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Khurajog B, Disastra Y, Lawwyne LD, Sirichokchatchawan W, Niyomtham W, Yindee J, Hampson DJ, Prapasarakul N. Selection and evaluation of lactic acid bacteria from chicken feces in Thailand as potential probiotics. PeerJ 2023; 11:e16637. [PMID: 38107571 PMCID: PMC10725671 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.16637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are widely used as probiotics in poultry production due to their resilience to low pH and high bile salt concentrations, as well as their beneficial effects on growth performance and antagonistic activity against enteric pathogens. However, the efficacy of probiotics depends on strain selection and their ability to colonize the host's intestine. This study aimed to select, identify, and evaluate LAB strains isolated from chicken feces in Thailand for potential use as probiotics in the chicken industry. Methods LAB strains were isolated from 58 pooled fresh fecal samples collected from chicken farms in various regions of Thailand, including commercial and backyard farms. Gram-positive rods or cocci with catalase-negative characteristics from colonies showing a clear zone on MRS agar supplemented with 0.5% CaCO3 were identified using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The LAB isolates were evaluated for acid (pH 2.5 and pH 4.5) and bile salt (0.3% and 0.7%) tolerance. Additionally, their cell surface properties, resistance to phenol, antimicrobial activity, hemolytic activity, and presence of antimicrobial resistance genes were determined. Results A total of 91 LAB isolates belonging to the Pediococcus, Ligilactobacillus, Limosilactobacillus, and Lactobacillus genera were obtained from chicken feces samples. Backyard farm feces exhibited a greater LAB diversity compared to commercial chickens. Five strains, including Ligilactobacillus salivarius BF12 and Pediococcus acidilactici BF9, BF14, BYF20, and BYF26, were selected based on their high tolerance to acid, bile salts, and phenol. L. salivarius BF12 and P. acidilactici BF14 demonstrated strong adhesion ability. The five LAB isolates exhibited significant cell-cell interactions (auto-aggregation) and co-aggregation with Salmonella. All five LAB isolates showed varying degrees of antimicrobial activity against Salmonella strains, with P. acidilactici BYF20 displaying the highest activity. None of the LAB isolates exhibited beta-hemolytic activity. Whole genome analysis showed that L. salivarius BF12 contained ermC, tetL, and tetM, whereas P. acidilactici strains BF9 and BF14 carried ermB, lnuA, and tetM. Conclusion The selected LAB isolates exhibited basic probiotic characteristics, although some limitations were observed in terms of adhesion ability and the presence of antibiotic resistance genes, requiring further investigation into their genetic location. Future studies will focus on developing a probiotic prototype encapsulation for application in the chicken industry, followed by in vivo evaluations of probiotic efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamas Khurajog
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science., Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Yuda Disastra
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science., Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Lum Dau Lawwyne
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science., Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Wandee Sirichokchatchawan
- College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Animal Pathogens (DMAP), Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Waree Niyomtham
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science., Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Animal Pathogens (DMAP), Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jitrapa Yindee
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science., Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Animal Pathogens (DMAP), Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - David John Hampson
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Nuvee Prapasarakul
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science., Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Diagnosis and Monitoring of Animal Pathogens (DMAP), Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Marcolla CS, Ju T, Lantz HL, Willing BP. Investigating the cecal microbiota of broilers raised in extensive and intensive production systems. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0235223. [PMID: 37754552 PMCID: PMC10581045 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02352-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Intensive broiler production practices are structured to prevent the introduction and spread of pathogens; however, they can potentially minimize the exposure of broilers to beneficial commensal bacteria. In this study, we used 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to characterize the cecal microbiota of 35-day-old broilers from 22 independent commercial farms rearing broilers under intensive (IPS) or extensive production systems (EPS). We aimed to determine which bacteria are normal inhabitants of the broiler ceca and which bacteria might be missing from broilers in IPS. In addition, we generated a collection of 410 bacterial isolates, including 87 different species, to be used as a resource to further explore the effects of selected isolates on bird physiology and to elucidate the role of individual species within the cecal microbial community. Our results indicated significant differences in the microbiota of broilers between systems: the microbiota of broilers from EPS was dominated by Bacteroidetes {55.2% ± 8.9 [mean ± standard deviation (SD)]}, whereas Firmicutes dominated the microbiota of broilers from IPS (61.7% ± 14.4, mean ± SD). Bacterial taxa found to be core in the EPS microbiota, including Olsenella, Alistipes, Bacteroides, Barnesiella, Parabacteroides, Megamonas, and Parasutterella, were shown to be infrequent or absent from the IPS microbiota, and the EPS microbiota presented higher phylogenetic diversity and greater predicted functional potential than that of broilers in IPS. The bacteria shown to be depleted in broilers from IPS should be further investigated for their effects on bird physiology and potential application as next-generation probiotics. IMPORTANCE Production practices in intensive farming systems significantly reduce the introduction and spread of pathogens; however, they may potentially minimize the exposure of animals to beneficial commensal microorganisms. In this study, we identified core bacteria from the cecal microbiota of broilers raised in extensive production systems that are missing or reduced in birds from intensive systems, including Olsenella, Alistipes, Bacteroides, Barnesiella, Parabacteroides, Megamonas, and Parasutterella. Furthermore, the cecal microbiota of broilers from extensive systems showed higher diversity and greater functional potential than that of broilers from intensive systems. In addition, a collection of bacterial isolates containing 87 different species was generated from the current study, and this important resource can be used to further explore the role of selected commensal bacteria on the microbial community and bird physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila S. Marcolla
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Tingting Ju
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Hannah L. Lantz
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Benjamin P. Willing
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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Marcolla CS, Ju T, Willing BP. Cecal Microbiota Development and Physiological Responses of Broilers Following Early Life Microbial Inoculation Using Different Delivery Methods and Microbial Sources. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0027123. [PMID: 37098952 PMCID: PMC10231219 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00271-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Broilers in intensive systems may lack commensal microbes that have coevolved with chickens in nature. This study evaluated the effects of microbial inocula and delivery methods applied to day-old chicks on the development of the cecal microbiota. Specifically, chicks were inoculated with cecal contents or microbial cultures, and the efficacies of three delivery methods (oral gavage, spraying inoculum into the bedding, and cohousing) were evaluated. Also, a competitive study evaluated the colonization ability of bacteria sourced from extensive or intensive poultry production systems. The microbiota of inoculated birds presented higher phylogenetic diversity values (PD) and higher relative abundance values of Bacteroidetes, compared with a control. Additionally, a reduction in the ileal villus height/crypt depth ratio and increased cecal IL-6, IL-10, propionate, and valerate concentrations were observed in birds that were inoculated with cecal contents. Across the experiments, the chicks in the control groups presented higher relative abundance values of Escherichia/Shigella than did the inoculated birds. Specific microbes from intensively or extensively raised chickens were able to colonize the ceca, and inocula from intensive production systems promoted higher relative abundance values of Escherichia/Shigella. We concluded that Alistipes, Bacteroides, Barnesiella, Mediterranea, Parabacteroides, Megamonas, and Phascolarctobacterium are effective colonizers of the broiler ceca. In addition, oral gavage, spray, and cohousing can be used as delivery methods for microbial transplantation, as indicated by their effects on the cecal microbiota, intestinal morphology, short-chain fatty acids concentration, and cytokine/chemokine levels. These findings will guide future research on the development of next-generation probiotics that are able to colonize and persist in the chicken intestinal tract after a single exposure. IMPORTANCE The strict biosecurity procedures employed in the poultry industry may inadvertently hinder the transmission of beneficial commensal bacteria that chickens would encounter in natural environments. This research aims at identifying bacteria that can colonize and persist in the chicken gut after a single exposure. We evaluated different microbial inocula that were obtained from healthy adult chicken donors as well as three delivery methods for their effects on microbiota composition and bird physiology. In addition, we conducted a competitive assay to test the colonization abilities of bacteria sourced from intensively versus extensively raised chickens. Our results indicated that some bacteria are consistently increased in birds that are exposed to microbial inoculations. These bacteria can be isolated and employed in future research on the development of next-generation probiotics that contain species that are highly adapted to the chicken gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila S. Marcolla
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada
| | - Tingting Ju
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada
| | - Benjamin P. Willing
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada
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Lee MD, Ipharraguerre IR, Arsenault RJ, Lyte M, Lyte JM, Humphrey B, Angel R, Korver DR. Informal nutrition symposium: leveraging the microbiome (and the metabolome) for poultry production. Poult Sci 2022; 101:101588. [PMID: 34933222 PMCID: PMC8703059 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Knowledge of gut microbiology of poultry has advanced from a limited ability to culture relatively few microbial species, to attempting to understand the complex interactions between the bird and its microbiome. The Informal Nutrition Symposium 2021 was intended to help poultry scientists to make sense of the implications of the vast amounts of information being generated by researchers. This paper represents a compilation of the talks given at the symposium by leading international researchers in this field. The symposium began with an overview of the historical developments in the field of intestinal microbiology and microbiome research in poultry. Next, the systemic effects of the microbiome on health in the context of the interplay between the intestinal microbiota and the immune system were presented. Because the microbiome and the host communicate and influence each other, the novel field of kinomics (the study of protein phosphorylation) as used in the study of the poultry microbiome was discussed. Protein phosphorylation is a rapid response to the complex of signals among the microbiome, intestinal lumen metabolites, and the host. Then, a description of why an understanding of the role of microbial endocrinology in poultry production can lead to new understanding of the mechanisms by which the gut microbiota and the host can interact in defined mechanisms that ultimately determine health, pathogenesis of infectious disease, and behavior was given. Finally, a view forward was presented underscoring the importance of understanding mechanisms in microbiomes in other organ systems and other species. Additionally, the importance of the development of new -omics platforms and data management tools to more completely understand host microbiomes was stressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margie D Lee
- Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | | | - Ryan J Arsenault
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA 19716
| | - Mark Lyte
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Joshua M Lyte
- Poultry Production and Product Safety Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | | | - Roselina Angel
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Douglas R Korver
- Department of Agricultural, Food, and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2P5.
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Sorboni SG, Moghaddam HS, Jafarzadeh-Esfehani R, Soleimanpour S. A Comprehensive Review on the Role of the Gut Microbiome in Human Neurological Disorders. Clin Microbiol Rev 2022; 35:e0033820. [PMID: 34985325 PMCID: PMC8729913 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00338-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 72.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The human body is full of an extensive number of commensal microbes, consisting of bacteria, viruses, and fungi, collectively termed the human microbiome. The initial acquisition of microbiota occurs from both the external and maternal environments, and the vast majority of them colonize the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). These microbial communities play a central role in the maturation and development of the immune system, the central nervous system, and the GIT system and are also responsible for essential metabolic pathways. Various factors, including host genetic predisposition, environmental factors, lifestyle, diet, antibiotic or nonantibiotic drug use, etc., affect the composition of the gut microbiota. Recent publications have highlighted that an imbalance in the gut microflora, known as dysbiosis, is associated with the onset and progression of neurological disorders. Moreover, characterization of the microbiome-host cross talk pathways provides insight into novel therapeutic strategies. Novel preclinical and clinical research on interventions related to the gut microbiome for treating neurological conditions, including autism spectrum disorders, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, and stroke, hold significant promise. This review aims to present a comprehensive overview of the potential involvement of the human gut microbiome in the pathogenesis of neurological disorders, with a particular emphasis on the potential of microbe-based therapies and/or diagnostic microbial biomarkers. This review also discusses the potential health benefits of the administration of probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics, and synbiotics and fecal microbiota transplantation in neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Reza Jafarzadeh-Esfehani
- Blood Borne Infectious Research Center, Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research (ACECR)-Khorasan Razavi, Mashhad, Iran
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Saman Soleimanpour
- Antimicrobial Resistance Research Centre, Bu-Ali Research Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
- Department of Microbiology and Virology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
- Metabolic Syndrome Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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Sun Y, Yao J, Zhang M, Chen T, Xu W, Fu W, Wu Q, Li Y, Chen X, Zhu Y, Zhang X, Liu L, Chen D, Wang Z, You Z, Zhang X, Liu Y, Lin K, Lin W. Colonization and Development of the Fecal Microflora of South China Tiger Cubs (Panthera tigris amoyensis) by Sequencing of the 16S rRNA Gene. Microb Physiol 2021; 32:18-29. [PMID: 34535588 DOI: 10.1159/000518395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Postnatal colonization and development of the gut microbiota is linked to health and growth. A comprehensive understanding of the postnatal compositional changes and development of the microbial community is helpful to understand the gut health and improve the survival rate of South China tiger cubs (Panthera tigris amoyensis). Fecal samples from three tiger cubs were collected on the day of birth in 2018 (June 17-21 [G0], July 18 [G1], July 31 [G2], and August 7 [G3]). The 16S rRNA genes of the fecal microflora were sequenced. Results showed that 38 phyla, 58 classes, 134 orders, 272 families, and 636 genera of bacteria from 3,059 operational taxonomic units were identified from 12 fecal samples. The diversity and abundance of species of group G0 were significantly higher (p < 0.05 or 0.01) than those of groups G2 and G3. The predominant phylum was Proteobacteria in groups G0 and G1 (38.85% and 48%, respectively) and Firmicutes in groups G2 and G3 (71.42% and 75.29%, respectively). At the phylum level, the abundance of Deinococcus-Thermus was significantly decreased in groups G1, G2, and G3 as compared to group G0 (p < 0.05), while that of Firmicutes was significantly increased in groups G2 and G3 (p < 0.05). At the genus level, the abundance of Faecalibacterium, Ralstonia, and unidentified Rickettsiales was significantly decreased in groups G1, G2, and G3 as compared with group G0 (p < 0.05), while that of Pseudomonas was significantly decreased in groups G2 and G3 (p < 0.05). The composition and structure of fecal microbiota of South China tiger cubs changed after birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanfa Sun
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China, .,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Diseases and Biotechnology, Longyan, China, .,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology (Longyan University), Longyan, China,
| | - Jie Yao
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China
| | - Min Zhang
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Diseases and Biotechnology, Longyan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology (Longyan University), Longyan, China
| | - Tengteng Chen
- Fujian Meihuashan South China Tiger Breeding Institute, Longyan, China
| | - Weihua Xu
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Diseases and Biotechnology, Longyan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology (Longyan University), Longyan, China
| | - Wenyuan Fu
- Fujian Meihuashan South China Tiger Breeding Institute, Longyan, China
| | - Qiong Wu
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Diseases and Biotechnology, Longyan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology (Longyan University), Longyan, China
| | - Yan Li
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Diseases and Biotechnology, Longyan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology (Longyan University), Longyan, China
| | - Xingxing Chen
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Diseases and Biotechnology, Longyan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology (Longyan University), Longyan, China
| | - Yuting Zhu
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China
| | - Xuemei Zhang
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China
| | - Lingyu Liu
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China
| | - Donghong Chen
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China
| | - Zhenyuan Wang
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China
| | - Zhangjing You
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China
| | - Xuebing Zhang
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China
| | - Yi Liu
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China
| | - Kaixiong Lin
- Fujian Meihuashan South China Tiger Breeding Institute, Longyan, China
| | - Weiming Lin
- College of Life Science, Longyan University, Longyan, China.,Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Diseases and Biotechnology, Longyan, China.,Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology (Longyan University), Longyan, China
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Bilal M, Achard C, Barbe F, Chevaux E, Ronholm J, Zhao X. Bacillus pumilus and Bacillus subtilis Promote Early Maturation of Cecal Microbiota in Broiler Chickens. Microorganisms 2021; 9:1899. [PMID: 34576794 PMCID: PMC8465073 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9091899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mature and stable intestinal microbiota in chickens is essential for health and production. Slow development of microbiota in young chickens prolongs the precarious period before reaching mature configuration. Whether probiotics can play a role in the early maturation of intestinal microbiota is unknown. To address this, day-old chicks were assigned into six groups: NC (basal diet), PC (virginiamycin), low (BPL) and high-dose (BPH) of Bacillus pumilus, and low (BSL) and high-dose (BSH) of Bacillus subtilis. Cecal contents at days 7, 14, 28 and 42 were used to analyze the treatment and time effects on the diversity and composition of microbiota. Overall, the alpha diversity was significantly decreased in the NC group between days 7 and 14, while this decline was prevented in the Bacillus subtilis probiotic (BSL and BSH) and even reversed in the BPH group. The beta-diversity showed significant responses of microbial communities to probiotics in first two weeks of life. Analyses of the abundance of microbiota reflected that members of the family Ruminococcaceae (Ruminnococcus, Oscillospira, Faecalibacterium, Butyricicoccus, and Subdoligranulum), which were dominant in mature microbiota, were significantly higher in abundance at day 14 in the probiotic groups. Conversely, the abundance of genera within the family Lachnospiraceae (Ruminococcus, Blautia, and Coprococcus) was dominant in early dynamic microbiota but was significantly lower in the probiotic groups at day 14. The Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium abundance was higher, while the Enterobacteriaceae abundance was lower in the probiotic groups. In summary, the probiotics efficiently helped the cecal microbiota reach mature configuration earlier in life. These results could be used for the future manipulation of microbiota from the perspective of improving poultry performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Bilal
- Department of Animal Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9, Canada; (M.B.); (J.R.)
| | - Caroline Achard
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, 31702 Blagnac, France; (C.A.); (F.B.); (E.C.)
| | - Florence Barbe
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, 31702 Blagnac, France; (C.A.); (F.B.); (E.C.)
| | - Eric Chevaux
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, 31702 Blagnac, France; (C.A.); (F.B.); (E.C.)
| | - Jennifer Ronholm
- Department of Animal Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9, Canada; (M.B.); (J.R.)
- Department of Food Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Xin Zhao
- Department of Animal Science, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9, Canada; (M.B.); (J.R.)
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