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Beato M, de Keijzer KL, Muñoz-Lopez A, Raya-González J, Pozzo M, Alkner BA, Dello Iacono A, Vicens-Bordas J, Coratella G, Maroto-Izquierdo S, Gonzalo-Skok O, McErlain-Naylor SA, Martin-Rivera F, Hernandez-Davo JL, Arrones LS, Sabido R, de Hoyo M, Fernandez-Gonzalo R, Norrbrand L. Current Guidelines for the Implementation of Flywheel Resistance Training Technology in Sports: A Consensus Statement. Sports Med 2024; 54:541-556. [PMID: 38175461 PMCID: PMC10978721 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01979-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Flywheel resistance training has become more integrated within resistance training programs in a variety of sports due to the neuromuscular, strength, and task-specific enhancements reported with this training. OBJECTIVE This paper aimed to present the consensus reached by internationally recognized experts during a meeting on current definitions and guidelines for the implementation of flywheel resistance training technology in sports. METHODS Nineteen experts from different countries took part in the consensus process; 16 of them were present at the consensus meeting (18 May 2023) while three submitted their recommendations by e-mail. Prior to the meeting, evidence summaries were developed relating to areas of priority. This paper discusses the available evidence and consensus process from which recommendations were made regarding the appropriate use of flywheel resistance training technology in sports. The process to gain consensus had five steps: (1) performing a systematic review of systematic reviews, (2) updating the most recent umbrella review published on this topic, (3) first round discussion among a sample of the research group included in this consensus statement, (4) selection of research group members-process of the consensus meeting and formulation of the recommendations, and (5) the consensus process. The systematic analysis of the literature was performed to select the most up-to-date review papers available on the topic, which resulted in nine articles; their methodological quality was assessed according to AMSTAR 2 (Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Review 2) and GRADE (Grading Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation). Statements and recommendations scoring 7-9 were considered appropriate. RESULTS The recommendations were based on the evidence summary and researchers' expertise; the consensus statement included three statements and seven recommendations for the use of flywheel resistance training technology. These statements and recommendations were anonymously voted on and qualitatively analyzed. The three statements reported a score ranging from 8.1 to 8.8, and therefore, all statements included in this consensus were considered appropriate. The recommendations (1-7) had a score ranging from 7.7 to 8.6, and therefore, all recommendations were considered appropriate. CONCLUSIONS Because of the consensus achieved among the experts in this project, it is suggested that practitioners and researchers should adopt the guidelines reported in this consensus statement regarding the use of flywheel resistance technology in sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Beato
- School of Allied Health Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK.
| | | | - Alejandro Muñoz-Lopez
- Departamento de Motricidad Humana y Rendimiento Deportivo, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | | | - Marco Pozzo
- Master de Fútbol, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain
- SmartCoach Technologies, Inc., Seville, Spain
| | - Björn A Alkner
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Eksjö, Region Jönköping County, Sweden
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Antonio Dello Iacono
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland
| | - Jordi Vicens-Bordas
- Sport, Exercise, and Human Movement (SEaHM), University of Vic-Central University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain
- Sport and Physical Activity Studies Centre (CEEAF), University of Vic-Central University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Giuseppe Coratella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Oliver Gonzalo-Skok
- Department of Communication and Education, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Seville, Spain
| | | | - Fernando Martin-Rivera
- Research Group in Prevention and Health in Exercise and Sport, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | | | | | - Rafael Sabido
- Sport Research Centre, Department of Sport Sciences, Miguel Hernández University, Elche, Spain
| | - Moises de Hoyo
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
- Performance Department, Aston Villa Football Club, Birmingham, UK
| | - Rodrigo Fernandez-Gonzalo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lena Norrbrand
- Division of Environmental Physiology, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Solna, Sweden
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de Keijzer KL, Raya-González J, López Samanés Á, Moreno Perez V, Beato M. Perception and use of flywheel resistance training amongst therapists in sport. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1141431. [PMID: 37122637 PMCID: PMC10130652 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1141431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Flywheel (isoinertial) resistance training is a valid strength training method that has been incorporated in sport for decades, yet little is known about how therapists working in sport apply flywheel resistance training. We aimed to describe and understand current application and perception of flywheel resistance training amongst therapists working in sport. Seventy- three therapists (13 ± 10 years of experience) started part of this survey with 52 completing the entire electronic questionnaire. Nine multiple choice questions on application and perceptions of flywheel training (prerequisites, use of technology, barriers, and upper- and lower-body exercises) preceded two 6-point Likert scale statements on strength and reduction of injury likelihood. Most therapists (47/73) either used or intended to use flywheel training with their athletes and stated familiarisation would be a priority prior to initiating training. Although more than half suggested they were confident flywheel training could enhance strength (27/52) and muscular prehabilitation outcomes (40/52), many remained unsure. Nonetheless, it appears that therapists would mostly include flywheel training within prehabilitation (40/52) or during the later stages of rehabilitation (37/52). To monitor progress, therapists slightly prefer power (30/52) over velocity outputs, while few would not use them at all. Although therapists would prescribe most exercises - the squat, rotational exercise, and unilateral leg curl would be the most selected. Meanwhile, therapists reported remain most unsure or would avoid prescribing the lateral squat and unilateral hip extension. The biggest perceived barriers to flywheel training are equipment cost/space, evidence, and scheduling. The investigation provides valuable insight into the application and perception of flywheel training amongst therapists working in sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin L. de Keijzer
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
| | - Javier Raya-González
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Isabel I, Burgos, Spain
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Extremadura, Cáceres, Spain
| | - Álvaro López Samanés
- Exercise Physiology Group, School of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid, Spain
| | - Victor Moreno Perez
- Center for Translational Research in Physiotherapy, Department of Pathology and Surgery, Miguel Hernandez University of Elche, San Joan, Spain
| | - Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- Correspondence: Marco Beato
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Filetti C, Ruscello B, Leo I, Porta M, Chiari A, Miranda C, Rago V. Hypertrophic adaptations to a 6-week in-season barbell vs. flywheel squat added to regular soccer training. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2023; 63:60-68. [PMID: 35415999 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.22.13793-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to compare the hypertrophic adaptations to barbell or flywheel squat exercise added to regular in-season soccer training. METHODS Quadriceps' (rectus femoris [RF], vastus medialis [VM] and vastus lateralis [VL]) cross-sectional area (CSA) in its portions (proximal [PROX], middle [MID], and distal [DIST]) was measured on both legs before and after a 6-week barbell (80 to 90% one-maximum repetition; N.=7) or flywheel (0.0611 to 0.0811 kg·m2; N.=7) in an U19 professional soccer team using a 3T magnetic resonance imaging. Both groups underwent 5 sets × 6 reps per session of squat separated by 3-min rest, while controlling the time under tension (within 0.5 and 0.8 s). RESULTS The barbell squat group experienced moderate CSA increments in the VM<inf>MID</inf> and the VL<inf>DIST</inf> of the right leg (d=0.98-0.99). Additionally, the flywheel group experience large CSA increments in the RF<inf>MID</inf>, VL<inf>PROX</inf> and VL<inf>MID</inf> of the right leg (d=1.00-1.84). On average, flywheel squat training largely produced greater force during exercise compared to the barbell squat training (29.2 vs. 12.2 N·kg-1; d=5.95), whereas the barbell squat training produced moderately greater power output (10.5 vs. 9.7; d=0.52). CONCLUSIONS Barbell squat training seems to be more effective for VM hypertrophy whereas flywheel squat triggers greater RF and VL hypertrophy as complementary to regular field-based soccer practice and competition within a short range of time (6 weeks) during the in-season. These findings can be considered also from either strength or reconditioning perspective based on the increase in the quadriceps muscles' CSA as mechanism underlying strength/power adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristoforo Filetti
- School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy.,School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Rome, Italy.,Unione Sportiva Salernitana 1919, Salerno, Italy.,Performance Department, FC Paris Saint Germain, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Ruscello
- School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy.,School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Rome, Italy.,Department of Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy.,LUISS SportLab, LUISS University, Rome, Italy
| | - Italo Leo
- Unione Sportiva Salernitana 1919, Salerno, Italy.,Department of Human, Philosophical and Educational Sciences, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy.,Department of Sport Rehab, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d'Aragona University Hospital, Salerno, Italy
| | - Marco Porta
- School of Sports and Exercise Sciences, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Rome, Italy
| | - Aldo Chiari
- Parthenope Sant'Antimo Basket, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Vincenzo Rago
- Faculty of Health and Sports Sciences, European University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal -
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Raya-González J, Castillo D, de Keijzer KL, Beato M. Considerations to Optimize Strength and Muscle Mass Gains Through Flywheel Resistance Devices: A Narrative Review. Strength Cond J 2022. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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de Keijzer KL, McErlain-Naylor SA, Beato M. The Effect of Flywheel Inertia on Peak Power and Its Inter-session Reliability During Two Unilateral Hamstring Exercises: Leg Curl and Hip Extension. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:898649. [PMID: 35755611 PMCID: PMC9226424 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.898649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the effect of flywheel moment of inertia (0.029, 0.061, and 0.089 kg·m2) on concentric and eccentric peak power and eccentric:concentric peak power ratio during unilateral flywheel leg curl and hip extension exercises. Moreover, the inter-session reliability of peak power was analyzed during both exercises. Twenty amateur male soccer athletes attended five visits-performing three sets of eight repetitions of either unilateral leg curl or hip extension (all three moments of inertias) during each visit. For the unilateral leg curl, there were no differences in any measure between moments of inertia (p = 0.479) but a higher eccentric than concentric peak power for all moments of inertia (p < 0.001). For the unilateral hip extension, differences between moments of inertia were reported for all measures (p < 0.05). Specifically, the lowest moment of inertia elicited the greatest concentric peak power (p = 0.022), there were no differences with the medium inertia (p = 0.391), and the greatest moment of inertia obtained the greatest eccentric peak power (p = 0.036). Peak power measures obtained acceptable to excellent reliability while the eccentric:concentric ratio reported unacceptable to good reliability for both exercises. A variety of moments of inertia can elicit high eccentric knee flexor demands during unilateral leg curls, whereas higher moments of inertia are needed to achieve an eccentric-overload in peak power during hip extensions. Different exercises may have different inertia-power relationships. Concentric and eccentric peak power measures should continue to inform training, while the eccentric:concentric ratio should not be used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin L. de Keijzer
- School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
| | - Stuart A. McErlain-Naylor
- School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
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6
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Niklasson E, Borga M, Dahlqvist Leinhard O, Widholm P, Andersson DP, Wiik A, Holmberg M, Brismar TB, Gustafsson T, Lundberg TR. Assessment of anterior thigh muscle size and fat infiltration using single-slice CT imaging versus automated MRI analysis in adults. Br J Radiol 2022; 95:20211094. [PMID: 35195445 PMCID: PMC10993966 DOI: 10.1259/bjr.20211094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We examined the longitudinal and cross-sectional relationship between automated MRI-analysis and single-slice axial CT imaging for determining muscle size and muscle fat infiltration (MFI) of the anterior thigh. METHODS Twenty-two patients completing sex-hormone treatment expected to result in muscle hypertrophy (n = 12) and atrophy (n = 10) underwent MRI scans using 2-point Dixon fat/water-separated sequences and CT scans using a system operating at 120 kV and a fixed flux of 100 mA. At baseline and 12 months after, automated volumetric MRI analysis of the anterior thigh was performed bilaterally, and fat-free muscle volume and MFI were computed. In addition, cross-sectional area (CSA) and radiological attenuation (RA) (as a marker of fat infiltration) were calculated from single slice axial CT-images using threshold-assisted planimetry. Linear regression models were used to convert units. RESULTS There was a strong correlation between MRI-derived fat-free muscle volume and CT-derived CSA (R = 0.91), and between MRI-derived MFI and CT-derived RA (R = -0.81). The 95% limits of agreement were ±0.32 L for muscle volume and ±1.3% units for %MFI. The longitudinal change in muscle size and MFI was comparable across imaging modalities. CONCLUSIONS Both automated MRI and single-slice CT-imaging can be used to reliably quantify anterior thigh muscle size and MFI. ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE This is the first study examining the intermodal agreement between automated MRI analysis and CT-image assessment of muscle size and MFI in the anterior thigh muscles. Our results support that both CT- and MRI-derived measures of muscle size and MFI can be used in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Niklasson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical
Physiology, Karolinska Institutet,
Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Magnus Borga
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Linköping
University, Linköping,
Sweden
- AMRA Medical AB,
Linköping, Sweden
| | - Olof Dahlqvist Leinhard
- AMRA Medical AB,
Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences,
Linköping University,
Linköping, Sweden
| | - Per Widholm
- AMRA Medical AB,
Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Health, Medicine and Caring Sciences,
Linköping University,
Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Radiology, Linköping
University, Linköping,
Sweden
- Center for Medical Image Science and Visualization (CMIV),
Linköping University,
Linköping, Sweden
| | - Daniel P Andersson
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska
University Hospital Huddinge,
Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Wiik
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical
Physiology, Karolinska Institutet,
Stockholm, Sweden
- Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University
Hospital, Stockholm,
Sweden
| | - Mats Holmberg
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska
University Hospital Huddinge,
Stockholm, Sweden
- ANOVA, Andrology, Sexual Medicine and Transgender Medicine,
Karolinska University Hospital,
Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Torkel B Brismar
- Division of Radiology, Department of Clinical Science,
Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska
University Hospital, Stockholm,
Sweden
| | - Thomas Gustafsson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical
Physiology, Karolinska Institutet,
Stockholm, Sweden
- Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University
Hospital, Stockholm,
Sweden
| | - Tommy R Lundberg
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical
Physiology, Karolinska Institutet,
Stockholm, Sweden
- Unit of Clinical Physiology, Karolinska University
Hospital, Stockholm,
Sweden
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de Keijzer KL, Gonzalez JR, Beato M. The effect of flywheel training on strength and physical capacities in sporting and healthy populations: An umbrella review. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264375. [PMID: 35213634 PMCID: PMC8880830 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this umbrella review was to provide a detailed summary of how flywheel training enhances strength and physical capacities in healthy and athletic populations. The eleven reviews included were analyzed for methodological quality according to the Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Review 2 (AMSTAR 2) and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria. Two were systematic reviews, six were systematic reviews with meta-analyses and three were narrative reviews. Although the included reviews support use of flywheel training with athletic and healthy populations, the umbrella review highlights disparity in methodological quality and over-reporting of studies (38 studies were included overall). Flywheel post-activation performance enhancement protocols can effectively enhance strength and physical capacities acutely with athletes and healthy populations. All relevant reviews support flywheel training as a valid alternative to traditional resistance training for enhancing muscular strength, power, and jump performance with untrained and trained populations alike. Similarly, reviews included report flywheel training enhances change of direction performance—although conclusions are based on a limited number of investigations. However, the reviews investigating the effect of flywheel training on sprint performance highlight some inconsistency in attained improvements with elite athletes (e.g., soccer players). To optimize training outcomes, it is recommended practitioners individualize (i.e., create inertia-power or inertia-velocity profiles) and periodize flywheel training using the latest guidelines. This umbrella review provides an analysis of the literature’s strengths and limitations, creating a clear scope for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin L. de Keijzer
- School of Health and Sports Science, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
| | | | - Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Science, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Kojić F, Mandić D, Ilić V. Resistance training induces similar adaptations of upper and lower-body muscles between sexes. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23449. [PMID: 34873221 PMCID: PMC8648816 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02867-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to compare sex adaptations in hypertrophy, strength and contractile properties of upper and lower-body muscles induced by resistance training (RT). Eighteen RT untrained male (MG) and female (FG) students (aged 24.1 ± 1.7 years, height: 1.75 ± 0.08 m, weight: 70.4 ± 12.3 kg) undervent 7 weeks of biceps curl and squat training (2 days/week, 60–70% repetition maximum, 3–4 sets, 120 s rest intervals, reps until muscular failure). At baseline and final measurement, thickness and cross-section area, one-repetition maximum and tensiomyography parameters (contraction time − Tc and radial displacement − Dm) of elbow flexors (biceps brachii) and knee extensors (4 quadriceps muscles) were evaluated. Although MG tends to display greater absolute strength gains for upper- (p = 0.055) and lower-body (p = 0.098), for relative changes ANCOVA revealed no sex-specific differences for either of the tested variables. Significant hypertrophy was observed for all tested muscles, except for vastus intermedius in FG (p = 0.076). The Dm significantly decreased for biceps brachii (MG by 12%, p < 0.01 and FG by 13.1%, p < 0.01) and rectus femoris (MG by19.2%, p < 0.01 and FG by 12.3%, p < 0.05), while Tc values remain unchanged. These results indicate that initial morphological, functional and contractile alterations following RT are similar for males and females, and that there are no specific sex adaptations either for the upper- or lower-body muscles. The study was registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04845295).
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Kojić
- Teacher Education Faculty, University of Belgrade, Kraljice Natalije 43, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia.
| | - Danimir Mandić
- Teacher Education Faculty, University of Belgrade, Kraljice Natalije 43, Belgrade, 11000, Serbia
| | - Vladimir Ilić
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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Muñoz-López A, Floría P, Sañudo B, Pecci J, Carmona Pérez J, Pozzo M. The Maximum Flywheel Load: A Novel Index to Monitor Loading Intensity of Flywheel Devices. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:8124. [PMID: 34884128 PMCID: PMC8662394 DOI: 10.3390/s21238124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The main aim of this study was (1) to find an index to monitor the loading intensity of flywheel resistance training, and (2) to study the differences in the relative intensity workload spectrum between the FW-load and ISO-load. METHODS twenty-one males participated in the study. Subjects executed an incremental loading test in the squat exercise using a Smith machine (ISO-load) or a flywheel device (FW-load). We studied different association models between speed, power, acceleration, and force, and each moment of inertia was used to find an index for FW-load. In addition, we tested the differences between relative workloads among load conditions using a two-way repeated-measures test. RESULTS the highest r2 was observed using a logarithmic fitting model between the mean angular acceleration and moment of inertia. The intersection with the x-axis resulted in an index (maximum flywheel load, MFL) that represents a theoretical individual maximal load that can be used. The ISO-load showed greater speed, acceleration, and power outcomes at any relative workload (%MFL vs. % maximum repetition). However, from 45% of the relative workload, FW-load showed higher vertical forces. CONCLUSIONS MFL can be easily computed using a logarithmic model between the mean angular acceleration and moment of inertia to characterize the maximum theoretical loading intensity in the flywheel squat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Muñoz-López
- Departamento de Motricidad Humana y Rendimiento Deportivo, University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain;
| | - Pablo Floría
- Physical Performance and Sports Research Center, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Seville, Spain;
| | - Borja Sañudo
- Department of Physical Education, University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain; (B.S.); (J.P.)
| | - Javier Pecci
- Department of Physical Education, University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain; (B.S.); (J.P.)
| | - Jorge Carmona Pérez
- Departamento de Motricidad Humana y Rendimiento Deportivo, University of Seville, 41013 Seville, Spain;
| | - Marco Pozzo
- SmartCoach Europe AB, 118 20 Stockholm, Sweden;
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Zubac D, Ivančev V, Valić Z, Pišot R, Meulenberg CJW, Trozić I, Goswami N, Šimunič B. A Randomized Crossover Trial on the Acute Cardiovascular Demands During Flywheel Exercise. Front Physiol 2021; 12:665462. [PMID: 34248660 PMCID: PMC8267577 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.665462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In a randomized crossover trial, we examined whether age plays a role in the mean arterial pressure (MAP) response during a vigorous flywheel exercise of varying load. We hypothesized that the magnitude of increase in the MAP during the flywheel exercise would increase in proportion to advancing age, thereby imposing a significant challenge to the cardiovascular system. A total of 30 participants of both sexes (age range from 20-55 y, 37% women) underwent a detailed medical examination, and their maximal oxygen uptake was determined. They performed a squat exercise (2 sets × 7 repetitions) on a flywheel ergometer at three randomly assigned moments of inertia set at 0.025, 0.05, and 0.075 kg m2, while the cardiovascular response was continuously recorded via a Task force monitor. Compared to the resting values, robust rises in the MAP were observed during all three flywheel loads, reaching the highest value of 179 ± 4 mmHg (p = 0.001) during the highest load. In parallel, the cardiac index (cardiac output normalized by the body surface area) was two-fold greater during all the flywheel loads compared to rest, and at a high load, exclusively, the total peripheral resistance increased by 11% (p = 0.001). The rise in heart rate compensated for a load-dependent drop in the stroke index (stroke volume normalized by the body surface area). In our study population, no correlations were observed between the relative increase in the MAP and the participants' age for the three flywheel loads. The present findings suggest that the larger moments of inertia impose a substantial burden to the cardiovascular system, without apparent associated age-differences of the relative magnitude of MAP rise throughout the exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damir Zubac
- Science and Research Center Koper, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Koper, Slovenia.,Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split, Split, Croatia
| | | | - Zoran Valić
- Department of Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Split, Split, Croatia
| | - Rado Pišot
- Science and Research Center Koper, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Koper, Slovenia
| | - Cécil J W Meulenberg
- Science and Research Center Koper, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Koper, Slovenia
| | - Irhad Trozić
- Gravitational Physiology, Aging and Medicine Research Unit, Physiology Division, Otto Loewi Center of Vascular Biology, Immunity and Inflammation, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Nandu Goswami
- Gravitational Physiology, Aging and Medicine Research Unit, Physiology Division, Otto Loewi Center of Vascular Biology, Immunity and Inflammation, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Boštjan Šimunič
- Science and Research Center Koper, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Koper, Slovenia
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Independent influence of age on heart rate recovery after flywheel exercise in trained men and women. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12011. [PMID: 34103623 PMCID: PMC8187710 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91565-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study examined whether differences in the heart rate recovery following flywheel exercise cessation were associated with differences in maximal oxygen uptake (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\dot{\text{V}}}$$\end{document}V˙O2 max.), age and sex in trained adults. Eleven men (age range 22–49 years, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\dot{\text{V}}}$$\end{document}V˙O2 max. = 43.6 ± 7.6 mL kg min−1) and ten women (age range 20—53 years, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\dot{\text{V}}}$$\end{document}V˙O2 max. = 38.0 ± 5.7 mL kg min−1) were randomly assigned to complete a squat-exercise on the flywheel ergometer set at three different moments of inertia, while their cardiovascular responses were continuously monitored. During the flywheel exercise the mean arterial pressure rose by ~ 35 to 40% (p = .001), and the increment was more robust in men than women. The cardiac index was two-fold greater across both sexes compared to the baseline (p = .001), while the rise in heart rate (~ 144 bpm) was more pronounced in women to compensate for their load-dependent stroke index decline (p = .001). The load-independent time-course changes in heart rate recovery markers were comparable between the sexes. When these indicators were pooled, a stepwise regression revealed age as the only relevant predictor of both fast and slow components of the heart rate recovery (~ 30% of the shared variance explained, p = .014). The present data suggest that the heart rate recovery declines with age, irrespective of sex, or well-preserved cardiorespiratory fitness in moderately-trained adults.
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Zubac D, Obad A, Ivančev V, Valić Z. Acute flywheel exercise does not impair the brachial artery vasodilation in healthy men of varying aerobic fitness. Blood Press Monit 2021; 26:215-223. [PMID: 33590994 DOI: 10.1097/mbp.0000000000000523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cardiovascular response to variable load exercise on a flywheel ergometer is still unknown. OBJECTIVE This study examined the effects of flywheel exercise on cardiovascular response and brachial artery vasodilation capacity in healthy, active men. METHODS In this cross-sectional study, nineteen men (20-57 years old) completed three laboratory visits, including a ramp exercise test to determine their maximal oxygen uptake JOURNAL/blpmo/04.03/00126097-202106000-00008/inline-graphic1/v/2021-04-27T091817Z/r/image-tiff max, and exercise intervention on a flywheel ergometer set at 0.075 kg·m2 moment of inertia. After the ramp test cessation, all participants were allocated into aerobically untrained (n = 10) and trained (n = 9) groups. Throughout the flywheel exercise, cardiovascular demands were continuously monitored via Finapres, while a pre/postflow-mediated dilation (FMD) assessment was performed using ultrasound imaging. RESULTS There were no differences observed between the groups in their anthropometrics, age or resting brachial artery diameter, while the JOURNAL/blpmo/04.03/00126097-202106000-00008/inline-graphic2/v/2021-04-27T091817Z/r/image-tiff max was ~15% higher (P = 0.001) in trained compared to aerobically untrained group. The cardiovascular response to the flywheel exercise was similar between the groups, with peak mean arterial pressure and heart rate readings reaching ~160 mmHg and ~140 bpm, respectively. The flywheel exercise did not impair the FMD (%) response, which was comparable between the groups (P = 0.256). When these data were pooled, the regression analysis showed an inverse relationship among FMD (%), age (β = -0.936, P = 0.001) and JOURNAL/blpmo/04.03/00126097-202106000-00008/inline-graphic3/v/2021-04-27T091817Z/r/image-tiffmax. (β = -0.359, P = 0.045). CONCLUSION Although aerobic fitness alone does not directly explain the FMD response to flywheel exercise, aerobically untrained individuals, as they get older, tend to have lower brachial artery FMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damir Zubac
- Science and Research Center Koper, Institute for Kinesiology Research, Koper, Slovenia
- University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology
| | - Ante Obad
- University Department of Health Sciences
| | | | - Zoran Valić
- Department of Integrative Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Split, Split, Croatia
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Fousekis A, Fousekis K, Fousekis G, Manou V, Michailidis Y, Zelenitsas C, Metaxas T. The effects of free weights and iso-inertial resistance during semi-squatting exercise on amateur soccer players' physical performance indicators: a randomized controlled study. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2021; 62:609-617. [PMID: 33871246 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.21.12281-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim was to compare the effects of two lower extremity strengthening programs using iso-inertial resistance or free weights on amateur soccer players' physical performance indicators. METHODS Thirty-five amateur soccer players (average age 22.6±5.1 years) were randomly assigned to iso-inertial group (n=11) or free-weight group (n=11), or control group (n=13). The groups performed two training sessions per week for six weeks. Before and after the strengthening implementation, physical performance indicators were evaluated, including the isokinetic knee extensors and flexors' strength, power, speed, and agility. The significance level was set at p<0.05. RESULTS The iso-inertial training resistance led to an increase in the hamstrings' eccentric strength at 60°/s and 150°/s (p<0.05) compared to the free-weight resistance (p>0.05) and the controls (p>0.05). No other significant adaptations were observed in the other isokinetic strength, power, speed (10-m, p=0.052) and agility measurements (Illinois agility test, p=0.059). In ratio (knee flexors/knee extensors) the only differences observed was at 150 o/s for iso-inertial group (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Iso-inertial resistance training during semi squatting can enhance the hamstrings' eccentric performance andthe soccer players' speed and agility compared to the classic free-weight training program, which should considered when designing strength and injury prevention programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Fousekis
- Laboratory of Evaluation of Human Biological Performance, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Fousekis
- Therapeutic Exercise and Sports Rehabilitation Laboratory, hysiotherapy Department, University of Patra, Patra, Greece
| | - Georgios Fousekis
- Therapeutic Exercise and Sports Rehabilitation Laboratory, hysiotherapy Department, University of Patra, Patra, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Manou
- Department of Human Performance, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Yiannis Michailidis
- Laboratory of Evaluation of Human Biological Performance, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece -
| | - Charalambos Zelenitsas
- Section of Sport Medicine and Biology of Exercise, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Thomas Metaxas
- Laboratory of Evaluation of Human Biological Performance, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Raya-González J, de Keijzer KL, Bishop C, Beato M. Effects of flywheel training on strength-related variables in female populations. A systematic review. Res Sports Med 2021; 30:353-370. [PMID: 33401963 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2020.1870977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the effect of flywheel training on female populations, report practical recommendations for practitioners based on the currently available evidence, underline the limitations of current literature, and establish future research directions. Studies were searched through the electronic databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science) following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis statement guidelines. The methodological quality of the seven studies included in this review ranged from 10 to 19 points (good to excellent), with an average score of 14-points (good). These studies were carried out between 2004 and 2019 and comprised a total of 100 female participants. The training duration ranged from 5 weeks to 24 weeks, with volume ranging from 1 to 4 sets and 7 to 12 repetitions, and frequency ranged from 1 to 3 times a week. The contemporary literature suggests that flywheel training is a safe and time-effective strategy to enhance physical outcomes with young and elderly females. With this information, practitioners may be inclined to prescribe flywheel training as an effective countermeasure for injuries or falls and as potent stimulus for physical enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kevin L de Keijzer
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK
| | - Chris Bishop
- Faculty of Science and Technology, London Sport Institute, Middlesex University, London, UK
| | - Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, UK
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Spudić D, Kambič T, Cvitkovič R, Primož P. Reproducibility and criterion validity of data derived from a flywheel resistance exercise system. ISOKINET EXERC SCI 2020. [DOI: 10.3233/ies-194169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Darjan Spudić
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tim Kambič
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- General Hospital Murska Sobota, Murska Sobota, Slovenia
| | - Robert Cvitkovič
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Pori Primož
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Drury B, Ratel S, Clark CC, Fernandes JF, Moran J, Behm DG. Eccentric Resistance Training in Youth: Perspectives for Long-Term Athletic Development. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2019; 4:E70. [PMID: 33467385 PMCID: PMC7739302 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk4040070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this narrative review is to discuss the role of eccentric resistance training in youth and how this training modality can be utilized within long-term physical development. Current literature on responses to eccentric exercise in youth has demonstrated that potential concerns, such as fatigue and muscle damage, compared to adults are not supported. Considering the importance of resistance training for youth athletes and the benefits of eccentric training in enhancing strength, power, speed, and resistance to injury, its inclusion throughout youth may be warranted. In this review we provide a brief overview of the physiological responses to exercise in youth with specific reference to the different responses to eccentric resistance training between children, adolescents, and adults. Thereafter, we discuss the importance of ensuring that force absorption qualities are trained throughout youth and how these may be influenced by growth and maturation. In particular, we propose practical methods on how eccentric resistance training methods can be implemented in youth via the inclusion of efficient landing mechanics, eccentric hamstrings strengthening and flywheel inertia training. This article proposes that the use of eccentric resistance training in youth should be considered a necessity to help develop both physical qualities that underpin sporting performance, as well as reducing injury risk. However, as with any other training modality implemented within youth, careful consideration should be given in accordance with an individual's maturity status, training history and technical competency as well as being underpinned by current long-term physical development guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Drury
- Department of Applied Sport Sciences, Hartpury University, Gloucestershire GL19 3BE, England, UK;
| | - Sébastien Ratel
- Laboratoire des Adaptations Métaboliques à l’Exercice en conditions Physiologiques et Pathologiques (AME2P, EA 3533), Université Clermont Auvergne, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France;
| | - Cain C.T. Clark
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry CV1 5RW, England, UK;
| | - John F.T. Fernandes
- Department of Applied Sport Sciences, Hartpury University, Gloucestershire GL19 3BE, England, UK;
| | - Jason Moran
- School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3WA, UK;
| | - David G Behm
- School of Human Kinetics and Recreation, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s Newfoundland and Labrador, A1C 5S7C, Canada;
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Suchomel TJ, Wagle JP, Douglas J, Taber CB, Harden M, Haff GG, Stone MH. Implementing Eccentric Resistance Training-Part 2: Practical Recommendations. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2019; 4:E55. [PMID: 33467370 PMCID: PMC7739265 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk4030055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review is to provide strength and conditioning practitioners with recommendations on how best to implement tempo eccentric training (TEMPO), flywheel inertial training (FIT), accentuated eccentric loading (AEL), and plyometric training (PT) into resistance training programs that seek to improve an athlete's hypertrophy, strength, and power output. Based on the existing literature, TEMPO may be best implemented with weaker athletes to benefit positional strength and hypertrophy due to the time under tension. FIT may provide an effective hypertrophy, strength, and power stimulus for untrained and weaker individuals; however, stronger individuals may not receive the same eccentric (ECC) overload stimulus. Although AEL may be implemented throughout the training year to benefit hypertrophy, strength, and power output, this strategy is better suited for stronger individuals. When weaker and stronger individuals are exposed to PT, they are exposed to an ECC overload stimulus as a result of increases in the ECC force and ECC rate of force development. In conclusion, when choosing to utilize ECC training methods, the practitioner must integrate these methods into a holistic training program that is designed to improve the athlete's performance capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Suchomel
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Carroll University, Waukesha, WI 53186, USA
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M6 6PU, UK
| | | | - Jamie Douglas
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, Mairangi Bay, Auckland 0632, New Zealand
| | - Christopher B. Taber
- Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Science, Sacred Heart University, Fairfield, CT 06825, USA
| | - Mellissa Harden
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M6 6PU, UK
- Department of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne NE1 8ST, UK
| | - G. Gregory Haff
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M6 6PU, UK
- Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia
| | - Michael H. Stone
- Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA
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Suchomel TJ, Wagle JP, Douglas J, Taber CB, Harden M, Haff GG, Stone MH. Implementing Eccentric Resistance Training-Part 1: A Brief Review of Existing Methods. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2019; 4:jfmk4020038. [PMID: 33467353 PMCID: PMC7739257 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk4020038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review was to provide a physiological rationale for the use of eccentric resistance training and to provide an overview of the most commonly prescribed eccentric training methods. Based on the existing literature, there is a strong physiological rationale for the incorporation of eccentric training into a training program for an individual seeking to maximize muscle size, strength, and power. Specific adaptations may include an increase in muscle cross-sectional area, force output, and fiber shortening velocities, all of which have the potential to benefit power production characteristics. Tempo eccentric training, flywheel inertial training, accentuated eccentric loading, and plyometric training are commonly implemented in applied contexts. These methods tend to involve different force absorption characteristics and thus, overload the muscle or musculotendinous unit in different ways during lengthening actions. For this reason, they may produce different magnitudes of improvement in hypertrophy, strength, and power. The constraints to which they are implemented can have a marked effect on the characteristics of force absorption and therefore, could affect the nature of the adaptive response. However, the versatility of the constraints when prescribing these methods mean that they can be effectively implemented to induce these adaptations within a variety of populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Suchomel
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Carroll University, Waukesha, WI 53186, USA
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M6 6PU, UK
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-262-524-7441
| | | | - Jamie Douglas
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, Mairangi Bay, Auckland 0632, New Zealand
| | - Christopher B. Taber
- Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Science, Sacred Heart University, Fairfield, CT 06825, USA
| | - Mellissa Harden
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M6 6PU, UK
- Department of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne M66PU, UK
| | - G. Gregory Haff
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M6 6PU, UK
- Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup WA 6027, Australia
| | - Michael H. Stone
- Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA
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