Specific cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase inhibitors differently modulate contractile kinetics in airway smooth muscle

PDE4 inhibition as a therapeutic strategy for improvement of pulmonary dysfunctions in Covid-19 and cigarette smoking

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the binding-site and entry-point for SARS-CoV-2 in human and highly expressed in the lung. Cigarette smoking (CS) is the leading cause of pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases. Chronic CS leads to upregulation of bronchial ACE2 inducing a high vulnerability in COVID-19 smoker patients. Interestingly, CS-induced dysregulation of pulmonary renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in part contributing into the potential pathogenesis COVID-19 pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Since, CS-mediated ACE2 activations is not the main pathway for increasing the risk of COVID-19, it appeared that AngII/AT₁R might induce an inflammatory-burst in COVID-19 response by up-regulating cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase type 4 (PDE4), which hydrolyses specifically the second intracellular messenger 3′, 5′-cyclic AMP (cAMP). It must be pointed out that CS might induce PDE4 up-regulation similarly to the COVID-19 inflammation, and therefore could potentiate COVID-19 inflammation opening the potential therapeutic effects of PDE4 inhibitor in both COVID-19-inflammation and CS.

Caffeine relaxes smooth muscle through actin depolymerization

Caffeine is sometimes used in cell physiological studies to release internally stored Ca(2+). We obtained evidence that caffeine may also act through a different mechanism that has not been previously described and sought to examine this in greater detail. We ruled out a role for phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibition, since the effect was 1) not reversed by inhibiting PKA or adenylate cyclase; 2) not exacerbated by inhibiting PDE4; and 3) not mimicked by submillimolar caffeine nor theophylline, both of which are sufficient to inhibit PDE. Although caffeine is an agonist of bitter taste receptors, which in turn mediate bronchodilation, its relaxant effect was not mimicked by quinine. After permeabilizing the membrane using β-escin and depleting the internal Ca(2+) store using A23187, we found that 10 mM caffeine reversed tone evoked by direct application of Ca(2+), suggesting it functionally antagonizes the contractile apparatus. Using a variety of molecular techniques, we found that caffeine did not affect phosphorylation of myosin light chain (MLC) by MLC kinase, actin-filament motility catalyzed by MLC kinase, phosphorylation of CPI-17 by either protein kinase C or RhoA kinase, nor the activity of MLC-phosphatase. However, we did obtain evidence that caffeine decreased actin filament binding to phosphorylated myosin heads and increased the ratio of globular to filamentous actin in precontracted tissues. We conclude that, in addition to its other non-RyR targets, caffeine also interferes with actin function (decreased binding by myosin, possibly with depolymerization), an effect that should be borne in mind in studies using caffeine to probe excitation-contraction coupling in smooth muscle.

NCS 613, a potent and specific PDE4 inhibitor, displays anti-inflammatory effects on human lung tissues

Chronic inflammation is a hallmark of pulmonary diseases, which leads to lung parenchyma destruction (emphysema) and obstructive bronchiolitis occurring in both chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Inflammation is strongly correlated with low intracellular cAMP levels and increase in specific cAMP hydrolyzing activity. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of the cyclic phosphodiesterase type 4 (PDE4) in human lung and to determine the effects of NCS 613, a new PDE4 inhibitor, on lung inflammation and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. High cAMP-PDE activities were found in the cytosoluble fractions from human lung parenchyma and distal bronchi. PDE4 (rolipram sensitive) represented 40% and 56% of total cAMP-PDE activities in the above-corresponding tissues. Moreover, PDE4A, PDE4B, PDE4C, and PDE4D isoforms were detected in all three subcellular fractions (cytosolic, microsomal, and nuclear) with differential distributions according to specific variants. Pharmacological treatments with NCS 613 significantly decreased PDE4 activity and reduced IκBα degradation in cultured parenchyma, both of which are usually correlated with a lower inflammation status. Moreover, NCS 613 pretreatment potentiated isoproterenol-induced relaxations in human distal bronchi, while reducing TNF-α-induced hyperresponsiveness in cultured bronchi, as assessed in the presence of methacholine, U-46619, or histamine. This reducing effect of NCS 613 on human bronchi hyperresponsiveness triggered by TNF-α was related to a lower expression level of PDE4B and PDE4C, as well as a downregulation of the phosphorylated forms of p38-MAPK, CPI-17, and MYPT-1, which are known to control tone. In conclusion, specific PDE4 inhibitors, such as NCS 613, may represent an alternative and isoform-specific approach toward reducing human lung inflammation and airway overreactivity.

Models to understand contractile function in the airways

Although the role of contractile function in the airways is controversial, there is general consensus on the importance of airway smooth muscle (ASM) as a therapeutic target for diseases characterized by airway obstruction, such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Indeed, the use of bronchodilators to relax ASM is the most common and effective practice to treat airflow obstruction. Excessive pathologic bronchoconstriction may originate from primary alterations of ASM mechanical function and/or from the effects exerted on ASM function by disease processes, such as inflammation and remodeling. An in depth knowledge of the potentially multiple mechanisms that distinctively regulate primary and secondary alterations in ASM contractile function would be essential for the development of new therapeutic approaches aimed at preventing the occurrence or reducing the severity of bronchoconstriction. The present review discusses studies that have addressed the mechanisms of altered ASM contractile function in models of airway hyperresponsiveness. Although not comprehensively, in the present review, animal models of intrinsic airway hyperresponsiveness, normal ontogenesis, and allergic sensitization are analyzed in the attempt to summarize the current knowledge on regulatory mechanisms of ASM contractile function in health and disease. Studies in human ASM and the need for additional models to understand contractile function in the airways are also discussed.

Postnatal maturation of phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) in piglet pulmonary arteries: activity, expression, effects of PDE5 inhibitors, and role of the nitric oxide/cyclic GMP pathway

After birth and during the first days of extrauterine life, pulmonary arterial pressure is progressively reduced to reach the adult values. We hypothesized that changes in PDE5 activity might be involved in the pulmonary postnatal maturation of the nitric oxide (NO)/cGMP pathway. The PDE5 inhibitor sildenafil produced vasorelaxant responses in isolated pulmonary arteries. These effects were similar in newborn (3-18 h) and 2-wk-old piglets, unchanged by endothelium removal, and markedly inhibited by the soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor ODQ. The peak of the transient vasorelaxant response to NO gas increased with postnatal age but was unaffected by PDE inhibition. However, the duration of the response to NO was significantly increased. The vasorelaxant response to sodium nitroprusside was potentiated by sildenafil in both age groups. The PDE5 inhibitors dipyridamole and zaprinast, produced qualitatively similar effects but with lower potency. Both total and PDE5-dependent cGMP hydrolytic activity and PDE5 protein expression increased with postnatal age. All these results suggest that PDE5 is a key regulator of NO-induced vasodilation in the postnatal pulmonary arteries. PDE5 inhibition is able to produce pulmonary vasodilation even in the absence of a functional endothelium and potentiates the vasorelaxant response to exogenous NO and nitroprusside. However, PDE5 is not responsible for the maturational increase of NO bioactivity during the first days of extrauterine life.

Cyclic nucleotide-dependent phosphodiesterases (PDEI) inhibition by muscarinic antagonists in bovine tracheal smooth muscle

In bovine tracheal smooth muscle (TSM) strips, muscarinic antagonists (atropine, 4-DAMP, AFDX-116 and methoctramine) were able to increase simultaneously and a similar fashion the intracellular levels of cyclic nucleotides, with a cAMP/cGMP ratio higher than 2.0. These original pharmacological responses were time-and dose-dependent, exhibiting maximal values at 15 min, with a pEC(50) of 7.4 +/- 0.2 for atropine and 4-DAMP. These effects on cAMP and cGMP levels were similar to the ones obtained with isobutyl-methylxantine (IBMX, 10 microM), a non-selective cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor, suggesting the involvement of PDEs in these muscarinic antagonist responses. Neither, rolipram (10 microM), a specific PDEIV inhibitor, nor zaprinast (10 microM), a PDEV inhibitor, exhibited this "atropine-like" responses. Instead, atropine enhanced the increments of cAMP levels induced by rolipram and cGMP levels by zaprinast. However, vinpocetine (20 microM), a non-calmodulin dependent PDEIC inhibitor was able to mimic these muscarinic antagonist responses in intact smooth muscle strips. In addition, in cell free systems, muscarinic antagonists inhibited the membrane-bound PDEIC activity whereas soluble (cytosol) PDEIC activity was not affected by these muscarinic drugs. These results indicate that muscarinic antagonists acting possibly as inverse agonists on M(2)/M(3)mAChRs anchored to sarcolemma membranes can initiate a new signal transducing cascade leading to the PDEIC inhibition, which produced a simultaneous rise in both cAMP and cGMP intracellular levels in tracheal smooth muscle.

PDE4D plays a critical role in the control of airway smooth muscle contraction

The airways of mice deficient in the cAMP phosphodiesterase PDE4D gene are refractory to muscarinic cholinergic stimulation. This study was undertaken to determine whether altered smooth muscle contractility causes the PDE4D-/- phenotype. A major disruption in contractility was observed in isolated PDE4D-/- tracheas, with a 60% reduction in maximal tension and a fivefold decrease in sensitivity to muscarinic cholinergic agonists. Conversely, responses to KCl or arginine vasopressin were unaffected. PDE4D is the predominant PDE4 form in tracheal extracts and PDE4D mRNA is expressed in smooth muscle where muscarinic binding sites are most abundant. Cyclic AMP accumulation in response to acute G(s)alpha-coupled receptor stimulation was increased up to fourfold in the airway of PDE4D-/- mice when compared with wild-type. This increase in cAMP was associated with an increased sensitivity to PGE2-induced relaxation of the PDE4D-/-tracheas. Furthermore, a blockade of prostanoid accumulation in PDE4D-/- tracheas restored the response to muscarinic cholinergic stimulation in vitro and in vivo. These results demonstrate that PDE4D plays a key role in balancing relaxant and contracting cues in airway smooth muscle, suggesting that natural mutations in the PDE4D gene have profound effects on airway tone.

Characterisation of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase isoforms in the media layer of the main pulmonary artery

Cyclic nucleotides are involved in the control of pulmonary vascular tone. In the present study, we measured the cyclic nucleotide specific phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity in the media of bovine isolated main pulmonary artery (MPA). Total cAMP- and cGMP-PDE activities were measured in microsomal and cytosolic fractions. Both cyclic nucleotides were hydrolysed in these subcellular fractions at consistently higher rate in the cytosolic than in the microsomal fraction. Using different classes of PDE modulator, at least four PDE isoforms (PDE1, 3, 4 and 5) were identified in these fractions. PDE3 (cilostamide-sensitive), PDE4 (rolipram-sensitive) and PDE5 (zaprinast- and DMPPO-sensitive) isoforms appeared as the main isozymes implicated in the cAMP and cGMP hydrolytic activities. Calcium-camodulin stimulated PDE activity (PDE1) was mainly present in the cytosolic fraction. PDE2, although present, had a lower hydrolytic activity since addition of its specific inhibitor, erythro-9-(2-hydroxy-3nonyl)adenine (EHNA), to a combination of inhibitors of PDE3, 4 and 5 produced no further significant reduction in the enzymatic activity. Resolution of PDE activities from the cytosolic fraction using anion exchange chromatography confirmed this finding. Functional experiments performed in endothelium-denuded rings of rat MPA revealed that all specific PDE inhibitors used relaxed precontracted vascular smooth muscle preparations in a concentration-dependent manner. The rank order of potency was cilostamide >zaprinast>rolipram>>EHNA. The present study demonstrates the presence in the smooth muscle cells-containing layer of MPA of PDE1, 3, 4 and 5 isoforms and suggests that PDE3, 4 and 5 are the main enzymes involved in the control of vascular tone.

The role of cyclic nucleotides in the spontaneous contractility and responsiveness to nitric oxide of the rat uterus at midgestation and term

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this investigation was to study the effects of pharmacologic manipulation of cyclic nucleotide levels on the uterine spontaneous contractile activity and responsiveness to nitric oxide in pregnant rats at midgestation and term.

STUDY DESIGN

Uterine rings from pregnant rats at midgestation and term were placed in organ chambers for isometric tension recording. Concentration-response curves were obtained for phosphodiesterase and guanylate cyclase inhibitors, membrane-permeable cyclic nucleotide analogs, and forskolin. In addition, the effects of minimal inhibitory concentrations of these agents on the concentration-response relationships for diethylamine nitric oxide (a nitric oxide donor) were studied.

RESULTS

Nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitors induced more inhibition of contractions of uterine rings from pregnant rats at term than at midgestation and zaprinast induced less. Inhibitors of guanylate cyclase and membrane-permeable analogs of cyclic guanosine monophosphate were equally effective in tissues from pregnant rats at midgestation and term. All agents attenuated the inhibitory effect of diethylamine nitric oxide at midgestation; however, dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate and papaverine increased the inhibitory effect of diethylamine nitric oxide in tissues from pregnant animals at term.

CONCLUSIONS

Cyclic nucleotides modulate both spontaneous and nitric oxide-induced changes in uterine contraction during pregnancy. Application of nonselective inhibitors of phosphodiesterase, as well as membrane-permeable analogs of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, may counteract refractoriness to nitric oxide at term.

Characterization of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase isoforms associated to isolated cardiac nuclei

The identity and location of nuclear cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDE) has yet to be ascertained. Intact cardiac nuclei and subnuclear fractions from ovine hearts were isolated to determine cAMP-specific PDE activity which was 3-fold greater than that of cGMP PDE, the latter being insensitive to Ca-calmodulin and zaprinast. Specific hydrolytic activities of the cardiac nuclear envelopes (NE) were similar to those measured in the corresponding intact nuclei, thus suggesting that most PDE activity is associated with the nuclear membrane. Moreover, the main hydrolytic activities in cardiac nuclei were attributed to PDE4 (56%) and PDE3 (44%). The pharmacological sensitivity of each isoform in terms of IC(50), K(m) and K(i) values was typical of previously characterized cardiac PDE 3 and 4 isoforms. PDE2 (cGMP-stimulated PDE) represented a minor component (8-9%) of total hydrolytic activity. Solubilization of nuclear envelopes and HPLC separation also yielded rolipram-sensitive PDE activities. Upon 1% Triton X-100 extractions, the presence of PDE3 and PDE4 was revealed in a low speed, nucleopore complex-enriched, P1 pellet. In addition, Western blot analysis demonstrated the presence of PDE4B and PDE4D subtypes in the nuclei as well as enrichment in NE. However, in the same preparations, the presence of PDE4A could not be ascertained. Altogether, these results suggest an intrinsic and predominant association of these nuclear PDEs with the NE and much likely with nucleopore complexes.