Protective effects of polyphenolic compounds on oxidative stress-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells

3-Hydroxyflavone is a mildly active and safe cobalt chelator while cobalt markedly enhances baicalein toxicity toward erythrocytes

Cobalt intoxication can occur after its release from metal-based prostheses, which is generally clinically severe. Therefore, there is a need for the development of a cobalt chelator since there are currently no approved drugs for cobalt intoxication. As flavonoids are known for their metal chelating properties and safety, the screening of cobalt chelating properties was performed in a total of 23 flavonoids by our recently developed new spectrophotometric assay. Further assessment of positive or negative consequences of cobalt chelation was performed both in vitro and ex vivo. Six and thirteen flavonoids significantly chelated cobalt ions at pH 7.5 and 6.8, respectively. Baicalein demonstrated a significant activity even at pH 5.5; however, none of the flavonoids showed chelation at pH 4.5. In general, baicalein and 3-hydroxyflavone were the most active. They also mildly decreased the cobalt-triggered Fenton reaction, but baicalein toxicity toward red blood cells was strongly increased by the addition of cobalt. Quercetin, tested as an example of flavonoid unable to chelate cobalt ions significantly, stimulated both the cobalt-based Fenton reaction and the lysis of erythrocytes in the presence of cobalt. Therefore, 3-hydroxyflavone can serve as a potential template for the development of novel cobalt chelators.

Methyl gallate: Review of pharmacological activity

Methyl gallate (MG) is a polyphenolic compound widely found in natural plants. MG has been shown to have a variety of biological functions, including anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective and anti-microbial activities, and has broad research and development prospects. A total of 88 articles related to MG were searched using the PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar databases, systematically investigating the pharmacological activity and molecular mechanisms of MG. There were no restrictions on the publication years, and the last search was conducted on June 5, 2023. MG can exert pharmacological effects through multiple pathways and targets, such as PI3K/Akt, ERK1/2, Caspase, AMPK/NF-κB, Wnt/β-catenin, TLR4/NF-κB, MAPK, p53, NLRP3, ROS, EMT. According to the literature, MG has the potential to be a prospective adjuvant for anticancer therapy and deserves further study.

Cobalt-mediated oxidative DNA damage and its prevention by polyphenol antioxidants

Although cobalt is a required nutrient, it is toxic due to its ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and damage DNA. ROS generation by Co²⁺ often has been compared to that of Fe²⁺ or Cu⁺, disregarding the reduction potential differences among these metal ions. In plasmid DNA damage studies, a maximum of 15% DNA damage is observed with Co²⁺/H₂O₂ treatment (up to 50 μM and 400 μM, respectively) significantly lower than the 90% damage observed for Fe²⁺/H₂O₂ or Cu⁺/H₂O₂ treatment. However, when ascorbate is added to the Co²⁺/H₂O₂ system, a synergistic effect results in 90% DNA damage. DNA damage by Fe²⁺/H₂O₂ can be prevented by polyphenol antioxidants, but polyphenols both prevent and promote DNA damage by Cu⁺/H₂O₂. When tested for cobalt-mediated DNA damage affects, eight of ten polyphenols (epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin gallate, propyl gallate, gallic acid, methyl-3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate, methyl-4,5-dihydroxybenzoate, protocatechuic acid, and epicatechin) prevent cobalt-mediated DNA damage with IC₅₀ values of 1.3 to 27 μM and two (epigallocatechin and vanillic acid) prevent little to no DNA damage. EPR studies demonstrate cobalt-mediated formation of ^•OH, O₂^•-, and ^•OOH, but not ¹O₂ in the presence of H₂O₂ and ascorbate. Epigallocatechin gallate and methyl-4,5-dihydroxybenzoate significantly reduce ROS generated by Co²⁺/H₂O₂/ascorbate, consistent with their prevention of cobalt-mediated DNA damage. Thus, while cobalt, iron, and copper are all d-block metal ions, cobalt ROS generation and its prevention is significantly different from that of iron and copper.

Neuroprotective potency of a soy whey fermented by Cordyceps militaris SN-18 against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative injury in PC12 cells

PURPOSE

Soy whey is a byproduct generated from the processing of several soybean products. Its valorization has continued to attract significant research interest in recent times due to the nutritional and bioactive potency of its chemical composition. Herein, the neuroprotective potency of a soy whey fermented by Cordyceps militaris SN-18 against hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced oxidative injury in PC12 cells was investigated.

METHODS

The phenolic compositions were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Antioxidant activities were assessed by ABTS•+ scavenging assay, DPPH radical scavenging assay, reducing power assay, and ferric reducing antioxidant power assay. The neuroprotective effects of fermented soy whey (FSW) were investigated based on the oxidative injury model in PC12 cells.

RESULTS

FSW possessed higher total phenolic content and antioxidant activities compared with unfermented soy whey (UFSW) and that most of the isoflavone glycosides were hydrolyzed into their corresponding aglycones during fermentation. The extract from FSW exhibited a greater protective effect on PC12 cells against oxidative injury by promoting cell proliferation, restoring cell morphology, inhibiting lactic dehydrogenase leakage, reducing reactive oxygen species levels, and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities compared with that from UFSW. Additionally, cell apoptosis was significantly inhibited by FSW through down-regulation of caspase-3, caspase-9, and Bax and up-regulation of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. S-phase cell arrest was attenuated by FSW through increasing cyclin A, CDK1 and CDK2, and decreasing p21 protein.

CONCLUSION

Fermentation with C. militaris SN-18 could significantly improve the bioactivity of soy whey by enhancing the ability of nerve cells to resist oxidative damage.

Plicosepalus acacia Extract and Its Major Constituents, Methyl Gallate and Quercetin, Potentiate Therapeutic Angiogenesis in Diabetic Hind Limb Ischemia: HPTLC Quantification and LC-MS/MS Metabolic Profiling

Plicosepalus acacia (Fam. Loranthaceae) has been reported to possess hypoglycemic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects. Liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis revealed the presence of a high content of polyphenolic compounds that are attributed to the therapeutic effects of the crude extract. In addition, methyl gallate and quercetin were detected as major phytomedicinal agents at concentrations of 1.7% and 0.062 g%, respectively, using high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC). The present study investigated the effect of the P. acacia extract and its isolated compounds, methyl gallate and quercetin, on hind limb ischemia induced in type 1 diabetic rats. Histopathological examination revealed that treatment with P. acacia extract, methyl gallate, and quercetin decreased degenerative changes and inflammation in the ischemic muscle. Further biochemical assessment of the hind limb tissue showed decreased oxidative stress, increased levels of nitric oxide and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and enhancement of the levels of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the groups treated with methyl gallate and quercetin. Expression levels of hypoxia inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α), VEGF, fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), and miR-146a were upregulated in the muscle tissue of methyl gallate- and quercetin-treated groups along with downregulation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). In conclusion, P. acacia extract and its isolated compounds, methyl gallate and quercetin, mediated therapeutic angiogenesis in diabetic hind limb ischemia.

Overexpression of OsF3H modulates WBPH stress by alteration of phenylpropanoid pathway at a transcriptomic and metabolomic level in Oryza sativa

The whitebacked planthopper (WBPH), has become a devastating pest for rice crops, causes serious yield losses each year, and urgently needs biological control. Here, we developed a WBPH-resistant rice cultivar by overexpressing the OsF3H gene. A genetic functional analysis of the OsF3H gene confirmed its role in facilitating flavonoid contents and have indicated that the expression of the OsF3H gene is involved in regulation of the downstream genes (OsDFR and OsFLS) of the flavonoid pathway and genes (OsSLR1 and OsWRKY13) involved in other physiological pathways. OxF3H (OsF3H transgenic) plants accumulated significant amounts of the flavonols kaempferol (Kr) and quercetin (Qu) and the anthocyanins delphinidin and cyanidin, compared to the wild type, in response to the stress induced by WBPH. Similarly, OsF3H-related proteins were significantly expressed in OxF3H lines after WBPH infestation. The present study, indicated that the regulation of JA in OxF3H plants was suppressed due the overexpression of the OsF3H gene, which induced the expression of downstream genes related to anthocyanin. Similarly, the OsWRKY13 transcriptional factor was significantly suppressed in OxF3H plants during WBPH infestation. Exogenous application of Kr and Qu increased the survival rates of susceptible TN1 lines in response to WBPH, while decreased the survival rate of first instar WBPHs, indicating that both flavonols exhibit pesticide activity. Phenotypic demonstration also affirms that OxF3H plants show strong resistance to WBPH compared with wild type. Collectively, our result suggested that OsF3H overexpression led to the up-regulation of defense related genes and enhanced rice resistance to WBPH infestation.

Impact of polyphenols in phagocyte functions

Polyphenols are a broad group of substances with potential health benefits found in plant species. Several of these compounds are capable of influencing the activation of intracellular signaling pathways, such as NF-kB, MAPK and JAK-STAT, responsible for the production of various inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) and 12 (IL-12), enzymes involved in the production of reactive species such as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and superoxide dehydrogenase (SOD), as well as enzymes involved in the production of eicosanoids, such as cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LO). There is increased interest in the use of polyphenol-rich foods because of their immunomodulatory effect; however, the mechanisms used during macrophage responses are extremely complex and little is known about the effects of polyphenols on these cells. As such, this review summarizes the current view of polyphenol influences on macrophages.

Neuroprotective and Anti-Amyloid β Effect and Main Chemical Profiles of White Tea: Comparison Against Green, Oolong and Black Tea

White tea (WT) is one of six tea types originally derived from Fujian Province, China. White tea is known for its health-promoting properties. However, the neuroprotective and anti-aggregatory properties of WT against the hallmark toxic Alzheimer's protein, Aβ have not been investigated. In this study, WT, green tea (GT), oolong tea (OT) and black tea (BT) were manufactured using tea leaves from the cultivar Camellia sinensis (Jin Guanyin). The protective effects of these tea extracts were then studied under oxidative stress conditions via t-bhp and H₂O₂ exposure, in addition to Aβ treatment using a PC-12 cell model. Each tea type failed to rescue PC-12 cells from either t-bhp or H₂O₂-mediated toxicity, however each extract exerted significant protection against Aβ-evoked neurotoxicity. Results of the Thioflavin T Kinetic (ThT) and TEM assay showed that Aβ aggregate formation was inhibited by each tea type. Additionally, TEM also supported the different anti-aggregatory effect of WT by modifying Aβ into an amorphous and punctate aggregate morphology. Higher accumulated precedent or potential neuroprotective compounds in WT, including ECG''3Me, 8-C-ascorbyl-EGCG, GABA and Gln, in addition to flavonol or flavone glycosides detected by using UPLC-QTOF-MS and UPLC-QqQ-MS, may contribute to a favourable anti-aggregative and neuroprotective effect of WT against Aβ.

Impact of phenolic compounds in the acyl homoserine lactone-mediated quorum sensing regulatory pathways

Quorum sensing (QS) is a cell density-dependent regulation of virulent bacterial gene expression by autoinducers that potentially pertains in the epidemic of bacterial virulence. This study was initially designed to evaluate the effect of 5 phenolic compounds in the modulation of QS and virulence factors of Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and to determine the mechanisms of their effects. Biosensor strains were used to assess antibacterial and anti-QS effect of these compounds. Only methyl gallate (MG) among these compounds demonstrated profound anti-QS effect in the preliminary study, and thus only MG was utilized further to evaluate the effects on the synthesis and activity of acyl homoserine lactone (AHL) in C. violaceum and on the modulation of biofilm, motility, proteolytic, elastase, pyocyanin, and rhamnolipid activity in P. aeruginosa. Finally, the effect of MG on the expression of QS-regulated genes of P. aeruginosa was verified. MG suppressed both the synthesis and activity of AHL in C. violaceum. It also restricted the biofilm formation and other QS-associated virulence factor of P. aeruginosa. MG concentration-dependently suppressed the expression of lasI/R, rhlI/R, and pqsA of P. aeruginosa and was non-toxic in in vitro study. This is the first report of the anti-QS mechanism of MG.

Effects of Epigallocatechin Gallate on Tert-Butyl Hydroperoxide-Induced Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Rat Liver Mitochondria and Hepatocytes

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a green tea antioxidant with adverse effects on rat liver mitochondria and hepatocytes at high doses. Here, we assessed whether low doses of EGCG would protect these systems from damage induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide (tBHP). Rat liver mitochondria or permeabilized rat hepatocytes were pretreated with EGCG and then exposed to tBHP. Oxygen consumption, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and mitochondrial retention capacity for calcium were measured. First, 50 μM EGCG or 0.25 mM tBHP alone increased State 4 Complex I-driven respiration, thus demonstrating uncoupling effects; tBHP also inhibited State 3 ADP-stimulated respiration. Then, the coexposure to 0.25 mM tBHP and 50 μM EGCG induced a trend of further decline in the respiratory control ratio beyond that observed upon tBHP exposure alone. EGCG had no effect on MMP and no effect, in concentrations up to 50 μM, on mitochondrial calcium retention capacity. tBHP led to a decline in both MMP and mitochondrial retention capacity for calcium; these effects were not changed by pretreatment with EGCG. In addition, EGCG dose-dependently enhanced hydrogen peroxide formation in a cell- and mitochondria-free medium. Conclusion. Moderate nontoxic doses of EGCG were not able to protect rat liver mitochondria and hepatocytes from tBHP-induced mitochondrial dysfunction.

Epigallocatechin Gallate Reduces Slow-Twitch Muscle Fiber Formation and Mitochondrial Biosynthesis in C2C12 Cells by Repressing AMPK Activity and PGC-1α Expression

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is a major active compound in green tea polyphenols. EGCG acts as an antioxidant to prevent the cell damage caused by free radicals and their derivatives. In skeletal muscle, exercise causes the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and promotes the formation of slow-type muscle fiber. To determine whether EGCG, as a ROS scavenger, has any effect on skeletal muscle fiber type, we applied different concentrations (0, 5, 25, and 50 μM) of EGCG in the culture medium of differentiated C2C12 cells for 2 days. The fiber-type composition, mitochondrial biogenesis-related gene expression, antioxidant and glucose metabolism enzyme activity, and ROS levels in C2C12 cells were then detected. According to our results, 5 μM EGCG significantly decreased the cellular activity of SDH, 25 μM EGCG significantly downregulated the MyHC I, PGC-1α, NRF-1, and p-AMPK levels and SDH activity while enhancing the CAT and GSH-Px activity and decreasing the intracellular ROS levels, and 50 μM EGCG significantly downregulated MyHC I, PGC-1α, and NRF-1 expression and HK and SDH activity while increasing LDH activity. Furthermore, 300 μM H2O2 and 0.5 mM AMPK agonist (AICAR) improved the expression of MyHC I, PGC-1α, and p-AMPK, which were all reversed by 25 μM EGCG. In conclusion, the effect of EGCG on C2C12 cells may occur through the reduction of the ROS level, thereby decreasing both AMPK activity and PGC-1α expression and eventually reducing slow-twitch muscle fiber formation and mitochondrial biosynthesis.

Synthesis and protective effect of new ligustrazine derivatives against CoCl2-induced neurotoxicity in differentiated PC12 cells. Part 2

The novel ligustrazine derivatives were synthesized and displayed the remarkable protective effect (highest EC₅₀ = 0.719 μM) on PC12 cells damaged by CoCl₂.

Effects of vitamin D3 stimulation of thioredoxin-interacting protein in hepatocellular carcinoma

AIM

Thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) promotes oxidative stress by inactivating thioredoxin (TXN). This protein is involved in diverse disease processes, including insulin resistance, atherosclerosis and carcinogenesis. The aim of the present study was to measure the expression and function of TXNIP in in vitro models of liver disease, as well as in primary human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tissue specimens. In addition, we wanted to determine the effects of vitamin D3-induced TXNIP stimulation in HCC-derived cell lines.

METHODS

TXNIP expression was measured by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and western blots. TXNIP expression was stimulated by vitamin D exposure and by transfection. Cell proliferation, apoptosis and reactive oxygen species were determined by standard assays.

RESULTS

TXNIP expression levels were low in HCC cell lines, and vitamin D3 stimulated TXNIP expression in vitro. In HCC cells transfected with a TXNIP expression vector or treated with exogenous vitamin D3, there was a reduction in cell proliferation and an increase in apoptosis. Cells expressing TXNIP were markedly susceptible to oxidative injury induced by cobalt chloride or bacterial lipopolysaccharide. TXNIP expression was reduced or absent in a majority of primary human HCC specimens relative to matching, non-cancerous liver tissue.

CONCLUSION

TXNIP expression is low or absent in human HCC specimens and HCC-derived cell lines. Vitamin D3 stimulates TXNIP expression, resulting in diminished proliferation and enhanced apoptosis. Liver cells expressing TXNIP are primed for oxidative injury. These findings suggest that stimulation of TXNIP expression, by factors such as vitamin D3, may attenuate carcinogenesis in patients with chronic liver disease.

The effect of epigallocatechin gallate on hepatocytes isolated from normal and partially hepatectomized rats

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is an antioxidant found in green tea. In this study, male Wistar rats were subjected either to partial hepatectomy (PHx), or a sham operation (LAP). Twenty-four hours after surgery, hepatocytes were isolated and treated with various concentrations of EGCG for up to 72 h. We then measured markers of cell viability, oxidative stress, DNA synthesis, and caspase activity. Morphological criteria, cell viability tests, and albumin synthesis revealed toxicity starting at 10 μmol/L. DNA synthesis was higher in hepatocytes isolated from rats after PHx and inhibited by EGCG. Furthermore, EGCG increased the activity of caspases 3 and 7, seen more in hepatocytes from PHx rats. In conclusion, EGCG at a concentration of 10 μmol/L was toxic for hepatocytes isolated from both PHx and LAP rats.

Antiapoptotic actions of methyl gallate on neonatal rat cardiac myocytes exposed to H2O2

Reactive oxygen species trigger cardiomyocyte cell death via increased oxidative stress and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. The prevention of cardiomyocyte apoptosis is a putative therapeutic target in cardioprotection. Polyphenol intake has been associated with reduced incidences of cardiovascular disease and better overall health. Polyphenols like epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) can reduce apoptosis of cardiomyocytes, resulting in better health outcomes in animal models of cardiac disorders. Here, we analyzed whether the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) or polyphenols EGCG, gallic acid (GA) or methyl gallate (MG) can protect cardiomyocytes from cobalt or H₂O₂-induced stress. We demonstrate that MG can uphold viability of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes exposed to H₂O₂ by diminishing intracellular ROS, maintaining mitochondrial membrane potential, augmenting endogenous glutathione, and reducing apoptosis as evidenced by impaired Annexin V/PI staining, prevention of DNA fragmentation, and cleaved caspase-9 accumulation. These findings suggest a therapeutic value for MG in cardioprotection.

Synthesis and protective effect of new ligustrazine-benzoic acid derivatives against CoCl2-induced neurotoxicity in differentiated PC12 cells

A series of novel ligustrazine-benzoic acid derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for their protective effect against cobalt chloride-induced neurotoxicity in differentiated PC12 cells. Combining hematoxylin and eosin staining, we found compound that (3,5,6-trimethylpyrazin-2-yl)methyl 3-methoxy-4-[(3,5,6-trimethylpyrazin-2-yl)methoxy]benzoate (4a) displayed promising protective effect on the proliferation of the injured PC12 cells (EC₅₀ = 4.249 µM). Structure-activity relationships are briefly discussed.

Role of reactive oxygen species in the neural and hormonal regulation of the PNMT gene in PC12 cells

The stress hormone, epinephrine, is produced predominantly by adrenal chromaffin cells and its biosynthesis is regulated by the enzyme phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT). Studies have demonstrated that PNMT may be regulated hormonally via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and neurally via the stimulation of the splanchnic nerve. Additionally, hypoxia has been shown to play a key role in the regulation of PNMT. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by the hypoxia mimetic agent CoCl₂, on the hormonal and neural stimulation of PNMT in an in vitro cell culture model, utilizing the rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cell line. RT-PCR analyses show inductions of the PNMT intron-retaining and intronless mRNA splice variants by CoCl₂ (3.0- and 1.76-fold, respectively). Transient transfection assays of cells treated simultaneously with CoCl₂ and the synthetic glucocorticoid, dexamethasone, show increased promoter activity (18.5-fold), while mRNA levels of both splice variants do not demonstrate synergistic effects. Similar results were observed when investigating the effects of CoCl₂-induced ROS on the neural stimulation of PNMT via forskolin. Our findings demonstrate that CoCl₂-induced ROS have synergistic effects on hormonal and neural activation of the PNMT promoter.

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate Regulates NADPH Oxidase Expression in Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells

Vascular NADPH oxidase plays a pivotal role in producing superoxide in endothelial cells and thus acts in the initiation and development of inflammatory cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the major catechin derived from green tea, has multiple beneficial effects for treating cardiovascular disease but the effect of EGCG on the expression of vascular NADPH oxidase remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the mechanism(s) by which EGCG might inhibit the expression of subunits of NADPH oxidase, namely p47(phox), p67(phox) and p22(phox), induced by angiotensin II (Ang II) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Ang II increased the expression levels of p47(phox), p67(phox), and p22(phox), but EGCG counteracted this effect on p47(phox). Moreover, EGCG did not affect the production of reactive oxygen species induced by Ang II. These data suggest a novel mechanism whereby EGCG might provide direct vascular benefits for treating inflammatory cardiovascular diseases.

Protective effects of methyl gallate on H2O2-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells

Neurodegenerative disorders are a class of diseases that have been linked to apoptosis induced by elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS activates the apoptotic cascade through mitochondrial dysfunction and damage to lipids, proteins and DNA. Recently, fruit and tea-derived polyphenols have been found to be beneficial in decreasing oxidative stress and increasing overall health. Further, polyphenols including epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) have been reported to inhibit apoptotic signaling and increase neural cell survival. In an effort to better understand the beneficial properties associated with polyphenol consumption, the aim of this study was to explore the neuroprotective effects of EGCG, methyl gallate (MG), gallic acid (GA) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC) on H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells and elucidate potential protective mechanisms. Cell viability data demonstrates that MG and NAC pre-treatments significantly increase viability of H(2)O(2)-stressed cells, while pre-treatments with EGCG and GA exacerbates stress. Quantitation of apoptosis and mitochondrial membrane potential shows that MG pre-treatment prevents mitochondria depolarization, however does not inhibit apoptosis and is thus evidence that MG can inhibit mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Subsequent analysis of DNA degradation and caspase activation reveals that MG inhibits activation of caspase 9 and has a partial inhibitory effect on DNA degradation. These findings confirm the involvement of both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways in H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis and suggest that MG may have potential therapeutic properties against mitochondria-mediated apoptosis.