Changes in brainstem and cortical auditory potentials during Qi-Gong meditation

Evolution from four mental states to the highest state of consciousness: A neurophysiological basis of meditation as defined in yoga texts

This chapter provides a theoretical introduction to states of consciousness and reviews neuroscientific investigations of meditation. The different states of consciousness consist of four mental states, i.e., cancalata (random thinking), ekagrata (non-meditative focusing), dharna (focused meditation), and dhyana (meditation) as defined in yoga texts. Meditation is a self-regulated mental process associated with deep relaxation and increased internalized attention. Scientific investigations on meditation reported changes in electrophysiological signals and neuroimaging measures. But most outcomes of meditation studies showed inconsistent results, this may be due to heterogeneity in meditation methods and techniques evolved in the last 200 years. Traditionally, the features of meditation include the capacity to sustain a heightened awareness of thoughts, behaviors, emotions, and perceptions. Generally, meditation involves non-reactive effortless monitoring of the content of experience from moment to moment. Focused meditation practice involves awareness on a single object and open monitoring meditation is a non-directive meditation involved attention in breathing, mantra, or sound. Therefore, results of few empirical studies of advanced meditators or beginners remain tentative. This is an attempt to compile the meditation-related changes in electrophysiological and neuroimaging processes among experienced and novice practitioners.

No meditation-related changes in the auditory N1 during first-time meditation

Recent studies link meditation expertise with enhanced low-level attention, measured through auditory event-related potentials (ERPs). In this study, we tested the reliability and validity of a recent finding that the N1 ERP in first-time meditators is smaller during meditation than non-meditation - an effect not present in long-term meditators. In the first experiment, we replicated the finding in first-time meditators. In two subsequent experiments, we discovered that this finding was not due to stimulus-related instructions, but was explained by an effect of the order of conditions. Extended exposure to the same tones has been linked with N1 decrement in other studies, and may explain N1 decrement across our two conditions. We give examples of existing meditation and ERP studies that may include similar condition order effects. The role of condition order among first-time meditators in this study indicates the importance of counterbalancing meditation and non-mediation conditions in meditation studies that use event-related potentials.

Neurophysiological Effects of Meditation Based on Evoked and Event Related Potential Recordings

Evoked potentials (EPs) are a relatively noninvasive method to assess the integrity of sensory pathways. As the neural generators for most of the components are relatively well worked out, EPs have been used to understand the changes occurring during meditation. Event-related potentials (ERPs) yield useful information about the response to tasks, usually assessing attention. A brief review of the literature yielded eleven studies on EPs and seventeen on ERPs from 1978 to 2014. The EP studies covered short, mid, and long latency EPs, using both auditory and visual modalities. ERP studies reported the effects of meditation on tasks such as the auditory oddball paradigm, the attentional blink task, mismatched negativity, and affective picture viewing among others. Both EP and ERPs were recorded in several meditations detailed in the review. Maximum changes occurred in mid latency (auditory) EPs suggesting that maximum changes occur in the corresponding neural generators in the thalamus, thalamic radiations, and primary auditory cortical areas. ERP studies showed meditation can increase attention and enhance efficiency of brain resource allocation with greater emotional control.

Meditation research, past, present, and future: perspectives from the Nalanda contemplative science tradition

This article offers an overview of meditation research: its history, recent developments, and future directions. As the number and scope of studies grow, the field has converged with cognitive and affective neuroscience, and spawned many clinical applications. Recent work has shed light on the mechanisms and effects of diverse practices, and is entering a new phase where consensus and coherent paradigms are within reach. This article suggests an unusual path for future advancement: complementing conventional research with rigorous dialogue with the contemplative traditions that train expert meditators and best know the techniques. It explores the Nalanda tradition developed in India and preserved in Tibet, because its cumulative approach to contemplative methods produced a comprehensive framework that may help interpret data and guide research, and because its naturalistic theories and empirical methods may help bridge the gulf between science and other contemplative traditions. Examining recent findings and models in light of this framework, the article introduces the Indic map of the central nervous system and presents three testable predictions based on it. Finally, it reviews two studies that suggest that the multimodal Nalanda approach to contemplative learning is as well received as more familiar approaches, while showing promise of being more effective.

Optimizing learning and quality of life throughout the lifespan: a global framework for research and application

This overview surveys the new optimism about the aging mind/brain, focusing on the potential for self-regulation practices to advance research in stress-protection and optimal health. It reviews recent findings and offers a research framework. The review links the age-related biology of stress and regeneration to the variability of mind/brain function found under a range of conditions from trauma to enrichment. The framework maps this variation along a biphasic continuum from atrophic dysfunction to peak performance. It adopts the concept of allostatic load as a measure of the wear-and-tear caused by stress, and environmental enrichment as a measure of the use-dependent enhancement caused by positive reinforcement. It frames the dissociation, aversive affect and stereotyped reactions linked with stress as cognitive, affective and behavioral forms of allostatic drag; and the association, positive affect, and creative responses in enrichment as forms of allostatic lift. It views the human mind/brain as a heterarchy of higher intelligence systems that shift between a conservative, egocentric mode heightening self-preservation and memory and a generative, altruistic mode heightening self-correction and learning. Cultural practices like meditation and psychotherapy work by teaching the self-regulation of shifts from the conservative to the generative mode. This involves a systems shift from allostatic drag to allostatic lift, minimizing wear-and-tear and optimizing plasticity and learning. For cultural practices to speed research and application, a universal typology is needed. This framework includes a typology aligning current brain models of stress and learning with traditional Indo-Tibetan models of meditative stress-cessation and learning enrichment.

Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies

Neuroelectric and imaging studies of meditation are reviewed. Electroencephalographic measures indicate an overall slowing subsequent to meditation, with theta and alpha activation related to proficiency of practice. Sensory evoked potential assessment of concentrative meditation yields amplitude and latency changes for some components and practices. Cognitive event-related potential evaluation of meditation implies that practice changes attentional allocation. Neuroimaging studies indicate increased regional cerebral blood flow measures during meditation. Taken together, meditation appears to reflect changes in anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal areas. Neurophysiological meditative state and trait effects are variable but are beginning to demonstrate consistent outcomes for research and clinical applications. Psychological and clinical effects of meditation are summarized, integrated, and discussed with respect to neuroimaging data.

AN EXAMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN QIGONG MEDITATION AND PERSONALITY

Qigong meditation is an ancient form of meditation that has been linked with various health benefits. We were interested in whether or not this form of meditation has a relationship with personality. To this end, we administered the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) to eighty Qigong meditation practitioners and seventy-four non-practitioners. The results showed that the number of years of Qigong practice was negatively correlated with neuroticism, but there was no relationship with extraversion. Even after controlling for age, gender, and education level, the practitioners were significantly less neurotic than the nonpractitioners. The study of Qigong meditation and personality may lead to a greater understanding of the various disorders characterized by high neuroticism, and may provide a viable treatment option for long-term health.

The science of meditation and the state of hypnosis

Two aspects of Buddhist meditation--concentration and mindfulness--are discussed in relationship to hypnosis. Mindfulness training facilitates the investigation of subjective responses to hypnosis. Concentration practice leads to altered states similar to those in hypnosis, both phenomenologically and neurologically. The similarities and differences between hypnosis and meditation are used to shed light on perennial questions: (1) Does hypnosis involve an altered state of consciousness? (2) Does a hypnotic induction increase suggestibility? I conclude that a model for hypnosis should include altered states as well as capacity for imaginative involvement and expectations.

Effects of Qi-therapy on blood pressure, pain and psychological symptoms in the elderly: a randomized controlled pilot trial

Recently, we reported that Qi-therapy may be beneficial in reducing negative psychological symptoms and increasing melatonin levels, neutrophil function and natural killer cell cytotoxicity in young subjects. However, there is little scientific evidence of its efficacy in elderly subjects. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the effects of Qi-therapy on anxiety, depression, fatigue, pain and blood pressure in elderly subjects. Ninety-four elderly subjects were randomly assigned to either Qi-therapy (n=47) or mimic therapy (n=47) groups. Both groups received a 10-min intervention period once using similar procedures. The Qi-therapy group exhibited greater reduction in anxiety, depression, fatigue, pain level and blood pressure compared to the placebo group; the difference in anxiety was significant (P=0.014). These results suggest that even a brief application of Qi-therapy may exert a positive psychological and physiological effect. However, further research is necessary in order to fully understand the long-term impact of Qi-therapy on psychological health and the cardiovascular system.

Evidence of Qi-gong energy and its biological effect on the enhancement of the phagocytic activity of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes

In order to test for an effect of phosphate buffered saline (PBS) treated externally with Qi energy ("Qi-treated" PBS) on the phagocytic activity of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs), rigorously controlled experiments employing masking and randomized procedures were carried out under independent monitoring. In all experiments, Qi treatment was externally applied under monitoring to newly purchased unopened 100 ml bottles of PBS, and the PMN phagocytic activity was assayed by one experimenter in masked, randomized and monitored conditions using a highly sensitive chemiluminescence method. Phagocytic activity data were obtained in triplicate for each sample and then statistically analyzed. The PBS samples Qi-treated by the Qi-gong master and by one of the Qi-gong trainees showed clear stimulation of PMN phagocytic activity which was significant statistically, and this phenomenon was highly reproducible. Out of 10 experiments by the Qi-gong master, only twice did Qi-treatment fail to influence the PBS. The activity of Qi-treated PBS decayed over days or weeks. Furthermore, it was found that Qi-treated PBS had decreased phagocytic stimulatory activity after microwave treatment, but not after autoclave treatment. We also demonstrated that microwave irradiation and infrared laser pulse irradiation have similar effects on PBS as Qi-treatment. The results obtained in this experiment provide evidence of the existence of Qi energy, its ability to influence an electrolyte solution and its biological effect. Furthermore, microwave or infrared laser pulse treatment was found to partly mimic the Qi-treatment of PBS.

Effects of QiGong on brain function

QiGong is an ancient and widely practiced Chinese meditation exercise. We studied the effects of QiGong on brain function with modern neuromonitoring tools in two subjects. In a male QiGong master (extremely trained practitioner), the technique induced reproducible changes in transcranial Doppler sonography, EEG, stimulus-induced 40 Hz oscillations, and near-infrared spectroscopy findings. Similar effects were seen after the application of multimodal stimuli and when the master concentrated on intense imagined stimuli (e.g. 22.2% increase in mean blood flow velocity (vm) in the posterior cerebral artery, and a simultaneous 23.1% decrease of vm in the middle cerebral artery). Similar effects were seen in the female subject. Neuromonitoring during QiGong appears able to objectify accompanied cerebral modulations surrounding this old Chinese meditation exercise.

Modulation of neuroendocrinological function by psychosomatic training: acute effect of ChunDoSunBup Qi-training on growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, and insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP)-3 in men

The neuroendocrine system is regarded as the major link between the psychological state and the immune system in man. The present study was undertaken to examine the acute effect of ChunDoSunBup Qi-training, a traditional psychosomatic training, on the plasma level of growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and insulin like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP)-3 in young men. To characterize the plasma level of hormones and the pattern of IGFBP-3 at pre- (-10 min), mid-time (40 min), and immediately after (post-time, +10 min) Qi-training, radioimmunoassay (RIA) and western ligand blot (WLB) analysis were used. The plasma level of GH at the mid-time was significantly increased (P<0.05) compared to the level at pre-time of Qi-training. The plasma level of IGF-I was also increased at mid-time (P<0.05) and immediately after Qi-training. There was a significant correlation between the levels of GH and IGF-I immediately after Qi-training (r=0.69, P<0.01). In this study, the change of IGFBP-3 among the several IGFBPs was determined. There was a relative shift in IGFBP-3 for the 43-kDa fraction during mid-time of Qi-training (P<0.05). These results suggest that Qi-training influences the growth hormone, IGF-I and IGFBP-3 status via brain-target organ axis in men.

Effect of Qi-training on blood pressure, heart rate and respiration rate

To examine the physiological effects of Korean traditional Qi-training, we investigated the changes in blood pressure, heart and respiratory rates before, during and after ChunDoSunBup (CDSB) Qi-training. Twelve normal healthy CDSB Qi-trainees (19-37 years old; trained for 1.3 +/- 0.2 years; 9 men and 3 women) volunteered to participate in this study. Heart rate, respiratory rate, systolic blood pressure and rate-pressure product were significantly decreased during Qi-training. From these results, we suggest that CDSB Qi-training has physiological effects that indicate stabilization of cardiovascular system.

Acute effects of chundosunbup qi-training on blood concentrations of TSH, calcitonin, PTH and thyroid hormones in elderly subjects

The present study investigated how the systemic treatment of a programmed exercise, ChunDoSunBup (CDSB) Qi-training, affects the secretion of thyroid and parathyroid hormones in elderly subjects (10 male and 5 female). Plasma concentrations of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), parathyroid hormone (PTH), ionized calcium, and calcitonin were determined. CDSB Qi-training induces a slight increase in TSH. Both T4 and T3 were increased at the mid-time of CDSB Qi-training (p < 0.05). There were significant correlations only between T3 and T4 at mid-training. This shows that increase in the plasma level of T3 was associated with the secretion of T4. The plasma concentrations of calcitonin and PTH were increased at mid-time and post-time of CDSB Qi-training. But ionized calcium was decreased slightly by CDSB Qi-training. These results suggest that Qi-training modulates the secretion of thyroid hormones, calcium metabolism, and parathyroid hormones in the elderly. However, whether the long-term practice of CDSB Qi-training might change bone metabolism and have longitudinal effects on the thyroid hormone of the elderly need further investigation.