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Warneke K, Lohmann LH, Behm DG, Wirth K, Keiner M, Schiemann S, Wilke J. Effects of Chronic Static Stretching on Maximal Strength and Muscle Hypertrophy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Meta-Regression. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2024; 10:45. [PMID: 38637473 PMCID: PMC11026323 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-024-00706-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increases in maximal strength and muscle volume represent central aims of training interventions. Recent research suggested that the chronic application of stretch may be effective in inducing hypertrophy. The present systematic review therefore aimed to syntheisize the evidence on changes of strength and muscle volume following chronic static stretching. METHODS Three data bases were sceened to conduct a systematic review with meta-analysis. Studies using randomized, controlled trials with longitudinal (≥ 2 weeks) design, investigating strength and muscle volume following static stretching in humans, were included. Study quality was rated by two examiners using the PEDro scale. RESULTS A total of 42 studies with 1318 cumulative participants were identified. Meta-analyses using robust variance estimation showed small stretch-mediated maximal strength increases (d = 0.30 p < 0.001) with stretching duration and intervention time as significant moderators. Including all studies, stretching induced small magnitude, but significant hypertrophy effects (d = 0.20). Longer stretching durations and intervention periods as well as higher training frequencies revealed small (d = 0.26-0.28), but significant effects (p < 0.001-0.005), while lower dosage did not reach the level of significance (p = 0.13-0.39). CONCLUSIONS While of minor effectiveness, chronic static stretching represents a possible alternative to resistance training when aiming to improve strength and increase muscle size. As a dose-response relationship may exist, higher stretch durations and frequencies as well as long program durations should be further elaborated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin Warneke
- Institute of Human Movement Science, Sport and Health, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Department of Movement Sciences, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee, Austria
| | - Lars Hubertus Lohmann
- Department of Human Motion Science and Exercise Physiology, Friedrich Schiller University, 07743, Jena, Germany.
| | - David G Behm
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Newfoundland and Labrador, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Canada
| | - Klaus Wirth
- University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Michael Keiner
- Department of Sport Science, German University of Health & Sport, Ismaning, Germany
| | - Stephan Schiemann
- Institute of Exercise, Sport and Health, Leuphana University, Lüneburg, Germany
| | - Jan Wilke
- Department of Movement Sciences, University of Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt am Wörthersee, Austria
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Kay AD, Baxter BA, Hill MW, Blazevich AJ. Effects of Eccentric Resistance Training on Lower-Limb Passive Joint Range of Motion: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:710-721. [PMID: 36730587 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Substantial increases in joint range of motion (ROM) have been reported after eccentric resistance training; however, between-study variability and sample size issues complicate the interpretation of the magnitude of effect. METHODS PubMed, Medline, and SPORTDiscus databases were searched for studies examining the effects of eccentric training on lower-limb passive joint ROM in healthy human participants. Meta-analysis used an inverse-variance random-effects model to calculate the pooled standardized difference (Hedge's g ) with 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS Meta-analysis of 22 ROM outcomes (17 studies, 376 participants) revealed a large increase in lower-limb passive joint ROM ( g = 0.86 (95% confidence intervals, 0.65-1.08)). Subgroup analyses revealed a moderate increase after 4-5 wk ( g = 0.63 (0.27-0.98)), large increase after 6-8 wk ( g = 0.98 (0.73-1.24)), and moderate increase after 9-14 wk ( g = 0.75 (0.03, 1.46)) of training. Large increases were found in dorsiflexion ( g = 1.12 (0.78-1.47)) and knee extension ( g = 0.82 (0.48-1.17)), but a small increase in knee flexion was observed ( g = 0.41 (0.05-0.77)). A large increase was found after isokinetic ( g = 1.07 (0.59-1.54)) and moderate increase after isotonic ( g = 0.77 (0.56-0.99)) training. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate the potential of eccentric training as an effective flexibility training intervention and provide evidence for "best practice" guidelines. The larger effect after isokinetic training despite <50% training sessions being performed is suggestive of a more effective exercise mode, although further research is needed to determine the influence of contraction intensity and to confirm the efficacy of eccentric training in clinical populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony D Kay
- Centre for Physical Activity and Life Sciences, Faculty of Art, Science and Technology, University of Northampton, Northamptonshire, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Brett A Baxter
- Centre for Physical Activity and Life Sciences, Faculty of Art, Science and Technology, University of Northampton, Northamptonshire, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Mathew W Hill
- Centre for Sport, Exercise and Life Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Coventry University, Warwickshire, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Anthony J Blazevich
- Centre for Human Performance (CHP), School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, AUSTRALIA
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Thomas E, Ficarra S, Nunes JP, Paoli A, Bellafiore M, Palma A, Bianco A. Does Stretching Training Influence Muscular Strength? A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression. J Strength Cond Res 2022; 37:1145-1156. [PMID: 36525533 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Thomas, E, Ficarra, S, Nunes, JP, Paoli, A, Bellafiore, M, Palma, A, and Bianco, A. Does stretching training influence muscular strength? A systematic review with meta-analysis and meta-regression. J Strength Cond Res 37(5): 1145-1156, 2023-The aim of this study was to review articles that performed stretching training and evaluated the effects on muscular strength. Literature search was performed using 3 databases. Studies were included if they compared the effects on strength following stretching training vs. a nontraining control group or stretching training combined with resistance training (RT) vs. an RT-only group, after at least 4 weeks of intervention. The meta-analyses were performed using a random-effect model with Hedges' g effect size (ES). A total of 35 studies ( n = 1,179 subjects) were included in this review. The interventions lasted for a mean period of 8 weeks (range, 4-24 weeks), 3-4 days per week, applying approximately 4 sets of stretching of approximately 1-minute duration. The meta-analysis for the stretching vs. nontraining control group showed a significant small effect on improving dynamic (k = 14; ES = 0.33; p = 0.007) but not isometric strength (k = 8; ES = 0.10; p = 0.377), following static stretching programs (k = 17; ES = 0.28; p = 0.006). When stretching was added to RT interventions, the main analysis indicated no significant effect (k = 17; ES = -0.15; p = 0.136); however, moderator analysis indicated that performing stretching before RT sessions has a small but negative effect (k = 7; ES = -0.43; p = 0.014); the meta-regression revealed a significant negative association with study length (β = -0.100; p = 0.004). Chronic static stretching programs increase dynamic muscular strength to a small magnitude. Performing stretching before RT and for a prolonged time (>8 weeks) can blunt the strength gains to a small-to-moderate magnitude. Performing stretching in sessions distant from RT sessions might be a strategy to not hinder strength development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewan Thomas
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Salvatore Ficarra
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - João Pedro Nunes
- Metabolism, Nutrition, and Exercise Laboratory, Physical Education and Sport Center, Londrina State University, Londrina, Brazil; and
| | - Antonio Paoli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Marianna Bellafiore
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonio Palma
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonino Bianco
- Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
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Rai A, Bhati P, Anand P. Exercise induced muscle damage and repeated bout effect: an update for last 10 years and future perspectives. COMPARATIVE EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.3920/cep220025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) and repeated bout effect (RBE) are widely researched across various populations. EIMD is the muscle damage occurring after one bout of unaccustomed exercise while RBE is the attenuation of the same muscle damage in subsequent second bout. RBE seems to have significant implications for exercise prescription. Despite existence of vast literature, there is lack of clarity on the effects of EIMD and RBE in a healthy population. The purpose of this study is to review the literature on EIMD and RBE in healthy participants published during the last 10 years. The search of major databases (including Scopus, Google Scholar and PubMed) was conducted using specific keywords ‘Exercise induced muscle damage’, ‘Repeated bout effect’, ‘Healthy participants’ ‘Pre-conditioning’, ‘Eccentric exercise’. Studies published from 2011 onwards which included EIMD and RBE assessment in healthy participants were included in this review. Database searching revealed a total of 38 studies on EIMD and RBE in healthy participants. Three major themes of papers were identified that focused on EIMD and RBE along with (1) age related differences, (2) sex-based differences, and (3) response in athletes. Findings of this comprehensive review suggests that both EIMD and RBE are age, and sex specific. Delayed onset muscle soreness played a major role in both EIMD and RBE in all the population types. Female participants are less susceptible to EIMD as compared to age-matched male counterparts. Moreover, both EIMD and RBE are more elicited in middle aged and younger adults as compared to children and older adults while the magnitude of RBE turns out to be minimal in trained individuals due to persisting adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Rai
- Faculty of Physiotherapy, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
| | - P. Bhati
- Faculty of Physiotherapy, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
| | - P. Anand
- Faculty of Physiotherapy, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary University, Gurugram, Haryana, India
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Valencia AP, Samuelson AT, Stuppard R, Marcinek DJ. Functional recovery from eccentric injury is maintained in sarcopenic mouse muscle. JCSM RAPID COMMUNICATIONS 2021; 4:222-231. [PMID: 39035012 PMCID: PMC11258993 DOI: 10.1002/rco2.33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
Background Eccentric contractions induce muscle damage (EIMD) that compromises muscle function. Poor recovery from EIMD has been suggested to be a contributor to the decline in muscle function evident in sarcopenia, but it is unclear which aspects of muscle function are more susceptible to disruption by EIMD in old versus young muscle. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of impairment in contractile function (force, fatigue, tetanus and twitch kinetics) during the recovery from EIMD in very old (VO) mice compared to young adult (YA). Methods Male CB6F1 were obtained from National Institure of Aging colony. VO mice were 29-31 months of age, and YA mice were 7-9 months of age. The plantarflexor muscles were subjected to 20 eccentric contractions in vivo to induce injury (EIMD). Changes in tetanic force and kinetics were assessed before EIMD, immediately after EIMD and 3 days after EIMD (3dEIMD). Force-frequency and rates of fatigue were assessed 3d-EIMD and compared with baseline. Histological analysis was conducted in injured and non-injured contralateral gastrocnemius muscle. Results There was a greater loss in isometric tetanic force immediately following EIMD in VO compared with YA (-31.6% ± 10.4 vs. -21.7% ± 6.0, P < 0.05). At 3d-EIMD, the rate of contraction of tetanus began to recover in VO, but not in YA (20.8% vs. -6.8%, P < 0.05), whereas the extent of recovery of force tended to be greater in VO than YA (39.3% vs. 17.1%, P = 0.08) when compared with tetanic function immediately after injury. Compared with function pre-injury (baseline), VO and YA had similar deficits in tetanic force (-7.3% ± 5.3 vs. -9.2% ± 6.0, respectively) and kinetics at Day 3. Twitch kinetics (rate of relaxation) recovered faster in VO compared with YA. The rate of muscle fatigue was similar to baseline values, with VO continuing to be more fatigue resistant than YA 3d-EIMD. There were no detectable differences in muscle mass or myofibre cross-sectional area despite continued deficits in force following EIMD in either age group. Conclusions Despite clear functional deficits and greater susceptibility to injury, aged sarcopenic muscle exhibited a similar ability to recover contractile function to younger muscle following EIMD. In addition, neither age group showed accelerated muscle fatigue in the recovery phase after EIMD; thus, sarcopenic mouse muscles do not appear to be more susceptible to long-term functional impairment than young healthy muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana P. Valencia
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Brotman 140, 850 Republican St., Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Ashton T. Samuelson
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Brotman 140, 850 Republican St., Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Rudolph Stuppard
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Brotman 140, 850 Republican St., Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - David J. Marcinek
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Brotman 140, 850 Republican St., Seattle, WA 98109, USA
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Hinks A, Hess A, Debenham MIB, Chen J, Mazara N, Inkol KA, Cervone DT, Spriet LL, Dalton BH, Power GA. Power loss is attenuated following a second bout of high-intensity eccentric contractions due to the repeated bout effect's protection of rate of torque and velocity development. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2020; 46:461-472. [PMID: 33125854 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2020-0641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
High-intensity unaccustomed eccentric contractions result in weakness and power loss because of fatigue and muscle damage. Through the repeated bout effect (RBE), adaptations occur, then damage and weakness are attenuated following a subsequent bout. However, it is unclear whether the RBE protects peak power output. We investigated the influence of the RBE on power production and estimated fatigue- and damage-induced neuromuscular impairments following repeated high-intensity eccentric contractions. Twelve healthy adult males performed 5 sets of 30 maximal eccentric elbow flexions and repeated an identical bout 4 weeks later. Recovery was tracked over 7 days following both bouts. Reduced maximum voluntary isometric contraction torque, and increased serum creatine kinase and self-reported soreness indirectly inferred muscle damage. Peak isotonic power, time-dependent measures - rate of velocity development (RVD) and rate of torque development (RTD) - and several electrophysiological indices of neuromuscular function were assessed. The RBE protected peak power, with a protective index of 66% 24 h after the second eccentric exercise bout. The protection of power also related to preserved RVD (R2 = 0.61, P < 0.01) and RTD (R2 = 0.39, P < 0.01). Furthermore, the RBE's protection against muscle damage permitted the estimation of fatigue-associated neuromuscular performance decrements following eccentric exercise. Novelty: The repeated bout effect protects peak isotonic power. Protection of peak power relates to preserved rates of torque and velocity development, but more so rate of velocity development. The repeated bout effect has little influence on indices of neuromuscular fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery Hinks
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Adam Hess
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Mathew I B Debenham
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Jackey Chen
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Nicole Mazara
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Keaton A Inkol
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.,Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Daniel T Cervone
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Lawrence L Spriet
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Brian H Dalton
- School of Health and Exercise Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Geoffrey A Power
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
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