Chronic Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen Deposition Suppresses Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Peatlands

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) represents the natural pathway by which mosses meet their demands for bioavailable/reactive nitrogen (Nr) in peatlands. However, following intensification of nitrogen fertilizer and fossil fuel use, atmospheric Nr deposition has increased exposing peatlands to Nr loading often above the ecological threshold. As BNF is energy intensive, therefore, it is unclear whether BNF shuts down when Nr availability is no longer a rarity. We studied the response of BNF under a gradient of Nr deposition extending over decades in three peatlands in the U.K., and at a background deposition peatland in Sweden. Experimental nitrogen fertilization plots in the Swedish site were also evaluated for BNF activity. In situ BNF activity of peatlands receiving Nr deposition of 6, 17, and 27 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1 was not shut down but rather suppressed by 54, 69, and 74%, respectively, compared to the rates under background Nr deposition of ∼2 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1. These findings were corroborated by similar BNF suppression at the fertilization plots in Sweden. Therefore, contribution of BNF in peatlands exposed to chronic Nr deposition needs accounting when modeling peatland's nitrogen pools, given that nitrogen availability exerts a key control on the carbon capture of peatlands, globally.

Molybdenum and phosphorus limitation of moss-associated nitrogen fixation in boreal ecosystems

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) performed by moss-associated cyanobacteria is one of the main sources of new nitrogen (N) input in pristine, high-latitude ecosystems. Yet, the nutrients that limit BNF remain elusive. Here, we tested whether this important ecosystem function is limited by the availability of molybdenum (Mo), phosphorus (P), or both. BNF in dominant mosses was measured with the acetylene reduction assay (ARA) at different time intervals following Mo and P additions, in both laboratory microcosms with mosses from a boreal spruce forest and field plots in subarctic tundra. We further used a ¹⁵ N₂ tracer technique to assess the ARA to N₂ fixation conversion ratios at our subarctic site. BNF was up to four-fold higher shortly after the addition of Mo, in both the laboratory and field experiments. A similar positive response to Mo was found in moss colonizing cyanobacterial biomass. As the growing season progressed, nitrogenase activity became progressively more P limited. The ARA : ¹⁵ N₂ ratios increased with increasing Mo additions. These findings show that N₂ fixation activity as well as cyanobacterial biomass in dominant feather mosses from boreal forests and subarctic tundra are limited by Mo availability.

Ecosystem nitrogen fixation throughout the snow-free period in subarctic tundra: effects of willow and birch litter addition and warming

Nitrogen (N) fixation in moss-associated cyanobacteria is one of the main sources of available N for N-limited ecosystems such as subarctic tundra. Yet, N₂ fixation in mosses is strongly influenced by soil moisture and temperature. Thus, temporal scaling up of low-frequency in situ measurements to several weeks, months or even the entire growing season without taking into account changes in abiotic conditions cannot capture the variation in moss-associated N₂ fixation. We therefore aimed to estimate moss-associated N₂ fixation throughout the snow-free period in subarctic tundra in field experiments simulating climate change: willow (Salix myrsinifolia) and birch (Betula pubescens spp. tortuosa) litter addition, and warming. To achieve this, we established relationships between measured in situ N₂ fixation rates and soil moisture and soil temperature and used high-resolution measurements of soil moisture and soil temperature (hourly from May to October) to model N₂ fixation. The modelled N₂ fixation rates were highest in the warmed (2.8 ± 0.3 kg N ha^-1 ) and birch litter addition plots (2.8 ± 0.2 kg N ha^-1 ), and lowest in the plots receiving willow litter (1.6 ± 0.2 kg N ha^-1 ). The control plots had intermediate rates (2.2 ± 0.2 kg N ha^-1 ). Further, N₂ fixation was highest during the summer in the warmed plots, but was lowest in the litter addition plots during the same period. The temperature and moisture dependence of N₂ fixation was different between the climate change treatments, indicating a shift in the N₂ fixer community. Our findings, using a combined empirical and modelling approach, suggest that a longer snow-free period and increased temperatures in a future climate will likely lead to higher N₂ fixation rates in mosses. Yet, the consequences of increased litter fall on moss-associated N₂ fixation due to shrub expansion in the Arctic will depend on the shrub species' litter traits.

Enhancing Non-symbiotic N2 Fixation in Agriculture

Much of the demand for nitrogen (N) in cereal cropping systems is met by using N fertilisers, but the cost of production is increasing and there are also environmental concerns. This has led to a growing interest in exploring other sources of N such as biological N2fixation. Non-symbiotic N2fixation (by free-living bacteria in soils or associated with the rhizosphere) has the potential to meet some of this need especially in the lower input cropping systems worldwide. There has been considerable research on non-symbiotic N2fixation, but still there is much argument about the amount of N that can potentially be fixed by this process largely due to shortcomings of indirect measurements, however isotope-based direct methods indicate agronomically significant amounts of N2fixation both in annual crop and perennial grass systems. New molecular technologies offer opportunities to increase our understanding of N2-fixing microbial communities (many of them non-culturable) and the molecular mechanisms of non-symbiotic N2fixation. This knowledge should assist the development of new plant-diazotrophic combinations for specific environments and more sustainable exploitation of N2-fixing bacteria as inoculants for agriculture. Whilst the ultimate goal might be to introduce nitrogenase genes into significant non-leguminous crop plants, it may be more realistic in the shorter-term to better synchronise plant-microbe interactions to enhance N2fixation when the N needs of the plant are greatest. The review explores possibilities to maximise potential N inputs from non-symbiotic N2fixation through improved management practices, identification of better performing microbial strains and their successful inoculation in the field, and plant based solutions.

Bryophyte-cyanobacteria associations during primary succession in recently Deglaciated areas of Tierra del Fuego (Chile)

Bryophyte establishment represents a positive feedback process that enhances soil development in newly exposed terrain. Further, biological nitrogen (N) fixation by cyanobacteria in association with mosses can be an important supply of N to terrestrial ecosystems, however the role of these associations during post-glacial primary succession is not yet fully understood. Here, we analyzed chronosequences in front of two receding glaciers with contrasting climatic conditions (wetter vs drier) at Cordillera Darwin (Tierra del Fuego) and found that most mosses had the capacity to support an epiphytic flora of cyanobacteria and exhibited high rates of N₂ fixation. Pioneer moss-cyanobacteria associations showed the highest N₂ fixation rates (4.60 and 4.96 µg N g⁻¹ bryo. d⁻¹) very early after glacier retreat (4 and 7 years) which may help accelerate soil development under wetter conditions. In drier climate, N₂ fixation on bryophyte-cyanobacteria associations was also high (0.94 and 1.42 µg N g⁻¹ bryo. d⁻¹) but peaked at intermediate-aged sites (26 and 66 years). N₂ fixation capacity on bryophytes was primarily driven by epiphytic cyanobacteria abundance rather than community composition. Most liverworts showed low colonization and N₂ fixation rates, and mosses did not exhibit consistent differences across life forms and habitat (saxicolous vs terricolous). We also found a clear relationship between cyanobacteria genera and the stages of ecological succession, but no relationship was found with host species identity. Glacier forelands in Tierra del Fuego show fast rates of soil transformation which imply large quantities of N inputs. Our results highlight the potential contribution of bryophyte-cyanobacteria associations to N accumulation during post-glacial primary succession and further describe the factors that drive N₂-fixation rates in post-glacial areas with very low N deposition.

Biological dinitrogen fixation by selected soil cyanobacteria as affected by strain origin, morphotype, and light conditions

The potential for N(2) fixation by heterocystous cyanobacteria isolated from soils of different geographical areas was determined as nitrogenase activity (NA) using the acetylene reduction assay. Morphology of cyanobacteria had the largest influence on NA determined under light conditions. NA was generally higher in species lacking thick slime sheaths. The highest value (1446 nmol/h C(2)H(4) per g fresh biomass) was found in the strain of branched cyanobacterium Hassalia (A Has1) from the polar region. A quadratic relationship between NA and biomass was detected in the Tolypothrix group under light conditions. The decline of NA in dark relative to light conditions ranged from 37 to 100 % and differed among strains from distinct geographical areas. Unlike the NA of temperate and tropical strains, whose decline in dark relative to light was 24 and 17 %, respectively, the NA of polar strains declined to 1 % in the dark. This difference was explained by adaptation to different light conditions in temperate, tropical, and polar habitats. NA was not related to the frequency of heterocysts in strains of the colony-forming cyanobacterium Nostoc. Colony morphology and life cycle are therefore more important for NA then heterocyst frequency. NA values probably reflect the environmental conditions where the cyanobacterium was isolated and the physiological and morphological state of the strain.

Nitrogen uptake by Eucalyptus regnans and Acacia spp. - preferences, resource overlap and energetic costs

In southeastern Australia, the overstory species Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. commonly grows with either of the two leguminous understory trees, Acacia melanoxylon (R. Br. Ex Ait. f.) or Acacia dealbata (Link.). Our objective was to elucidate interactions between the dominant eucalypt and its companion acacias for nitrogen (N) sources. Use of stable N isotopes as tracers revealed that ammonium was the preferred soil N source for all species, nevertheless, total N uptake varied greatly among species. Studies with double-labeled ((13)C/(15)N) glutamine indicated the uptake of this form of organic N in small amounts by both E. regnans and the Acacia spp. These and other data imply that, in contrast to boreal forests, organic N is not a significant component of N nutrition in mountain ash forests. Field and laboratory studies provided evidence that N(2)-fixation capacity of acacias varies with stand development, with N-fixing species playing an important role in N nutrition during the early but not the mature stages of forest growth. An index of N-uptake efficiency - the amount of oxygen consumed per unit N taken up - was compared across four N sources and three species. Nitrate uptake was the least efficient form of N acquisition, especially compared with ammonium uptake which was up to 30-fold less costly. Efficiency of glutamine uptake was intermediate between that of ammonium and nitrate. Differences in uptake efficiency among N forms were most pronounced for the Acacia spp. and least for E. regnans. We conclude that an overlap in requirements among sympatric Acacia spp. and E. regnans for specific soil N sources can be bypassed because of changes in biochemical strategies of Acacia spp. triggered by increasing soil N concentrations during stand development. Further studies might elucidate whether this is a common feature of complex forest ecosystems, or a specialty of the interaction between eucalypts and acacias.

Evidence for the functional significance of diazotroph community structure in soil

Microbial ecologists continue to seek a greater understanding of the factors that govern the ecological significance of microbial community structure. Changes in community structure have been shown to have functional significance for processes that are mediated by a narrow spectrum of organisms, such as nitrification and denitrification, but in some cases, functional redundancy in the community seems to buffer microbial ecosystem processes. The functional significance of microbial community structure is frequently obscured by environmental variation and is hard to detect in short-term experiments. We examine the functional significance of free-living diazotrophs in a replicated long-term tillage experiment in which extraneous variation is minimized and N-fixation rates can be related to soil characteristics and diazotroph community structure. Soil characteristics were found to be primarily impacted by tillage management, whereas N-fixation rates and diazotroph community structure were impacted by both biomass management practices and interactions between tillage and biomass management. The data suggest that the variation in diazotroph community structure has a greater impact on N-fixation rates than do soil characteristics at the site. N-fixation rates displayed a saturating response to increases in diazotroph community diversity. These results show that the changes in the community structure of free-living diazotrophs in soils can have ecological significance and suggest that this response is related to a change in community diversity.

Nitrogen fixation and leaching of biological soil crust communities in mesic temperate soils

Biological soil crust is composed of lichens, cyanobacteria, green algae, mosses, and fungi. Although crusts are a dominant source of nitrogen (N) in arid ecosystems, this study is among the first to demonstrate their contribution to N availability in xeric temperate habitats. The study site is located in Lucas County of Northwest Ohio. Using an acetylene reduction technique, we demonstrated potential N fixation for these crusts covering sandy, acidic, low N soil. Similar fixation rates were observed for crust whether dominated by moss, lichen, or bare soil. N inputs from biological crusts in northwestern Ohio are comparable to those in arid regions, but contribute substantially less N than by atmospheric deposition. Nitrate and ammonium leaching from the crust layer were quantified using ion exchange resin bags inserted within intact soil cores at 4 cm depth. Leaching of ammonium was greater and nitrate less in lichen than moss crusts or bare soil, and was less than that deposited from atmospheric sources. Therefore, biological crusts in these mesic, temperate soils may be immobilizing excess ammonium and nitrate that would otherwise be leached through the sandy soil. Moreover, automated monitoring of microclimate in the surface 7 cm of soil suggests that moisture and temperature fluctuations in soil are moderated under crust compared to bare soil without crust. We conclude that biological crusts in northwestern Ohio contribute potential N fixation, reduce N leaching, and moderate soil microclimate.

A natural 15N approach to determine the biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by biological soil crusts of the Negev Desert

Biological soil crusts are important cryptogamic communities covering the sand dunes of the north-western Negev. The biological crusts contain cyanobacteria and other free-living N(2)-fixing bacteria and are hence able to fix atmospheric nitrogen (N). This is why they are considered to be one of the main N input pathways into the desert ecosystem. However, up to now, in situ determinations of the N(2) fixation in the field are not known to have been carried out. We examined the natural (15)N method to determine the biological N(2) fixation by these soil crusts under field conditions. This novel natural (15)N method uses the lichen Squamarina with symbiotic green algae--which are unable to fix N(2)--as a reference in order to determine N(2) fixation. Depending on the sampling location and year, the relative biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen was estimated at 84-91% of the total N content of the biological soil crust. The cyanobacteria-containing soil lichen Collema had a fixation rate of about 88%. These fixation rates were used to derive an absolute atmospheric N input of 10-41 kg N ha(-1) year(-1). These values are reasonable results for the fixation of atmospheric N(2) by the biological crusts and cyanolichens and are in agreement with other comparable lab investigations. As far as we are aware, the results presented are the first to have been obtained from in situ field measurements, albeit only one location of the Negev with a small number of samples was investigated.