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Curwen AE, Still RL, Angell JW, Eady PE, Millson SH, Staton GJ, Evans NJ, Duncan JS, Cotter SC, Clegg SR. A reduced potential for lameness bacterial transmission by Lucilia sericata larvae and flies through metamorphosis. Res Vet Sci 2023; 163:104967. [PMID: 37572417 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.104967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
Lameness in sheep is one of the most serious issues on farms in the UK and worldwide, affecting over 90% of all UK sheep flocks. Despite its severity and prevalence, there are knowledge gaps regarding transmission routes of bacterial pathogens associated with infectious lameness in sheep. As larvae of Lucilia sericata are commonly found on foot lesions on lame sheep, it was hypothesised that the flies or their larvae could harbour lameness associated bacteria. This study examined the gut contents of larvae obtained from the foot lesions of lame sheep and compared them to control larvae collected from infested cat food on the same farm. Of particular interest, were the presence of three different bacterial genera associated with lameness; Fusobacterium necrophorum, Dichelobacter nodosus and Treponema spp., for which viability was also investigated. Larvae were cultured In vitro and some allowed to metamorphose into flies before specific PCR assays were carried out on the gut contents. Results showed a significant association between the bacteria on the feet of the sheep and those within the larvae. Although the gut contents of all larvae found on sheep feet contained one or more of the lameness bacteria, none of the bacteria were recovered from the adult flies, suggesting a level of gut remodelling during metamorphosis. Interestingly, Treponema spp. and Fusobacterium spp. were viable when isolated from gut contents of larvae. Maintenance of infection from larvae to fly did not occur. However, it still remains important to control both disease and insect populations of farms to maintain animal welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice E Curwen
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 8DB, UK; School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Leicestershire, UK
| | - Rebecca L Still
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 8DB, UK
| | - Joseph W Angell
- Wern Vets CYF, Department of Research and Innovation, Unit 11, Lon Parcwr Industrial Estate, Ruthin, Denbighshire LL15 1NJ, UK; Department of Livestock and One Health, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Paul E Eady
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 8DB, UK
| | - Stefan H Millson
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 8DB, UK
| | - Gareth J Staton
- Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Nicholas J Evans
- Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Jennifer S Duncan
- Department of Livestock and One Health, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Sheena C Cotter
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 8DB, UK
| | - Simon R Clegg
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln LN6 8DB, UK; Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary & Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston CH64 7TE, UK.
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2
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Bamouh Z, Elkarhat Z, Zouagui Z, Fihri OF, Elharrak M. The prevalence, virulence, and serogroups of Dichelobacter nodosus and prevalence of Fusobacterium necrophorum in footrot lesions of sheep and cattle in Morocco. Vet World 2023; 16:668-674. [DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2023.668-674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Footrot is a contagious disease of ruminants leading to severe economic losses. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence, virulence, and serogroups of Dichelobacter nodosus and the prevalence of Fusobacterium necrophorum in footrot lesions of sheep and cattle.
Materials and Methods: A total of 106 pathogenic lesion samples were taken from 74 sheep and 32 cattle exhibiting typical footrot lesions and were analyzed for the presence of D. nodosus and F. necrophorum by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Both virulence and serogroup were estimated for D. nodosus positive samples.
Results: Among the 106 samples, 89 were positive by PCR for F. necrophorum, D. nodosus, or both. Dichelobacter nodosus was detected at a rate of 78.3% versus 28.3% for F. necrophorum. Virulent D. nodosus strains were detected in 67.5% of positive samples, with a higher rate in sheep (73.4%) than in cattle (47.4%). Benign D. nodosus strains were detected in 57.8% of samples, with a lower prevalence rate in sheep (50%) than in cattle (84.2%). The positive samples of D. nodosus revealed the presence of three dominant serogroups (D, H, I) and three minor serogroups (G, C, A) by serogroup-specific multiplex PCR.
Conclusion: The findings provided information on the prevalence of D. nodosus and F. necrophorum strains in footrot lesions of sheep and cattle in some regions of Morocco, which will be useful for developing an effective autovaccine for the prevention of this disease in cattle and sheep in these regions.
Keywords: cattle, Dichelobacter nodosus, footrot, Fusobacterium necrophorum, polymerase chain reaction, sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Bamouh
- Department of Research and Development, Multi Chemical Industry Santé Animale, Lot. 157, Z.I., Sud-Ouest (ERAC) B.P: 278, Mohammedia, 28810, Morocco; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Contagious Diseases Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Z. Elkarhat
- Department of Research and Development, Multi Chemical Industry Santé Animale, Lot. 157, Z.I., Sud-Ouest (ERAC) B.P: 278, Mohammedia, 28810, Morocco
| | - Z. Zouagui
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Contagious Diseases Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
| | - O. Fassi Fihri
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Contagious Diseases Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
| | - M. Elharrak
- Department of Research and Development, Multi Chemical Industry Santé Animale, Lot. 157, Z.I., Sud-Ouest (ERAC) B.P: 278, Mohammedia, 28810, Morocco
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Marshall HJ, Blanchard AM, Kelly KR, Goh JN, Williams AD, King L, Lovatt F, Davies PL, Tötemeyer S. The impact of glutaraldehyde based footbaths on Dichelobacter nodosus prevalence and the antimicrobial resistant community of the ovine interdigital skin. Vet Microbiol 2022; 272:109459. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2022.109459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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4
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Staton GJ, Angell JW, Grove-White D, Clegg SR, Carter SD, Evans NJ, Duncan JS. Contagious Ovine Digital Dermatitis: A Novel Bacterial Etiology and Lesion Pathogenesis. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:722461. [PMID: 34631855 PMCID: PMC8496452 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.722461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Contagious ovine digital dermatitis (CODD) is a severe and common infectious foot disease of sheep and a significant animal welfare issue for the sheep industry in the UK and some European countries. The etiology and pathogenesis of the disease are incompletely understood. In this longitudinal, experimental study, CODD was induced in 18 sheep, and for the first time, the clinical lesion development and associated microbiological changes in CODD affected feet are described over time, resulting in a completely new understanding of the etiopathogenesis of CODD. The majority of CODD lesions (83.9%) arose from pre-existing interdigital dermatitis (ID) and/or footrot (FR) lesions. All stages of foot disease were associated with high levels of poly-bacterial colonization with five pathogens, which were detected by quantitative PCR (qPCR): Treponema medium, Treponema phagedenis, Treponema pedis, Dichelobacter nodosus, and Fusobacterium necrophorum. Temporal colonization patterns showed a trend for early colonization by T. phagedenis, followed by F. necrophorum and D. nodosus, T. medium, and then T. pedis, D. nodosus was present at significantly higher predicted mean log10 genome copy numbers in FR lesions compared to both ID and CODD, while Treponema species were significantly higher in CODD and FR lesions compared to ID lesions (p < 0.001). Treatment of CODD-affected sheep with two doses of 10 mg/kg long acting amoxicillin resulted in a 91.7% clinical cure rate by 3 weeks post-treatment; however, a bacteriological cure was not established for all CODD-affected feet. The study found that in an infected flock, healthy feet, healed CODD feet, and treated CODD feet can be colonized by some or all of the five pathogens associated with CODD and therefore could be a source of continued infection in flocks. The study is an experimental study, and the findings require validation in field CODD cases. However, it does provide a new understanding of the etiopathogenesis of CODD and further supportive evidence for the importance of current advice on the control of CODD; namely, ensuring optimum flock control of footrot and prompt isolation and effective treatment of clinical cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth J Staton
- Department of Infection Biology & Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Neston, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph W Angell
- Department of Infection Biology & Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Neston, United Kingdom.,Wern Vets CYF, Department of Research and Innovation, Unit 11, Lon Parcwr Industrial Estate, Ruthin, United Kingdom
| | - Dai Grove-White
- Department of Livestock and One Health, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston, United Kingdom
| | - Simon R Clegg
- Department of Infection Biology & Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Neston, United Kingdom.,School of Life Sciences, College of Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart D Carter
- Department of Infection Biology & Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Neston, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas J Evans
- Department of Infection Biology & Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Neston, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer S Duncan
- Department of Livestock and One Health, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston, United Kingdom
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Cortes JA, Hendrick S, Janzen E, Pajor EA, Orsel K. Economic impact of digital dermatitis, foot rot, and bovine respiratory disease in feedlot cattle. Transl Anim Sci 2021; 5:txab076. [PMID: 34222822 PMCID: PMC8244990 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txab076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Digital dermatitis (DD) has emerged in North American feedlots, although production and economic impacts are not fully understood. Objectives of this study were to: (1) estimate the economic impact of a single case of DD, foot rot (FR), and bovine respiratory disease (BRD) in feedlot cattle and (2) determine its impact on average daily gain (ADG). Feedlot cattle health and production records were available from two feedlots for a 3-yr interval. The dataset consisted of 77,115 animal records, with 19.3% (14,900) diagnosed with a disease. Diseased animals were categorized into five groups: DD, FR, BRD, other diseases (OT), and two or more diseases (TM), with a treatment cumulative incidence of 6.0%, 59.1%, 10.7%, 12.7%, and 11.5%, respectively. FR was the disease with the highest cumulative incidence in both heifers and steers (58.8% and 59.6%, respectively). Of all fall-placed cattle diagnosed with any disease, 48.1% of the cases were FR. DD affected the partial budget in five out of the eight groups of cattle, with the highest impact of DD seen in grass yearling heifers and grass yearling steers: $-98 and $-96 CAD, respectively, relative to their healthier counterparts. Healthy cattle had a significantly higher ADG when compared with DD cattle in five of the eight categories, ranging from 0.11 kg/d in winter-placed heifers to 0.17 kg/d in fall-placed steers. In the economic analysis, it was concluded that on an individual animal basis, BRD was the most impactful of all analyzed diseases, whereas DD was second, marking the importance of controlling and mitigating this foot condition. Identifying differential effects of diseases on a partial budget analysis and ADG of the types of cattle stratified by sex enables feedlot producers to focus control and mitigation strategies on specific groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Alberto Cortes
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | | | - Eugene Janzen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Ed A Pajor
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Karin Orsel
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
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Helke KL, Meyerholz DK, Beck AP, Burrough ER, Derscheid RJ, Löhr C, McInnes EF, Scudamore CL, Brayton CF. Research Relevant Background Lesions and Conditions: Ferrets, Dogs, Swine, Sheep, and Goats. ILAR J 2021; 62:133-168. [PMID: 33712827 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilab005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal models provide a valuable tool and resource for biomedical researchers as they investigate biological processes, disease pathogenesis, novel therapies, and toxicologic studies. Interpretation of animal model data requires knowledge not only of the processes/diseases being studied but also awareness of spontaneous conditions and background lesions in the model that can influence or even confound the study results. Species, breed/stock, sex, age, anatomy, physiology, diseases (noninfectious and infectious), and neoplastic processes are model features that can impact the results as well as study interpretation. Here, we review these features in several common laboratory animal species, including ferret, dog (beagle), pig, sheep, and goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristi L Helke
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - David K Meyerholz
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Amanda P Beck
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Eric R Burrough
- Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine Department, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Rachel J Derscheid
- Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine Department, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Christiane Löhr
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Elizabeth F McInnes
- Toxicologic Pathology, Toxicology Section, Human Safety at Syngenta, in Jealott's Hill, Bracknell, United Kingdom
| | - Cheryl L Scudamore
- ExePathology, Pathologist at ExePathology, Exmouth, Devon, United Kingdom
| | - Cory F Brayton
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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7
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Zanolari P, Dürr S, Jores J, Steiner A, Kuhnert P. Ovine footrot: A review of current knowledge. Vet J 2021; 271:105647. [PMID: 33840488 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2021.105647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Footrot is a contagious foot disease mainly affecting sheep. It is caused by the Gram-negative anaerobic bacterium Dichelobacter nodosus. Warm, wet environmental conditions favour development of footrot, and under perfect conditions, it takes just 2-3 weeks from infection to manifestation of clinical signs. Affected sheep show lameness of various degrees and often graze while resting on their carpi. Local clinical signs vary in severity and extent from interdigital inflammation (benign footrot) to underrunning of the complete horn shoe in advanced stages of virulent footrot. Laboratory diagnosis ideally involves collection of four-foot interdigital swab samples followed by competitive real time PCR, allowing for detection of the presence of D. nodosus and differentiation between benign and virulent strains. Laboratory-based diagnostics at the flock level based on risk-based sampling and pooling of interdigital swab samples are recommended. The list of treatment options of individual sheep includes careful removal of the loose undermined horn, local or systemic administration of antimicrobials, systemic administration of non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) and disinfectant footbathing. Strategies for control at the flock level are manifold and depend on the environmental conditions and the procedures traditionally implemented by the respective country. Generally, measures consist of treatment/culling of infected sheep, vaccination and prevention of reinfection of disease-free flocks. Gaining deeper insight into the beneficial effects of NSAIDs, screening for eco-friendly footbath solutions, developing better vaccines, including the development of a robust, reproducible infection model and elucidation of protective immune responses, as well as the elaboration of effective awareness training programs for sheep farmers, are relevant research gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Zanolari
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Salome Dürr
- Veterinary Public Health Institute, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Jores
- Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Steiner
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Peter Kuhnert
- Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Niggeler A, Tetens J, Stäuble A, Steiner A, Drögemüller C. A genome-wide significant association on chromosome 2 for footrot resistance/susceptibility in Swiss White Alpine sheep. Anim Genet 2017; 48:712-715. [PMID: 28983925 DOI: 10.1111/age.12614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Footrot is one of the most important causes of lameness in global sheep populations and is characterized by a bacterial infection of the interdigital skin. As a multifactorial disease, its clinical representation depends not only on pathogen factors and environmental components but also on the individual resistance/susceptibility of the host. A genetic component has been shown in previous studies; however, so far no causative genetic variant influencing the risk of developing footrot has been identified. In this study, we genotyped 373 Swiss White Alpine sheep, using the ovine high-density 600k SNP chip, in order to run a DNA-based comparison of individuals with known clinical footrot status. We performed a case-control genome-wide association study, which revealed a genome-wide significant association for SNP rs418747104 on ovine chromosome 2 at 81.2 Mb. The three best associated SNP markers were located at the MPDZ gene, which codes for the multiple PDZ domain crumbs cell polarity complex component protein, also known as multi-PDZ domain protein 1 (MUPP1). This protein is possibly involved in maintaining the barrier function and integrity of tight junctions. Therefore, we speculate that individuals carrying MPDZ variants may differ in their footrot resistance/susceptibility due to modified horn and interdigital skin integrity. In conclusion, our study reveals that MPDZ might represent a functional candidate gene, and further research is needed to explore its role in footrot affected sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Niggeler
- Institute of Genetics, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bremgartenstrasse 109a, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - J Tetens
- Division Functional Breeding, Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August University, Burckhardtweg 2, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - A Stäuble
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bremgartenstrasse 109a, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - A Steiner
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bremgartenstrasse 109a, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - C Drögemüller
- Institute of Genetics, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bremgartenstrasse 109a, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
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Atia J, Monaghan E, Kaler J, Purdy K, Green L, Keeling M. Mathematical modeling of ovine footrot in the UK: the effect of Dichelobacter nodosus and Fusobacterium necrophorum on the disease dynamics. Epidemics 2017; 21:13-20. [PMID: 28461081 PMCID: PMC5729202 DOI: 10.1016/j.epidem.2017.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Dichelobacter nodosus is a virulent, invasive, anaerobic bacterium that is believed to be the causative agent of ovine footrot, an infectious bacterial disease of sheep that causes lameness. Another anaerobe, Fusobacterium necrophorum, has been intimately linked with the disease occurrence and severity. Here we examine data from a longitudinal study of footrot on one UK farm, including quantitative PCR (qPCR) estimates of bacterial load of D. nodosus and F. necrophorum. The data is at foot level; all feet were monitored for five weeks assessing disease severity (healthy, interdigital dermatitis (ID), or severe footrot (SFR)) and bacterial load (number of bacteria/swab). We investigate the role of D. nodosus and F. necrophorum in the progress of the disease using a continuous-time Markov model with 12 different states characterising the foot. The transition rates between the adjacent states are the (34) model parameters, these are determined using Metropolis Hasting MCMC. Our aim is to determine the predictive relationship between past and future D. nodosus and F. necrophorum load and disease states. We demonstrate a high level of predictive accuracy at the population level for the D. nodosus model, although the dynamics of individual feet is highly stochastic. However, we note that this predictive accuracy at population level is only high in more diseased states for F. necrophorum model. This supports our hypothesis that D. nodosus load and status of the foot work in combination to give rise to severe footrot and lameness, and that D. nodosus load plays the primary role in the initiation and progression of footrot, while F. necrophorum load rather increases disease severity of SFR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolene Atia
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK.
| | - Emma Monaghan
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Jasmeet Kaler
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Leicestershire LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Kevin Purdy
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Laura Green
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Matt Keeling
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
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