Preventive and therapeutic effects of ginsenoside Rb1 for neural injury during cerebral infarction in rats

Combination of UPLC-Q-TOF/MS and network pharmacology to reveal the mechanism of Chaihu-jia-Longgu-Muli decoction for treating vertigo with anxiety disorder

Chaihu-jia-Longgu-Muli decoction (CLMD) has been proven clinically effective in treating vertigo with anxiety disorder. However, the mechanism is not clear. This study aimed to explore the mechanism of CLMD in treating vertigo with anxiety disorder based on ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) and network pharmacology. UPLC-Q-TOF/MS was performed to identify the compounds in blood and the targets of compounds of CLMD in vertigo and anxiety were searched using databases. A protein-protein interaction network was built to screen the core targets. The core targets were analyzed by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses. In addition, the vertigo with anxiety rat model was used to verify the results. A total of 22 compounds were absorbed into the blood. Eighty-one potential targets associated with CLMD for vertigo with anxiety disorder were identified through network pharmacological analysis. Subsequently, GO and KEGG analysis showed that CLMD treatment for vertigo with anxiety disorder is associated with neurotransmitter levels and other pertinent physiological processes. The results of the animal experiments showed that CLMD decreased the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine, alleviating the symptoms of vertigo and anxiety disorder in model rats. The study revealed CLMD could alleviate vertigo and anxiety symptoms through reducing the levels of neurotransmitters.

Crosstalk among Oxidative Stress, Autophagy, and Apoptosis in the Protective Effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 on Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells: A Mixed Computational and Experimental Study

OBJECTIVE

Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) were found to shift from their usually inactive state to an active state in ischemic stroke (IS) and cause neuronal damage. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1), a component derived from medicinal plants, is known for its pharmacological benefits in IS, but its protective effects on BMECs have yet to be explored. This study aimed to investigate the potential protective effects of GRb1 on BMECs.

METHODS

An in vitro oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) model was established to mimic ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Bulk RNA-sequencing data were analyzed by using the Human Autophagy Database and various bioinformatic tools, including gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), Gene Ontology (GO) classification and enrichment analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis, protein-protein interaction network analysis, and molecular docking. Experimental validation was also performed to ensure the reliability of our findings.

RESULTS

Rb1 had a protective effect on BMECs subjected to OGD/R injury. Specifically, GRb1 was found to modulate the interplay between oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy in BMECs. Key targets such as sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1/p62), autophagy related 5 (ATG5), and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) were identified, highlighting their potential roles in mediating the protective effects of GRb1 against IS-induced damage.

CONCLUSION

GRbl protects BMECs against OGD/R injury by influencing oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy. The identification of SQSTM1/p62, ATG5, and HIF-1α as promising targets further supports the potential of GRb1 as a therapeutic agent for IS, providing a foundation for future research into its mechanisms and applications in IS treatment.

Neuroprotection and mechanisms of ginsenosides in nervous system diseases: Progress and perspectives

Ginsenosides are the primary component discernible from ginseng, including Rb1, Rb2, Rd, Rg1, Rg2, and compound K, and so forth. They have been shown to have multiple pharmacological activities. In recent years, more and more studies have been devoted to the neuroprotection of various ginsenosides against neurological diseases and their potential mechanisms. This paper comprehensively summarizes and reviews the neuroprotective effects of various ginsenosides on neurological diseases, especially acute and chronic neurodegenerative diseases, and their mechanisms, as well as their potential therapeutic applications to promote neuroprotection in disease prevention, treatment, and prognosis. Briefly, ginsenosides exert effective neuroprotective effects on neurological conditions, including stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and brain/spinal cord injuries through a variety of molecular mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic. Among them, some signaling pathways play important roles in related processes, such as PI3K/Akt, TLR4/NF-κB, ROS/TXNIP/NLRP3, HO-1/Nrf2, Wnt/β-catenin, and Ca2+ pathway. In conclusion, the present study reviews the research progress on the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides in the last decade, with the aim of furnishing essential theoretical underpinning and effective references for further research and exploration of the multiple medicinal values of Chinese herbal medicines and their small molecule compounds, including ginseng and panax ginseng. Because there is less evidence in the existing clinical studies, future research should be focused on clinical trials in order to truly reflect the clinical value of various ginsenosides for the benefit of patients.

Integration of 16S rRNA sequencing and metabolomics to investigate the modulatory effect of ginsenoside Rb1 on atherosclerosis

Background

/aims: Atherosclerosis (AS) is the common pathological basis of a variety of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and has become the main cause of human death worldwide, and the incidence is increasing and younger trend. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), an important monomer component of the traditional Chinese herb ginseng, known for its ability to improve blood lipid disorders and anti-inflammatory. In addition, Rb1 was proved to be an effective treatment for AS. However, the effect of Rb1 on AS remains to be elucidated. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms of Rb1 in ameliorating AS induced by high-fat diet (HFD).

Materials and methods

In this study, we developed an experimental AS model in Sprague-Dawley rats by feeding HFD with intraperitoneal injection of vitamin D3. The potential therapeutic mechanism of Rb1 in AS rats was investigated by detecting the expression of inflammatory factors, microbiome 16S rRNA gene sequencing, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) targeted metabolomics and untargeted metabolomics.

Results

Rb1 could effectively alleviate the symptoms of AS and suppress the overexpression of inflammation-related factors. Meanwhile, Rb1 altered gut microbial composition and concentration of SCFAs characterized by Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, Lactobacillus, Prevotella, Oscillospira enrichment and Desulfovibrio depletion, accompanied by increased production of acetic acid and propionic acid. Moreover, untargeted metabolomics showed that Rb1 considerably improved faecal metabolite profiles, particularly arachidonic acid metabolism and primary bile acid biosynthesis.

Conclusion

Rb1 ameliorated the HFD-induced AS, and the mechanism is related to improving intestinal metabolic homeostasis and inhibiting systemic inflammation by regulating gut microbiota.

Progress of Ginsenoside Rb1 in neurological disorders

Ginseng is frequently used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat neurological disorders. The primary active component of ginseng is ginsenoside, which has been classified into more than 110 types based on their chemical structures. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GsRb1)-a protopanaxadiol saponin and a typical ginseng component-exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-autophagy properties in the nervous system. Neurological disorders remain a leading cause of death and disability globally. GsRb1 effectively treats neurological disorders. To contribute novel insights to the understanding and treatment of neurological disorders, we present a comprehensive review of the pharmacokinetics, actions, mechanisms, and research development of GsRb1 in neurological disorders.

Traditional Chinese medicines treat ischemic stroke and their main bioactive constituents and mechanisms

Ischemic stroke (IS) remains one of the leading causes of death and disability in humans. Unfortunately, none of the treatments effectively provide functional benefits to patients with IS, although many do so by targeting different aspects of the ischemic cascade response. The advantages of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in preventing and treating IS are obvious in terms of early treatment and global coordination. The efficacy of TCM and its bioactive constituents has been scientifically proven over the past decades. Based on clinical trials, this article provides a review of commonly used TCM patent medicines and herbal decoctions indicated for IS. In addition, this paper also reviews the mechanisms of bioactive constituents in TCM for the treatment of IS in recent years, both domestically and internationally. A comprehensive review of preclinical and clinical studies will hopefully provide new ideas to address the threat of IS.

A Review of Neuroprotective Effects and Mechanisms of Ginsenosides From Panax Ginseng in Treating Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic stroke has been considered one of the leading causes of mortality and disability worldwide, associated with a series of complex pathophysiological processes. However, effective therapeutic methods for ischemic stroke are still limited. Panax ginseng, a valuable traditional Chinese medicine, has been long used in eastern countries for various diseases. Ginsenosides, the main active ingredient of Panax ginseng, has demonstrated neuroprotective effects on ischemic stroke injury during the last decade. In this article, we summarized the pathophysiology of ischemic stroke and reviewed the literature on ginsenosides studies in preclinical and clinical ischemic stroke. Available findings showed that both major ginsenosides and minor ginsenosides (such as Rg3, Rg5, and Rh2) has a potential neuroprotective effect, mainly through attenuating the excitotoxicity, Ca²⁺ overload, mitochondria dysfunction, blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, anti-inflammation, anti-oxidative, anti-apoptosis, anti-pyroptosis, anti-autophagy, improving angiogenesis, and neurogenesis. Therefore, this review brings a current understanding of the mechanisms of ginsenosides in the treatment of ischemic stroke. Further studies, especially in clinical trials, will be important to confirm the clinical value of ginseng and ginsenosides.

Differences in the prevention and control of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases

At present, the prevention and control of cardiovascular diseases (CAVDs) has made initial advancements, although the prevention and control of cerebrovascular diseases (CEVDs) has not yet achieved the desired progress. In this paper, we review the prevention and control of CEVDs and CAVDs, and analyze the differences in prevention effects, and the pathological and physiological structures pertaining to CEVDs and CAVDs. Combined with the different effects of low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of CEVDs and CAVDs by meta-analysis, aspirin plays a more important role in the primary prevention of CAVDs than CEVDs. We recognize the misunderstandings and blind spots concerning prevention and control of CEVDs, which can be summarized as follows: (1) CEVDs and CAVDs can be controlled by the same methods and drugs; (2) considering the same pathological factors for cardiovascular diseases; (3) a lack of understanding of the particularity of CEVDs; (4) a focus on platelets and neglect of cerebrovascular protection. In summary, our research clarifies the differences in the prevention measures and drugs used for CEVDs and CAVDs. Of particular concern is the serious lack of preventive drugs for CEVDs in clinical use. An ideal drug for the prevention of CEVDs should have protective effects on the blood, the vascular endothelium, the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and other related factors. Our review aims to highlight several issues in the current prevention of CEVDs and CAVDs, and to provide an optimized plan for preventive drug discovery.

Edaravone attenuates neuronal apoptosis in hippocampus of rat traumatic brain injury model via activation of BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of our study was to explore the effects of edaravone on rats with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and investigate the underlying mechanism.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All rats were separated randomly into 3 groups as follows: sham group (n = 25), TBI group (n = 25), TBI + edaravone group (n = 25). Edaravone was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) at a dose of 3 mg/kg at 30 min, 12 h, and 24 h after TBI. The neurological impairment and spatial cognitive function were assessed by the neurologic severity score (NSS) and Morris water maze (MWM), respectively. Western blot and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were used to determine the expression levels of caspase-3, B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), Bcl-2 associated X protein (Bax), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB). Transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay as well as flow cytometry assay was used to determine the apoptosis rate of cells.

RESULTS

Edaravone administration significantly attenuated neurological impairment induced by TBI and promoted cognitive function outcome. The expression of BDNF and TrkB was elevated with treatment of edaravone, which was increased after TBI. The expression of apoptosis related proteins such as caspase-3 and Bax-2 was decreased while that of Bcl-2 was enhanced with edaravone administration following TBI. In addition, edaravone treatment reduced TBI-induced cell apoptosis in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showed that administration with edaravone was able to inhibit neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus in a rat TBI model. The neuroprotective function of edaravone may relate to modulation of the BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway.

Panax notoginseng saponins and their applications in nervous system disorders: a narrative review

Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS), also called "sanqi" in Chinese, are the main active ingredients which are extracted from the root of Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen., and they have been traditionally used as a medicine in China for hundreds of years with magical medicinal value. PNS have varied biological functions, such as anti-inflammatory effects, anti-cancer effects, anti-neurotoxicity, and the prevention of diabetes. Nervous system disorders, a spectrum of diseases originating from the nervous system, have a significant impact on all aspects of patients' lives. Due to the dramatic gains in global life expectancy, the prevalence of nervous system disorders is growing gradually. Even if the mechanism of these diseases is still not clear, they are mainly characterized by neuronal dysfunction and neuronal death. Consequently, it is essential to find measures to slow down or prevent the onset of these diseases. At present, traditional Chinese medicines, as well as their active components, have gained widespread popularity in preventing and treating these diseases because of their merits, especially PNS. In this review, we predominantly address the recent advances in PNS researches and their biological functions, and highlight their applications in nervous system disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and stroke.

Panax notoginseng for Cerebral Ischemia: A Systematic Review

Panax notoginseng is the most widely used Chinese medicinal herb for the prevention and treatment of ischemic diseases. Its main active ingredients are saponins, including ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rg1, and notoginsenoside R1, among others. This review provides an up-to-date overview on the pharmacological roles of P. notoginseng constituents in cerebral ischemia. The saponins of P. notoginseng induce a variety of pharmacological effects in the multiscale mechanisms of cerebral ischemic pathophysiology, including anti-inflammatory activity, reduction of oxidative stress, anti-apoptosis, inhibition of amino acid excitotoxicity, reduction of intracellular calcium overload, protection of mitochondria, repairing the blood-brain barrier, and facilitation of cell regeneration. Regarding cell regeneration, P. notoginseng not only promotes the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells, but also protects neurons, endothelial cells and astrocytes in cerebral ischemia. In conclusion, P. notoginseng may treat cerebrovascular diseases through multiple pharmacological effects, and the most critical ones need further investigation.

Pananx notoginseng saponins attenuate CCL2-induced cognitive deficits in rats via anti-inflammation and anti-apoptosis effects that involve suppressing over-activation of NMDA receptors

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) are characterized by synaptic damage and neuronal loss in the brain, ultimately leading to progressive decline of cognitive abilities and memory. Chemokine CC motif ligand 2 (CCL2) is elevated in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and has been believed to contribute to HAND. Previous studies by our research team have shown that CCL2 enhances N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-mediated excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) and causes nerve cell damage. However, there are few drugs currently available to treat nerve damage that is caused by CCL2. Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) are isolated from Panax notoginseng and benefit the human body in various ways, including the neuroprotective effect. However, the protective effect of PNS on CCL2-induced neurotoxicity remains unknown. In this study, we found that PNS improved CCL2-induced learning and memory impairment, and inhibited CCL2-induced cell death. These effects may be due to inhibiting over-activation of NMDA receptors by alleviating the dysfunction of glutamate metabolism. Furthermore, PNS-modulated CCL2-inducd intracellular oxidative stress was found to attenuate cell inflammation. Additionally, PNS pretreatment evidently inhibited apoptotic pathways by reducing the Bax/BCL-2 ratio and caspase-3, 8, 9 expressions. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that PNS provides substantial neuroprotection against CCL2-induced neurotoxicity, and may be a novel therapeutic agent in CCL2-induced HAND or other neurodegenerative diseases.

Ginsenoside-Rb1 for Ischemic Stroke: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Preclinical Evidence and Possible Mechanisms

Background

Ischemic stroke is the most common type of stroke, while pharmacological therapy options are limited. Ginsenosides are the major bioactive compounds in Ginseng and have been found to have various pharmacological effects in the nervous system. In the present study, we sought to evaluate the effects of Ginsenoside-Rb1 (G-Rb1), an important ingredient of ginsenosides, and the probable neuroprotective mechanisms in experimental ischemic strokes.

Methods

Studies of G-Rb1 on ischemic stroke animal models were identified from 7 databases. No clinical trials were included in the analysis. The primary outcome measures were neurological function scores, infarct volume, evans blue content and/or brain water content (BWC). The second outcome measures were the possible neuroprotective mechanisms. All the data were analyzed by Rev Man 5.3.

Result

Pooled preclinical data showed that compared with the controls, G-Rb1 could improve neurological function (Zea Longa (n = 367, P < 0.01); mNSS (n = 70, P < 0.01); Water maze test (n = 48, P < 0.01); Bederson (n = 16, P < 0.01)), infarct area (TTC (n = 211, P < 0.01); HE (n = 26, P < 0.01)), as well as blood-brain barrier function (BWC (n = 64, P < 0.01); Evans blue content (n=26, P < 0.05)). It also can increase BDNF (n = 26, P < 0.01), Gap-43 (n = 16, P < 0.01), SOD (n = 30, P < 0.01), GSH (n = 16, P < 0.01), Nissl-positive cells (n = 12, P < 0.01), Nestin-positive cells (n = 10, P < 0.05), and reduce Caspase-3 (n = 36, P < 0.01), IL-1 (n = 32, P < 0.01), TNF-α (n = 72, P < 0.01), MDA (n = 18, P < 0.01), NO (n = 44, P < 0.01), NOX (n = 32, P < 0.05), ROS (n = 6, P < 0.05), NF-κB (P < 0.05) and TUNEL-positive cells (n = 52, P < 0.01).

Conclusion

Available findings demonstrated the preclinical evidence that G-Rb1 has a potential neuroprotective effect, largely through attenuating brain water content, promoting the bioactivities of neurogenesis, anti-apoptosis, anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, energy supplement and cerebral circulation.

Ginkgo biloba extract improves brain uptake of ginsenosides by increasing blood-brain barrier permeability via activating A1 adenosine receptor signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginkgo biloba leaves and Panax ginseng are Chinese medicine commonly used in combination for cerebral disease.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the effect of standard extract of Ginkgo biloba leaves (EGb) on facilitating brain uptake of ginsenoside and its underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The increasing uptake of ginsenosides in the brain of rats by EGb were detected by LC-MS/MS analysis. Evans blue and FITC-dextran leakage were determined to evaluate blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability in vivo. Transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) and Na-F penetration rate were measured with a co-culture of the human cerebral microvascular endothelial cell line (hCMEC/D3) and human normal glial cell line (HEB) in vitro BBB model. WB were used to analyzed the expression of BBB tight junctions (TJs) related protein (ZO-1, Occludin, Claudin-3, p-ERM, and p-MLC), ultrastructure of TJs was determined by transmission electron microscope.

RESULTS

LC-MS/MS analysis demonstrated that EGb could improve brain uptake of ginsenoside Rg1, Re, Rd and Rb1. In vivo study showed that, BBB permeability was significantly increased after EGb administration, evidenced by the markedly increased penetration of FITC-dextran and Evans Blue into the mice brain parenchyma. In the in vitro BBB model, reduced TEER and increased Na-F penetration rate was observed in EGb group, which was associated with alteration of TJs ultrastructure. Furthermore, the expression of p-ERM and p-MLC in hCMEC/D3 as well as mice brain microvessels were significantly upregulated, but no significant change on the expression of TJs proteins (ZO-1, Occludin and Claudin-3). Moreover, the effect of EGb on in vitro BBB permeability and ERM, MLC phosphorylation was counteracted by DPCPX, an A1 adenosine receptor (A1R) antagonist.

CONCLUSIONS

EGb might induce ERM/MLC phosphorylation and increase the cell-cell junction gaps to cause a reversible increase of the BBB permeability via A1R signaling pathway. Our results may contribute to better use of EGb in the treatment of brain diseases.

Neuroprotective Effects of Ginseng Phytochemicals: Recent Perspectives

As our global population ages, the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases is critical to our society. In recent years, researchers have begun to study the role of biologically active chemicals from plants and herbs to gain new inspiration and develop new therapeutic drugs. Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Mey.) is a famous Chinese herbal medicine with a variety of pharmacological activities. It has been used to treat various diseases since ancient times. Extensive research over the years has shown that ginseng has potential as a neuroprotective drug, and its neuroprotective effects can be used to treat and prevent neurological damage or pathologically related diseases (such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, depression symptoms, and strokes). Moreover, evidence for the medicinal and health benefits of ginsenoside, its main active ingredient, in the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases is increasing, and current clinical results have not reported any serious adverse reactions to ginseng. Therefore, we briefly review the recent research and development on the beneficial effects and mechanisms of ginseng and its main active ingredient, ginsenoside, in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, hoping to provide some ideas for the discovery and identification of ginseng neuroprotection.

Treatment with MQA, a Derivative of Caffeoylquinic Acid, Provides Neuroprotective Effects against Cerebral Ischemia Through Suppression of the p38 Pathway and Oxidative Stress in Rats

1,5-O-dicaffeoyl-3-O-(4-malic acid methylester)-quinic acid (MQA), extracted from Arctium lappa L., has been observed to exert neuroprotective effects in vitro. The aim of this study was to investigate whether MQA is an effective therapeutic method for cerebral ischemic injury in vivo. In this study, adult male rats were randomly divided into four groups: a normal group, a model group subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 24 h, a model + MQA group (which received intragastric MQA for the 7 days prior to MCAO), and a model + positive drug group. MQA appeared to induce effects in cerebral ischemic injury in rats, by downregulating malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase, and nitric oxide synthase levels. Treatment with MQA significantly reduced infarcted sections. In addition, caspase-3 and Iba1 protein expression were evaluated with immunohistochemistry, and cortical cell apoptosis was assessed with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assays. Expression of AKT and Bax, ERK1/2, P38 and Bcl-2, NFkB₁, PARP, and caspase-3 was assessed with Western blotting. We found Bcl-2 and NFkB₁ (p₅₀) expressions were upregulated, whereas the expression of PARP, caspase-3, NFkB₁ (p₁₀₅), ERK1/2, P38, AKT, and Bax was downregulated. In conclusion, we observed MQA was an effective treatment for cerebral ischemic injury in rats.

Effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 on Expressions of Phosphorylation Akt/Phosphorylation mTOR/Phosphorylation PTEN in Artificial Abnormal Hippocampal Microenvironment in Rats

Artificial abnormal microenvironment caused by microperfusion of L-glutamate (Glu) and Ca²⁺ in the hippocampus results in neuron damage, which is closely related to cerebral ischemia. Ginsenoside Rb1, a compound from Panax notoginseng, was previously used to counter the artificial abnormal hippocampal environment in a microperfusion model. In addition, while the Akt/mTOR/PTEN signaling pathway has been shown to mediate neuronprotection in cerebral ischemia, whether this pathway is involved in the neuroprotection of ginsenoside Rb1 is unknown. Here SH-SY5Y cells exposed to OGD/R injury in treated with LY294002, ginsenoside Rb1, ginsenoside Rb1+ LY294002. Expressions of phosphorylation (P-)Akt/P-mTOR/P-PTEN (24 h after OGD/R) were detected by Western blotting. Effects were examined via the memory function of rats (by Morris water maze test), morphological changes in pyramidal cell (by histology), and mRNA expression (by qRT-PCR) and phosphorylation (P-) (by Western blotting and immunohistochemical staining) of Akt, P-mTOR, and P-PTEN in the hippocampus. The memory deficit of rats and pyramidal cellular necrosis and apoptosis in the CA1 region of hippocampus after microperfusion of Glu and Ca²⁺ were dose dependently alleviated by ginsenoside Rb1.Moreover,Western blot showed that ginsenoside Rb1 increased the expressions of P-Akt, P-mTOR and reduced P-PTEN in vivo and vitro. Thus, the potent neuroprotection of ginsenoside Rb1 in artificial abnormal microenvironment is, at least partially, related to the activation of P-AKT/P-mTOR signaling pathway and inhibition of P-PTEN protein.

Panax notoginsenoside saponins Rb1 regulates the expressions of Akt/ mTOR/PTEN signals in the hippocampus after focal cerebral ischemia in rats

Panax notoginsenoside saponins Rb1 (PNS-Rb1) is an important active ingredient of panax notoginseng for effective treatment of cerebrovascular diseases. However, the mechanism underlying its actions in the state of cerebral ischemia is still unclear. We asked whether the potential neuroprotection of PNS-Rb1 on the brain is due to, at least partially, its modulation of AkT/mTOR/PTEN signalling pathway along with down-regulation of caspase-3 in rats subjected to phototrombic stroke. To test this hypothesis, rats with induced photothrombotic stroke were treated with PNS-Rb1 (applied in three different doses, 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg,100 mg/kg, respectively) or saline, while sham operated rats injected with saline were used as the control. Our results indicate that PNS-Rb1 significantly alleviated the morphological lesion concomitant with improvement of cognitive and sensorimotor deficits induced by ischemic stroke. Moreover, immunohistochemistry and Western blot analyses showed that PNS Rb1 in a dose dependent manner increased the expressions of P-Akt, P-mTOR and reduced P-PTEN and caspase-3. The present study suggests that the improvement of cognitive and sensorimotor deficits by PNS-Rb1 is made, at least partially, by the modulation of the Akt/mTOR/PTEN signalling pathway.

Emerging signals modulating potential of ginseng and its active compounds focusing on neurodegenerative diseases

Common features of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) include progressive dysfunctions and neuronal injuries leading to deterioration in normal brain functions. At present, ginseng is one of the most frequently used natural products. Its use has a long history as a cure for various diseases because its extracts and active compounds exhibit several pharmacological properties against several disorders. However, the pathophysiology of NDDs is not fully clear, but researchers have found that various ion channels and specific signaling pathways might have contributed to the disease pathogenesis. Apart from the different pharmacological potentials, ginseng and its active compounds modulate various ion channels and specific molecular signaling pathways related to the nervous system. Here, we discuss the signal modulating potential of ginseng and its active compounds mainly focusing on those relevant to NDDs.

The Chinese herbal formula Fuzheng Quxie Decoction attenuates cognitive impairment and protects cerebrovascular function in SAMP8 mice

PURPOSE

This study was designed to explore the underlying mechanism of action for a Fuzheng Quxie Decoction (FQD) in Alzheimer's disease (AD), to validate its neuroprotective effects, and to provide experimental support for its predicted mechanism of action.

METHODS

An integrative approach to network pharmacology was performed to predict the mechanism of action for treatment of AD with FQD. The predicted mechanism was validated in SAMP8 mice.

RESULTS

With predicted putative FQD targets and a collection of AD-related genes, 245 possible regulatory targets of FQD were identified for the treatment of AD. Pathway-enrichment analysis for the possible regulatory targets indicated that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and VEGF-receptor signaling were pivotal in the treatment of AD with FQD. In vivo experiments confirmed the neuroprotective effect and the predicted mechanism of action for treatment of AD with FQD.

CONCLUSION

This study contributes to an understanding of the neuroprotective effect of FQD and its potential mechanism of action for the treatment of AD.

Botanicals as Modulators of Neuroplasticity: Focus on BDNF

The involvement of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in different central nervous system (CNS) diseases suggests that this neurotrophin may represent an interesting and reliable therapeutic target. Accordingly, the search for new compounds, also from natural sources, able to modulate BDNF has been increasingly explored. The present review considers the literature on the effects of botanicals on BDNF. Botanicals considered were Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell, Coffea arabica L., Crocus sativus L., Eleutherococcus senticosus Maxim., Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (green tea), Ginkgo biloba L., Hypericum perforatum L., Olea europaea L. (olive oil), Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Rhodiola rosea L., Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge, Vitis vinifera L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, and Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton. The effect of the active principles responsible for the efficacy of the extracts is reviewed and discussed as well. The high number of articles published (more than one hundred manuscripts for 14 botanicals) supports the growing interest in the use of natural products as BDNF modulators. The studies reported strengthen the hypothesis that botanicals may be considered useful modulators of BDNF in CNS diseases, without high side effects. Further clinical studies are mandatory to confirm botanicals as preventive agents or as useful adjuvant to the pharmacological treatment.

Involvement of serotonergic, noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems in the antidepressant-like effect of ginsenoside Rb1, a major active ingredient of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

Ginsenoside Rb1, a 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol, is a major active ingredient of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, which as the King of Chinese herbs, has been wildly used for the treatment of central nervous system diseases. Previous studies have shown that 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol possesses a novel antidepressant-like effect in the treatment of depression, whereas ginsenoside Rb1 in depression has been rarely reported.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present study was to investigate the antidepressant-like effect of ginsenoside Rb1 and its relevant mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The whole experiment was divided into two parts: one part we examined the antidepressant-like effect of ginsenoside Rb1 with open-field test (OFT), tail suspension test (TST), forced swim test (FST), 5-HTP induced head-twitch and reserpine response in mice, another part we used chronic unpredicted mild stress (CUMS) model to further explore the antidepressant-like effect of ginsenoside Rb1 with caffeine, fluoxetine and p-Chlorophenylalanine (PCPA) in rats. Furthermore, the levels of monoamine neurotransmitters of NE, 5-HT, DA and their metabolites 5-HIAA, DOPAC, HVA were all measured by ELISA kits after the CUMS protocol.

RESULTS

Our data indicated that 7 days treatment with ginsenoside Rb1 (4, 8, 10mg/kg, p.o.) significantly decreased immobility time in the FST and TST in mice, and played important roles in mice which were induced by 5-HTP (200mg/kg, i.p.) and reserpine (4mg/kg, i.p.). On the basis of CUMS model, 21 days treatment with ginsenoside Rb1 not only had effective interactions with caffeine (5mg/kg, i.p.), fluoxetine (1mg/kg, i.p.) and PCPA (100mg/kg, i.p.), but also significantly up-regulated the 5-HT, 5-HIAA, NE and DA levels in CUMS rats' brain, whereas HVA and DOPAC had no significant difference. Moreover, there was no alteration in spontaneous locomotion in any experimental group.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that ginsenoside Rb1 exhibits significant antidepressant-like effect in behavioral tests, chronic animal model and drug interactions, its mechanisms mainly mediated by central neurotransmitters of serotonergic, noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems.

Ginsenoside Rh2 inhibiting HCT116 colon cancer cell proliferation through blocking PDZ-binding kinase/T-LAK cell-originated protein kinase

BACKGROUND

Ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2) is the main bioactive component in American ginseng, a commonly used herb, and its antitumor activity had been studied in previous studies. PDZ-binding kinase/T-LAK cell-originated protein kinase (PBK/TOPK), a serine/threonine protein kinase, is highly expressed in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells.

METHODS

We examined the effect of GRh2 on HCT116 cells ex vivo. Next, we performed in vitro binding assay and in vitro kinase assay to search for the target of GRh2. Furthermore, we elucidated the underlying molecular mechanisms for the antitumor effect of GRh2 ex vivo and in vivo.

RESULTS

The results of our in vitro studies indicated that GRh2 can directly bind with PBK/TOPK and GRh2 also can directly inhibit PBK/TOPK activity. Ex vivo studies showed that GRh2 significantly induced cell death in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells. Further mechanistic study demonstrated that these compounds inhibited the phosphorylation levels of the extracellular regulated protein kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) and (H3) in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells. In vivo studies showed GRh2 inhibited the growth of xenograft tumors of HCT116 cells and inhibited the phosphorylation levels of the extracellular regulated protein kinases 1/2 and histone H3.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that GRh2 exerts promising antitumor effect that is specific to human HCT116 colorectal cancer cells through inhibiting the activity of PBK/TOPK.

Ginsenoside Rb1 Treatment Attenuates Pulmonary Inflammatory Cytokine Release and Tissue Injury following Intestinal Ischemia Reperfusion Injury in Mice

Objective. Intestinal ischemia reperfusion (II/R) injury plays a critical role in remote organ dysfunction, such as lung injury, which is associated with nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) signaling pathway. In the present study, we tested whether ginsenoside Rb1 attenuated II/R induced lung injury by Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Methods. II/R injury was induced in male C57BL/6J mice by 45 min of superior mesenteric artery (SMA) occlusion followed by 2 hours of reperfusion. Ginsenoside Rb1 was administrated prior to reperfusion with or without ATRA (all-transretinoic acid, the inhibitor of Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway) administration before II/R. Results. II/R induced lung histological injury, which is accompanied with increased levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), interleukin- (IL-) 6, and tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) α but decreased levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and IL-10 in the lung tissues. Ginsenoside Rb1 reduced lung histological injury and the levels of TNF-α and MDA, as well as wet/dry weight ratio. Interestingly, the increased Nrf2 and HO-1 expression induced by II/R in the lung tissues was promoted by ginsenoside Rb1 treatment. All these changes could be inhibited or prevented by ATRA. Conclusion. Ginsenoside Rb1 is capable of ameliorating II/R induced lung injuries by activating Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.

Ginsenoside Rb1 attenuates angiotensin II-induced abdominal aortic aneurysm through inactivation of the JNK and p38 signaling pathways

BACKGROUND

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), a life-threatening vascular disease, accounts for approximately 10% of the morbidity in people over 65 years old. No satisfactory approach is available to treat AAA. Ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 are primary ingredients of Panax notoginseng for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, but their impact on AAA is unknown.

METHODS AND RESULTS

An AAA model was established using an Ang II infusion in ApoE(-/-) mice. After continuous stimulation of Ang II for 28 days, suprarenal aortic aneurysms developed in 77% mice and 12% mice died suddenly due to AAA rupture. Administration of ginsenoside Rb1 (20 mg/kg/day), but not ginsenoside Rg1, significantly reduced the incidence and mortality of AAA. Ginsenoside Rb1 treatment dramatically suppressed Ang II-induced diameter enlargement, extracellular matrix degradation, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) production, inflammatory cell infiltration, and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) dysfunction. Mechanistic studies indicated that the protective effects of ginsenoside Rb1 were associated with the inactivation of JNK and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. A specific activator of JNK and p38, anisomycin, nearly abolished ginsenoside Rb1-driven suppression of MMP secretion by VSMCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Ginsenoside Rb1, as a potential anti-AAA agent, suppressed AAA through inhibiting the JNK and p38 signaling pathways.

Improved Peripheral Nerve Regeneration in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats by Oral Lumbrokinase

We assessed the therapeutic effects of lumbrokinase, a group of enzymes extracted from the earthworm, on peripheral-nerve regeneration using well-defined sciatic nerve lesion paradigms in diabetic rats induced by the injection of streptozotocin (STZ). We found that lumbrokinase therapy could improve the rats' circulatory blood flow and promote the regeneration of axons in a silicone rubber conduit after nerve transection. Lumbrokinase treatment could also improve the neuromuscular functions with better nerve conductive performances. Immunohistochemical staining showed that lumbrokinase could dramatically promote calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) expression in the lamina I–II regions in the dorsal horn ipsilateral to the injury and cause a marked increase in the number of macrophages recruited within the distal nerve stumps. In addition, the lumbrokinase could stimulate the secretion of interleukin-1 (IL-1), nerve growth factor (NGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) in dissected diabetic sciatic nerve segments. In conclusion, the administration of lumbrokinase after nerve repair surgery in diabetic rats was found to have remarkable effects on promoting peripheral nerve regeneration and functional recovery.

Effects of broad-spectrum antibiotics on the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of ginsenoside Rb1: a study on rats׳ gut microflora influenced by lincomycin

Ginsenoside Rb1 is a biologically active compound that is abundant in ginseng (Panax ginseng). It has been reported that ginsenosides could be metabolized by enzymes and bacteria in the large intestine. In this study, the effects of intestinal bacteria on the metabolism and pharmacokinetics of ginsenoside Rb1 were investigated using lincomycin-treated rat models (4.8g/kg and 0.12g/kg). Specifically, ginsenoside Rb1 was incubated anaerobically with rat fecal suspensions obtained from the control and two model groups at 0, 6, 12, 24, and 48h. Ginsenoside Rb1 and its metabolites were determined by HPLC analysis. Compared with the normal rats case where Rd and compound K were detected in the incubation mixture, ginsenoside Rd and F2 were found in the 0.12g/kg group, but only Rd was found in the 4.8g/kg group. Moreover, fecal β-glucosidase activity was significantly lower in lincomycin-treated (0.12g/kg and 4.8g/kg) model rats. After administration of Rb1 to rats, ginsenoside Rb1 and its metabolites Rd, Rg3, and Rh2 were detectable in normal rat urine, whereas none was detected in the two model groups. The plasma concentration-time Rb1 were compared between model groups and normal rats. The systemic exposure as evidenced by the AUC and T1/2 values was significantly higher in model groups than in normal rats. Our findings demonstrated that consumption of lincomycin could lead to the formation of specific metabolites and pharmacokinetic changes of ginsenoside Rb1 in the gut, attributed to alterations in metabolic activities of intestinal bacteria. Our results also suggested that patients who want to use intestinal bacteria-metabolized drugs such as ginseng (Panax ginseng) should pay attention to the profile of intestinal bacteria or potential drug interactions to ensure therapeutic efficacy.

Ginsenoside Rb1 attenuates activated microglia-induced neuronal damage

The microglia-mediated inflammatory reaction promotes neuronal damage under cerebral ischemia/hypoxia conditions. We therefore speculated that inhibition of hypoxia-induced microglial activation may alleviate neuronal damage. To test this hypothesis, we co-cultured ginsenoside Rb1, an active component of ginseng, and cortical neurons. Ginsenoside Rb1 protected neuronal morphology and structure in a single hypoxic culture system and in a hypoxic co-culture system with microglia, and reduced neuronal apoptosis and caspase-3 production. The protective effect was observable prior to placing in co-culture. Additionally, ginsenoside Rb1 inhibited levels of tumor necrosis factor-α in a co-culture system containing activated N9 microglial cells. Ginsenoside Rb1 also significantly decreased nitric oxide and superoxide production induced by N9 microglia. Our findings indicate that ginsenoside Rb1 attenuates damage to cerebral cortex neurons by downregulation of nitric oxide, superoxide, and tumor necrosis factor-α expression in hypoxia-activated microglia.

Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence by Ginsenoside Rh2

Stress urinary incontinence (SUI) is a common disorder in middle-aged women and the elderly. Although surgical treatment of SUI has progressed, there are no effective pharmacological therapies without a side effect. We studied the effect of ginsenoside Rh2 against SUI. Here, we studied the effect of ginsenoside Rh2 on the contractile force of the urethra and blood vessels in an ex vivo organ bath assay. We further investigated the mechanisms and effects of Rh2 in cell culture and animal models. Ginsenoside Rh2 dose-dependently reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in RAW 264.7 cells. In the vaginal distension (VD)-induced SUI mouse model, ginsenoside Rh2 significantly reversed the VD-induced SUI physical signs and reduced blood pressure. The modulation of several SUI-related proteins, including myosin, survival motor neuron (SMN) protein, α-adrenergic receptor 1a (AdR1a), and superoxide dismutase 3 (SOD3), may play some crucial roles in the therapeutic approaches against SUI. In conclusion, the ginsenoside Rh2 may offer therapeutic potential against SUI.

Effects of ginsenoside Rb1 on the stress-induced changes of BDNF and HSP70 expression in rat hippocampus

Ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) has been determined to exert diverse neuromodulatory effects including antistress effects in the brain. The hippocampus is a key brain structure for memory, learning, and cognition and is especially vulnerable to neurotoxic effects associated with stress. The aim of this study was to further explore neuroprotective potential of GRb1 on stress-mediated changes in hippocampal gene expression. Recent studies recognize agents that inducing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and heat shock protein (HSP) 70 as important neuroprotective approaches. Thus, we specifically determined the effects of GRb1 on mRNA expression of BDNF and HSP70, in a model of immobilization stress. In agreement with these reports, acute immobilization stress led to a decrease and an increase in the mRNA levels of the BDNF and HSP70, respectively, in the hippocampus. When pretreated orally, GRb1 significantly inhibited the stress-mediated decline of BDNF level whereas it further increased the stress-mediated elevation of HSP70 level. Our results strongly suggest GRb1 effective in controlling stress-related hippocampal dysfunction. Our finding also contributes further understanding of medicinal usefulness of GRb1 targeting hippocampal network alteration which is commonly observed in aging and neurodegenerative disorders.

Neuroprotective effect of a formula, moschus combined with borneolum synthcticum, from traditional chinese medicine on ischemia stroke in rats

Moschus compatible with borneolum synthcticum is a well-known herb pair in Traditional Chinese Medicine and the present study aims to assess the neuroprotective effect of a formula composed of this herb pair on ischemia stroke in rats. The middle cerebral artery occlusion model of focal cerebral ischemia in rat was performed by using intraluminal suture method. The behavioral scores, infarct volume, and neuron ultrastructure of model and formula-treated rats were investigated after the 2 h of ischemia and 24 h of reperfusion. Meanwhile the expression levels of caspase-3, caspase-9, Bcl-2, and Bax were measured by western blot analysis. The formula treatment showed obvious neuroprotective effect according to significant decrease of the neurological scores (P < 0.01) and the infarct volumes (P < 0.05) when compared to the MCAO group. We also observed that this formula had antiapoptosis activity on neuron cell under electron microscope. Furthermore, our result supported the idea that pro- and postadministration of this formula had an antiapoptosis effect by decreasing remarkably the expression of caspase-3 and caspase-9 (P < 0.05) as well as increasing significantly the ratio of Bcl-2 to Bax (P < 0.01). All evidences demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of this formula on ischemia stroke due to decrease of brain infract volume and modulation of the expression of apoptosis-related proteins.

Biotransformation of ginsenoside Rb1 via the gypenoside pathway by human gut bacteria

Background

Bacterial conversion of ginsenosides is crucial for the health-promoting effects of ginsenosides. Previous studies on the biotransformation of ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) by gut bacteria have focused on the ginsenoside Rd (Rd) pathway (Rb1 → Rd → ginsenoside F2 (F2) → compound K (Cpd K)). This study aims to examine the gypenoside pathway in human gut bacteria in vitro.

Methods

The metabolic pathways of ginsenoside Rb1 and its metabolites ginsenoside Rd and gypenoside XVII in human gut bacteria were investigated by incubating the compounds anaerobically with pooled or individual gut bacteria samples from healthy volunteers. Ginsenoside Rb1, the metabolites generated by human gut bacteria, and degraded products in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) were qualitatively analyzed using an LC/MSD Trap system in the negative ion mode and quantitatively determined by HPLC-UV analysis.

Results

When incubated anaerobically with pooled gut bacteria, Rb1 generated five metabolites, namely Rd, F2, Cpd K, and the rare gypenosides XVII (G-XVII) and LXXV (G-LXXV). The gypenoside pathway (Rb1 → G-XVII → G-LXXV → Cpd K) was rapid, intermediate, and minor, and finally converted Rb1 to Cpd K via G-XVII → F2 (major)/G-LXXV (minor). Both the Rd and gypenoside pathways exhibited great inter-individual variations in age-and sex-independent manners (P > 0.05). Rb1 was highly acid-labile and degraded rapidly to form F2, ginsenoside Rg3, ginsenoside Rh2, and Cpd K, but did not generate the gypenosides in SGF. The formation of the gypenosides might be explained by the involvement of a gut bacteria-mediated enzymatic process.

Conclusions

Rb1 was metabolized to G-XVII, F2 (major) or G-LXXL (minor), and finally Cpd K by human gut bacteria in vitro.