars was a significant risk factor, while hygiene criteria did not influence chlamydial prevalence. A correlation of chlamydial positivity to diarrhea, but not to conjunctivitis was evident. Chlamydia suis was the predominant species. Mixed infections with C. suis and C. pecorum were common, with a substantial increase in C. pecorum positivity at the end of the fattening period, and this finding was associated with ruminant contact. C. abortus was detected in one conjunctival swab. In this study, C. suis inhabited the intestinal tract of nearly all examined pigs, implying a long-term infection. C. pecorum was also common and might be transmitted to pigs by ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolin Hoffmann
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Franziska Schott
- Department of Farm Animals, Division of Swine Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Manuela Donati
- DIMES, Microbiology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Michael Hässig
- Department for Farm Animals, Section for Herd Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sabrina Wanninger
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Xaver Sidler
- Department of Farm Animals, Division of Swine Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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22
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De Puysseleyr L, De Puysseleyr K, Braeckman L, Morré SA, Cox E, Vanrompay D. Assessment of Chlamydia suis Infection in Pig Farmers. Transbound Emerg Dis 2015; 64:826-833. [PMID: 26576707 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia suis infections are endemic in domestic pigs in Europe and can lead to conjunctivitis, pneumonia, enteritis and reproductive failure. Currently, the knowledge on the zoonotic potential of C. suis is limited. Moreover, the last decades, porcine tetracycline resistant C. suis strains have been isolated, which interfere with treatment of chlamydial infections. In this study, the presence of C. suis was examined on nine Belgian pig farms, using Chlamydia culture and a C. suis specific real-time PCR in both pigs and farmers. In addition to diagnosis for C. suis, the farmers' samples were examined using a Chlamydia trachomatis PCR. Additionally, the Chlamydia isolates were tested for the presence of the tet(C) resistance gene. C. DNA was demonstrated in pigs on all farms, and eight of nine farmers were positive in at least one anatomical site. None of the farmers tested positive for C. trachomatis. Chlamydia suis isolates were obtained from pigs of eight farms. Nine porcine C. suis isolates possessing a tet(C) gene were retrieved, originating from three farms. Moreover, C. suis isolates were identified in three human samples, including one pharyngeal and two rectal samples. These findings suggest further research on the zoonotic transfer of C. suis from pigs to humans is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- L De Puysseleyr
- Lab of Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - K De Puysseleyr
- Lab of Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - L Braeckman
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - S A Morré
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Infection Control, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Institute for Public Health Genomics (IPHG), Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, GROW (School for Oncology & Developmental Biology), Faculty of Health, Medicine & Life Sciences, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - E Cox
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - D Vanrompay
- Lab of Immunology and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
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23
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Marti H, Blenn C, Borel N. The contribution of temperature, exposure intensity and visible light to the inhibitory effect of irradiation on acute chlamydial infection. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2015; 153:324-33. [PMID: 26513384 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Revised: 10/02/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Water-filtered infrared A (wIRA) is radiation with a spectrum ranging from 780 to 1400 nm. Chlamydiaceae are obligate intracellular bacteria associated with various diseases in both animals and humans. A recent in vitro study demonstrated that wIRA combined with visible light (wIRA/VIS) has potential as a non-chemical method for the treatment of chlamydial infections without adversely affecting the cell viability. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of various factors on the effect of wIRA/VIS on acute chlamydial infection, namely the impact of temperature, exposure intensity and infectious dose (multiplicity of infection) as well as the efficacy of the visible light component.We demonstrate that non-thermal effects contribute to the inhibition of acute chlamydial infection. Visible light enhances the inhibitory effect of wIRA on extracellular bacteria (elementary bodies or EBs).Moreover, the inhibitory effect of wIRA/VIS following treatment of EBs prior to infection correlated with increased irradiation intensity. The infectivity of mature chlamydial inclusions was significantly reduced upon wIRA/VIS exposure at all irradiation intensities investigated, suggesting the contribution of host cell factors to the anti-chlamydial effect of wIRA/VIS in the late stage of the developmental cycle. The effect of irradiation was not influenced by the infectious dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Vetsuisse Faculty, Winterthurerstrasse, 268, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Christian Blenn
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Vetsuisse Faculty, Winterthurerstrasse, 268, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, Vetsuisse Faculty, Winterthurerstrasse, 268, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Enrofloxacin and macrolides alone or in combination with rifampicin as antimicrobial treatment in a bovine model of acute Chlamydia psittaci infection. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0119736. [PMID: 25768665 PMCID: PMC4358964 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia psittaci is a zoonotic bacterium with a wide host range that can cause respiratory disease in humans and cattle. In the present study, effects of treatment with macrolides and quinolones applied alone or in combination with rifampicin were tested in a previously established bovine model of respiratory C. psittaci infection. Fifty animals were inoculated intrabronchially at the age of 6-8 weeks. Seven served as untreated controls, the others were assigned to seven treatment groups: (i) rifampicin, (ii) enrofloxacin, (iii) enrofloxacin + rifampicin, (iv) azithromycin, (v) azithromycin + rifampicin, (vi) erythromycin, and (vii) erythromycin + rifampicin. Treatment started 30 hours after inoculation and continued until 14 days after inoculation (dpi), when all animals were necropsied. The infection was successful in all animals and sufficient antibiotic levels were detected in blood plasma and tissue of the treated animals. Reisolation of the pathogen was achieved more often from untreated animals than from other groups. Nevertheless, pathogen detection by PCR was possible to the same extent in all animals and there were no significant differences between treated and untreated animals in terms of local (i.e., cell count and differentiation of BALF-cells) and systemic inflammation (i.e. white blood cells and concentration of acute phase protein LBP), clinical signs, and pathological findings at necropsy. Regardless of the reduced reisolation rate in treated animals, the treatment of experimentally induced respiratory C. psittaci infection with enrofloxacin, azithromycin or erythromycin alone or in combination with rifampicin was without obvious benefit for the host, since no significant differences in clinical and pathological findings or inflammatory parameters were detected and all animals recovered clinically within two weeks.
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25
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Prohl A, Lohr M, Ostermann C, Liebler-Tenorio E, Berndt A, Schroedl W, Rothe M, Schubert E, Sachse K, Reinhold P. Evaluation of antimicrobial treatment in a bovine model of acute Chlamydia psittaci infection: tetracycline versus tetracycline plus rifampicin. Pathog Dis 2015; 73:1-12. [PMID: 25113145 DOI: 10.1111/2049-632x.12212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial treatment of chlamydial infections is known to be of limited efficacy. In this study, effects of doxycycline (D), usually the drug of choice, were compared with the combined therapy of doxycycline and rifampicin (R) in a bovine model of respiratory Chlamydia psittaci infection. After intrabronchial inoculation of the pathogen, 30 animals were assigned to five groups (n = 6 per group): untreated controls, monotherapy with D (5 mg kg(-1)day(-1) or 10 mg kg(-1)day(-1)), and combination therapy of D and R (600 mg day(-1)). Treatment continued until day 14 post inoculation (d.p.i.). Clinical signs, inflammatory markers, and pathological findings confirmed successful infection in all animals. Reisolation of the pathogen was possible in 4/6 untreated animals and in 4/12 animals treated with D alone until 4 d.p.i., but in none of the calves of the two D + R groups. Pathogen detection was possible in all animals without significant differences among groups. Severity of disease and time course of its resolution, assessed by clinical and pathological findings as well as inflammatory parameters, were not significantly different between untreated controls and calves receiving D alone or in combination with R. Regardless of the treatment regimen, all groups recovered clinically and cleared the infection within 2 weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Prohl
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Markus Lohr
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Carola Ostermann
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Liebler-Tenorio
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Angela Berndt
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Wieland Schroedl
- Institute of Bacteriology and Mycology, Veterinary Faculty at The University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Evelyn Schubert
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany OIE Reference Laboratory for Chlamydiosis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Konrad Sachse
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany OIE Reference Laboratory for Chlamydiosis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
| | - Petra Reinhold
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (Federal Research Institute for Animal Health), Jena, Germany
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De Puysseleyr K, De Puysseleyr L, Dhondt H, Geens T, Braeckman L, Morré SA, Cox E, Vanrompay D. Evaluation of the presence and zoonotic transmission of Chlamydia suis in a pig slaughterhouse. BMC Infect Dis 2014; 14:560. [PMID: 25358497 PMCID: PMC4216655 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-014-0560-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A significant number of studies on pig farms and wild boars worldwide, demonstrate the endemic presence of Chlamydia suis in pigs. However, the zoonotic potential of this pathogen, phylogenetically closely related to Chlamydia trachomatis, is still uninvestigated. Therefore, this study aims to examine the zoonotic transmission in a Belgian pig abattoir. Methods Presence of Chlamydia suis in pigs, contact surfaces, air and employees was assessed using a Chlamydia suis specific real-time PCR and culture. Furthermore, Chlamydia suis isolates were tested for the presence of the tet(C) gene. Results Chlamydia suis bacteria could be demonstrated in samples from pigs, the air and contact surfaces. Moreover, eye swabs of two employees were positive for Chlamydia suis by both PCR and culture. The tet(C) gene was absent in both human Chlamydia suis isolates and no clinical signs were reported. Conclusions These findings suggest the need for further epidemiological and clinical research to elucidate the significance of human ocular Chlamydia suis infections. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-014-0560-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristien De Puysseleyr
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, University of Ghent, Coupure Links 653, Gent, B-9000, Belgium.
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Carlier L, Kempf M, Aaziz R, Jolivet‐Gougeon A, Laroucau K. A severe case of pneumopathy in a duck breeder due to Chlamydia psittaci diagnosed by 16S rDNA sequencing. JMM Case Rep 2014. [DOI: 10.1099/jmmcr.0.001537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- L. Carlier
- Département d’Anesthésie Réanimation, Plateau Technique Ouest, CHU, F‐49933 Angers, France
| | - M. Kempf
- Laboratoire de Bactériologie, Institut de Biologie en Santé – PBH, CHU, F‐49933 Angers, France
| | - R. Aaziz
- Anses, Laboratoire de santé animale, Unité Zoonoses bactériennes, F‐94706 Maisons‐Alfort
| | - A. Jolivet‐Gougeon
- EA 1254 Microbiologie, Université Rennes 1, Service de Bactériologie et Hygiène, CHU Rennes, F‐35043 Rennes, France
| | - K. Laroucau
- Anses, Laboratoire de santé animale, Unité Zoonoses bactériennes, F‐94706 Maisons‐Alfort
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28
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Marti H, Koschwanez M, Pesch T, Blenn C, Borel N. Water-filtered infrared a irradiation in combination with visible light inhibits acute chlamydial infection. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102239. [PMID: 25019934 PMCID: PMC4096919 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
New therapeutic strategies are needed to overcome drawbacks in treatment of infections with intracellular bacteria. Chlamydiaceae are Gram-negative bacteria implicated in acute and chronic diseases such as abortion in animals and trachoma in humans. Water-filtered infrared A (wIRA) is short wavelength infrared radiation with a spectrum ranging from 780 to 1400 nm. In clinical settings, wIRA alone and in combination with visible light (VIS) has proven its efficacy in acute and chronic wound healing processes. This is the first study to demonstrate that wIRA irradiation combined with VIS (wIRA/VIS) diminishes recovery of infectious elementary bodies (EBs) of both intra- and extracellular Chlamydia (C.) in two different cell lines (Vero, HeLa) regardless of the chlamydial strain (C. pecorum, C. trachomatis serovar E) as shown by indirect immunofluorescence and titration by subpassage. Moreover, a single exposure to wIRA/VIS at 40 hours post infection (hpi) led to a significant reduction of C. pecorum inclusion frequency in Vero cells and C. trachomatis in HeLa cells, respectively. A triple dose of irradiation (24, 36, 40 hpi) during the course of C. trachomatis infection further reduced chlamydial inclusion frequency in HeLa cells without inducing the chlamydial persistence/stress response, as ascertained by electron microscopy. Irradiation of host cells (HeLa, Vero) neither affected cell viability nor induced any molecular markers of cytotoxicity as investigated by Alamar blue assay and Western blot analysis. Chlamydial infection, irradiation, and the combination of both showed a similar release pattern of a subset of pro-inflammatory cytokines (MIF/GIF, Serpin E1, RANTES, IL-6, IL-8) and chemokines (IL-16, IP-10, ENA-78, MIG, MIP-1α/β) from host cells. Initial investigation into the mechanism indicated possible thermal effects on Chlamydia due to irradiation. In summary, we demonstrate a non-chemical reduction of chlamydial infection using the combination of water-filtered infrared A and visible light.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Marti
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Maria Koschwanez
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Theresa Pesch
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christian Blenn
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Borel
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich-Vetsuisse, Zurich, Switzerland
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29
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Di Francesco A, Favaroni A, Donati M. Host defense peptides: general overview and an update on their activity against Chlamydia spp. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2013; 11:1215-24. [PMID: 24111488 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.2013.841450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacteria that cause serious diseases in a wide range of hosts. Chlamydia trachomatis is one of the leading sexually transmitted pathogens in the world. Because vaccines are not currently available, effective drugs are essential. In both animals and humans, chlamydial infections are often treated with tetracycline or its derivatives. A stable tetracycline-resistant phenotype was described in Chlamydia suis strains from pigs in the USA and in Europe. In humans, there are reports of tetracycline treatment failure and the in vitro adaptability of C. trachomatis to evolve to antibiotic resistance has been described, suggesting the pressing need to search for alternative and effective classes of antimicrobial drugs. Host defense peptides (HDPs) are known as direct antimicrobial agents as well as innate immune modulators. Being active against multidrug-resistant bacteria, HDPs are attractive candidates as templates for new drugs. A number of studies evaluated the activity of natural and synthetic HDPs against Chlamydia spp., showing C. trachomatis to be the most sensitive among chlamydia species tested. Protegrins and α-helical peptides were the most active among the HDPs assessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonietta Di Francesco
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy
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30
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Flammer K, Massey JG, Roudybush T, Meek CJ, Papich MG. Assessment of Plasma Concentrations and Potential Adverse Effects of Doxycycline in Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) Fed a Medicated Pelleted Diet. J Avian Med Surg 2013; 27:187-93. [DOI: 10.1647/1082-6742-27.3.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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31
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Beeckman DS, De Puysseleyr L, De Puysseleyr K, Vanrompay D. Chlamydial biology and its associated virulence blockers. Crit Rev Microbiol 2012; 40:313-28. [PMID: 23134414 DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2012.726210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydiales are obligate intracellular parasites of eukaryotic cells. They can be distinguished from other Gram-negative bacteria through their characteristic developmental cycle, in addition to special biochemical and physical adaptations to subvert the eukaryotic host cell. The host spectrum includes humans and other mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, insects and even amoeba, causing a plethora of diseases. The first part of this review focuses on the specific chlamydial infection biology and metabolism. As resistance to classical antibiotics is emerging among Chlamydiae as well, the second part elaborates on specific compounds and tools to block chlamydial virulence traits, such as adhesion and internalization, Type III secretion and modulation of gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine S Beeckman
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University , Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent , Belgium
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32
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Schautteet K, De Clercq E, Miry C, Van Groenweghe F, Delava P, Kalmar I, Vanrompay D. Tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia suis in cases of reproductive failure on Belgian, Cypriote and Israeli pig production farms. J Med Microbiol 2012; 62:331-334. [PMID: 23105027 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.042861-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Similar cases of severe reproductive failure associated with the presence of Chlamydia suis in two Belgian, one Cypriote and one Israeli pig farrowing to slaughter farms are presented. Vaginal and rectal swabs from 39 sows were examined by culture and DNA microarray. Nineteen of 23 (83 %) C. suis-positive sows were infected with tetracycline-resistant C. suis strains, as determined by MIC tests. Furthermore, boar semen from a German artificial insemination centre, intended for export, was positive for C. suis. Emergence of tetracycline-resistant C. suis strains was confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelijn Schautteet
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Evelien De Clercq
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Cora Miry
- Provincial Institute for the Prevention of Animal Diseases West-Vlaanderen, Industrielaan 29, B-8820 Torhout, Belgium
| | - Frédéric Van Groenweghe
- Provincial Institute for the Prevention of Animal Diseases West-Vlaanderen, Industrielaan 29, B-8820 Torhout, Belgium
| | | | - Isabelle Kalmar
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Daisy Vanrompay
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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33
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Selection for tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia suis in treated pigs. Vet Microbiol 2012; 156:143-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2011] [Revised: 10/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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34
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Affiliation(s)
- S Pignanelli
- L. A. C. C. M. S. Maria della Scaletta Hospital-AUSL Imola, 4 via Montericco, 40027 Imola (Bologna), Italy.
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35
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Wheelhouse N, Longbottom D. Endemic and emerging chlamydial infections of animals and their zoonotic implications. Transbound Emerg Dis 2011; 59:283-91. [PMID: 22099945 DOI: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2011.01274.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The Chlamydiae are a diverse group of obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacteria that are known to infect a wide variety of host species and are responsible for a wide range of diseases in animals and man. Many of these organisms have been extensively characterized and their zoonotic implications recognized. Studies of human disease first provided evidence for the disease-causing potential of Chlamydia-related bacteria; however, there is now increasing evidence that a number of these organisms may also be the causative agents for a number of pathogenic conditions of livestock that had previously remained undiagnosed. The aim of this review is to draw together the evidence for the role of the newly emerging chlamydial infections in livestock disease, the current understanding of their roles in human disease and highlight the potential for zoonotic transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Wheelhouse
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Edinburgh, UK.
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36
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Schautteet K, Vanrompay D. Chlamydiaceae infections in pig. Vet Res 2011; 42:29. [PMID: 21314912 PMCID: PMC3041669 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-42-29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2010] [Accepted: 01/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydiaceae are Gram-negative obligate intracellular bacteria. They are responsible for a broad range of diseases in animals and humans. In pigs, Chlamydia suis, Chlamydia abortus, Chlamydia pecorum and Chlamydia psittaci have been isolated. Chlamydiaceae infections in pigs are associated with different pathologies such as conjunctivitis, pneumonia, pericarditis, polyarthritis, polyserositis, pseudo-membranous or necrotizing enteritis, periparturient dysgalactiae syndrome, vaginal discharge, return to oestrus, abortion, mummification, delivery of weak piglets, increased perinatal and neonatal mortality and inferior semen quality, orchitis, epididymitis and urethritis in boars. However, Chlamydiaceae are still considered as non-important pathogens because reports of porcine chlamydiosis are rare. Furthermore, Chlamydiaceae infections are often unnoticed because tests for Chlamydiaceae are not routinely performed in all veterinary diagnostic laboratories and Chlamydiaceae are often found in association with other pathogens, which are sometimes more easily to detect. However, recent studies have demonstrated that Chlamydiaceae infections in breeding sows, boars and piglets occur more often than thought and are economically important. This paper presents an overview on: the taxonomy of Chlamydiaceae occurring in pigs, diagnostic considerations, epidemiology and pathology of infections with Chlamydiaceae in pigs, public health significance and finally on prevention and treatment of Chlamydiaceae infections in pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelijn Schautteet
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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37
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Reinhold P, Sachse K, Kaltenboeck B. Chlamydiaceae in cattle: commensals, trigger organisms, or pathogens? Vet J 2010; 189:257-67. [PMID: 20980178 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2010] [Revised: 08/31/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological data indicate that infection of cattle with chlamydiae such as Chlamydophila (C.) pecorum, C. abortus, C. psittaci and Chlamydia suis, is ubiquitous with mixed infections occurring frequently. The apparent lack of association between infection and clinical disease has resulted in debate as to the pathogenic significance of these organisms, and their tendency to sub-clinical and/or persistent infection presents a challenge to the study of their potential effects. However, recent evidence indicates that chlamydial infections have a substantial and quantifiable impact on livestock productivity with chronic, recurrent infections associated with pulmonary disease in calves and with infertility and sub-clinical mastitis in dairy cows. Data also suggest these infections manifest clinically when they coincide with a number of epidemiological risk factors. Future research should: (1) use relevant animal models to clarify the pathogenesis of bovine chlamydioses; (2) quantify the impact of chlamydial infection at a herd level and identify strategies for its control, including sub-unit vaccine development; and (3) evaluate the zoonotic risk of bovine chlamydial infections which will require the development of species-specific serodiagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Reinhold
- Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis at The Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Naumburger Str. 96a, 07743 Jena, Germany.
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38
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Abstract
There are few documented reports of antibiotic resistance in Chlamydia and no examples of natural and stable antibiotic resistance in strains collected from humans. While there are several reports of clinical isolates exhibiting resistance to antibiotics, these strains either lost their resistance phenotype in vitro, or lost viability altogether. Differences in procedures for chlamydial culture in the laboratory, low recovery rates of clinical isolates and the unknown significance of heterotypic resistance observed in culture may interfere with the recognition and interpretation of antibiotic resistance. Although antibiotic resistance has not emerged in chlamydiae pathogenic to humans, several lines of evidence suggest they are capable of expressing significant resistant phenotypes. The adept ability of chlamydiae to evolve to antibiotic resistance in vitro is demonstrated by contemporary examples of mutagenesis, recombination and genetic transformation. The isolation of tetracycline-resistant Chlamydia suis strains from pigs also emphasizes their adaptive ability to acquire antibiotic resistance genes when exposed to significant selective pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsi M Sandoz
- Molecular & Cellular Biology Program & the Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331–4804, USA
| | - Daniel D Rockey
- Molecular & Cellular Biology Program & the Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331–4804, USA
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39
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Schautteet K, Beeckman DSA, Delava P, Vanrompay D. Possible pathogenic interplay between Chlamydia suis, Chlamydophila abortus and PCV-2 on a pig production farm. Vet Rec 2010; 166:329-33. [PMID: 20228367 DOI: 10.1136/vr.b4714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
A concurrent outbreak of chlamydial disease in boars, sows and gilts and postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) in weaned piglets was investigated on a large pig production farm in Estonia. Chlamydia suis DNA was detected in conjunctival swabs from boars, sows and gilts, but also in the faeces of boars and sows. Chlamydophila abortus DNA was found in semen, and in conjunctival swabs from sows; DNA was demonstrated by microarrays. Serum samples from boars were examined using a Chlamydiaceae-specific recombinant ELISA. All 10 serum samples examined were positive (1:960 to 1:3840). Chlamydiosis was characterised by reproductive failure and conjunctivitis. Piglets were not examined for Chlamydiaceae, as eye problems were not observed. Piglets showed wasting, respiratory signs, diarrhoea, enlargement of lymph nodes and increased mortality (10 per cent). Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2) was detected in the lymph nodes of piglets by immunohistochemistry, and PCV-2 antibodies were demonstrated in all 10 serum samples from sows examined using an immunoperoxidase monolayer assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Schautteet
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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40
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Horizontal transfer of tetracycline resistance among Chlamydia spp. in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53:4604-11. [PMID: 19687238 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00477-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
There are no examples of stable tetracycline resistance in clinical strains of Chlamydia trachomatis. However, the swine pathogen Chlamydia suis is commonly tetracycline resistant, both in America and in Europe. In tested U.S. strains, this resistance is mediated by a genomic island carrying a tet(C) allele. In the present study, the ability of C. suis to mobilize tet(C) into other chlamydial species was examined. Differently antibiotic resistant strains of C. suis, C. trachomatis, and Chlamydia muridarum were used in coculture experiments to select for multiply antibiotic resistant progeny. Coinfection of mammalian cells with a naturally occurring tetracycline-resistant strain of C. suis and a C. muridarum or C. trachomatis strain containing selected mutations encoding rifampin (rifampicin) or ofloxacin resistance readily produced doubly resistant recombinant clones that demonstrated the acquisition of tetracycline resistance. The resistance phenotype in the progeny from a C. trachomatis L2/ofl(R)-C. suis R19/tet(R) cross resulted from integration of a 40-kb fragment into a single ribosomal operon of a recipient, leading to a merodiploid structure containing three rRNA operons. In contrast, a cross between C. suis R19/tet(R) and C. muridarum MoPn/ofl(R) led to a classical double-crossover event transferring 99 kb of DNA from C. suis R19/tet(R) into C. muridarum MoPn/ofl(R). Tetracycline resistance was also transferred to recent clinical strains of C. trachomatis. Successful crosses were not obtained when a rifampin-resistant Chlamydophila caviae strain was used as a recipient for crosses with C. suis or C. trachomatis. These findings provide a platform for further exploration of the biology of horizontal gene transfer in Chlamydia while bringing to light potential public health concerns generated by the possibility of acquisition of tetracycline resistance by human chlamydial pathogens.
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41
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Zoonotic potential of Chlamydophila. Vet Microbiol 2009; 140:382-91. [PMID: 19345022 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2009] [Revised: 02/23/2009] [Accepted: 03/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to present the diseases induced in humans and animals by the different species of Chlamydophila, after providing an overview on the history of these infectious agents and their taxonomy. The route of transmission and the available methods for prevention and control in the different animal species are reviewed.
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