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Yaniv D, Mattson B, Talbot S, Gleber-Netto FO, Amit M. Targeting the peripheral neural-tumour microenvironment for cancer therapy. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2024; 23:780-796. [PMID: 39242781 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-024-01017-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 09/09/2024]
Abstract
As the field of cancer neuroscience expands, the strategic targeting of interactions between neurons, cancer cells and other elements in the tumour microenvironment represents a potential paradigm shift in cancer treatment, comparable to the advent of our current understanding of tumour immunology. Cancer cells actively release growth factors that stimulate tumour neo-neurogenesis, and accumulating evidence indicates that tumour neo-innervation propels tumour progression, inhibits tumour-related pro-inflammatory cytokines, promotes neovascularization, facilitates metastasis and regulates immune exhaustion and evasion. In this Review, we give an up-to-date overview of the dynamics of the tumour microenvironment with an emphasis on tumour innervation by the peripheral nervous system, as well as current preclinical and clinical evidence of the benefits of targeting the nervous system in cancer, laying a scientific foundation for further clinical trials. Combining empirical data with a biomarker-driven approach to identify and hone neuronal targets implicated in cancer and its spread can pave the way for swift clinical integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Yaniv
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Brandi Mattson
- The Neurodegeneration Consortium, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sebastien Talbot
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
- Department of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Frederico O Gleber-Netto
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Moran Amit
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
- UTHealth Houston Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
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2
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Strauss A, Gonzalez-Hernandez AJ, Lee J, Abreu N, Selvakumar P, Salas-Estrada L, Kristt M, Arefin A, Huynh K, Marx DC, Gilliland K, Melancon BJ, Filizola M, Meyerson J, Levitz J. Structural basis of positive allosteric modulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor activation and internalization. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6498. [PMID: 39090128 PMCID: PMC11294631 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50548-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are neuromodulatory family C G protein coupled receptors which assemble as dimers and allosterically couple extracellular ligand binding domains (LBDs) to transmembrane domains (TMDs) to drive intracellular signaling. Pharmacologically, mGluRs can be targeted at the LBDs by glutamate and synthetic orthosteric compounds or at the TMDs by allosteric modulators. Despite the potential of allosteric compounds as therapeutics, an understanding of the functional and structural basis of their effects is limited. Here we use multiple approaches to dissect the functional and structural effects of orthosteric versus allosteric ligands. We find, using electrophysiological and live cell imaging assays, that both agonists and positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) can drive activation and internalization of group II and III mGluRs. The effects of PAMs are pleiotropic, boosting the maximal response to orthosteric agonists and serving independently as internalization-biased agonists across mGluR subtypes. Motivated by this and intersubunit FRET analyses, we determine cryo-electron microscopy structures of mGluR3 in the presence of either an agonist or antagonist alone or in combination with a PAM. These structures reveal PAM-driven re-shaping of intra- and inter-subunit conformations and provide evidence for a rolling TMD dimer interface activation pathway that controls G protein and beta-arrestin coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexa Strauss
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- Tri-Institutional Program in Chemical Biology, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | | | - Joon Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Nohely Abreu
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Purushotham Selvakumar
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Leslie Salas-Estrada
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Melanie Kristt
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Anisul Arefin
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Kevin Huynh
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Dagan C Marx
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Kristen Gilliland
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery at Vanderbilt University, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Bruce J Melancon
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery at Vanderbilt University, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Marta Filizola
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Joel Meyerson
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Joshua Levitz
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
- Tri-Institutional Program in Chemical Biology, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
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3
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Strauss A, Gonzalez-Hernandez AJ, Lee J, Abreu N, Selvakumar P, Salas-Estrada L, Kristt M, Marx DC, Gilliland K, Melancon BJ, Filizola M, Meyerson J, Levitz J. Structural basis of allosteric modulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor activation and desensitization. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.13.552748. [PMID: 37645747 PMCID: PMC10461995 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.13.552748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are neuromodulatory family C G protein coupled receptors which assemble as dimers and allosterically couple extracellular ligand binding domains (LBDs) to transmembrane domains (TMDs) to drive intracellular signaling. Pharmacologically, mGluRs can be targeted either at the LBDs by glutamate and synthetic orthosteric compounds or at the TMDs by allosteric modulators. Despite the potential of allosteric TMD-targeting compounds as therapeutics, an understanding of the functional and structural basis of their effects on mGluRs is limited. Here we use a battery of approaches to dissect the distinct functional and structural effects of orthosteric versus allosteric ligands. We find using electrophysiological and live cell imaging assays that both agonists and positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) can drive activation and desensitization of mGluRs. The effects of PAMs are pleiotropic, including both the ability to boost the maximal response to orthosteric agonists and to serve independently as desensitization-biased agonists across mGluR subtypes. Conformational sensors reveal PAM-driven inter-subunit re-arrangements at both the LBD and TMD. Motivated by this, we determine cryo-electron microscopy structures of mGluR3 in the presence of either an agonist or antagonist alone or in combination with a PAM. These structures reveal PAM-driven re-shaping of intra- and inter-subunit conformations and provide evidence for a rolling TMD dimer interface activation pathway that controls G protein and beta-arrestin coupling. Highlights -Agonists and PAMs drive mGluR activation, desensitization, and endocytosis-PAMs are desensitization-biased and synergistic with agonists-Four combinatorial ligand conditions reveal an ensemble of full-length mGluR structures with novel interfaces-Activation and desensitization involve rolling TMD interfaces which are re-shaped by PAM.
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4
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de Grip WJ, Ganapathy S. Rhodopsins: An Excitingly Versatile Protein Species for Research, Development and Creative Engineering. Front Chem 2022; 10:879609. [PMID: 35815212 PMCID: PMC9257189 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.879609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The first member and eponym of the rhodopsin family was identified in the 1930s as the visual pigment of the rod photoreceptor cell in the animal retina. It was found to be a membrane protein, owing its photosensitivity to the presence of a covalently bound chromophoric group. This group, derived from vitamin A, was appropriately dubbed retinal. In the 1970s a microbial counterpart of this species was discovered in an archaeon, being a membrane protein also harbouring retinal as a chromophore, and named bacteriorhodopsin. Since their discovery a photogenic panorama unfolded, where up to date new members and subspecies with a variety of light-driven functionality have been added to this family. The animal branch, meanwhile categorized as type-2 rhodopsins, turned out to form a large subclass in the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors and are essential to multiple elements of light-dependent animal sensory physiology. The microbial branch, the type-1 rhodopsins, largely function as light-driven ion pumps or channels, but also contain sensory-active and enzyme-sustaining subspecies. In this review we will follow the development of this exciting membrane protein panorama in a representative number of highlights and will present a prospect of their extraordinary future potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willem J. de Grip
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Department of Biophysical Organic Chemistry, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
- Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Srividya Ganapathy
- Department of Imaging Physics, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
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5
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Cholesterol-dependent endocytosis of GPCRs: implications in pathophysiology and therapeutics. Biophys Rev 2021; 13:1007-1017. [DOI: 10.1007/s12551-021-00878-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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Lesiak L, Zhou X, Fang Y, Zhao J, Beck JR, Stains CI. Imaging GPCR internalization using near-infrared Nebraska red-based reagents. Org Biomol Chem 2020; 18:2459-2467. [PMID: 32167123 DOI: 10.1039/d0ob00043d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Internalization of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCRs) represents a nearly universal pathway for receptor downregulation. Imaging this process provides a means for the identification of pharmaceutical agents as well as potential ligands for orphan receptors. However, there is a need for the further development of near-infrared (NIR) probes capable of monitoring internalization in order to enable multiplexing with existing green fluorescent GPCR activity assays. Our laboratory has recently described a series of near-infrared (NIR) fluorophores in which a phosphinate functionality is inserted at the bridging position of the xanthene scaffold. These fluorophores, termed Nebraska Red (NR) dyes, provide attractive reagents for imaging protein localization. Herein, we disclose the development of NR-based HaloTag ligands for imaging membrane proteins on living cells. These new probes are utilized to image membrane pools of the human orexin type 2 receptor, an established target for the treatment of insomnia. We demonstrate the ability of fetal bovine serum (FBS) to noncovalently associate with a spirolactonized NR probe, enabling no-wash imaging with a 45-fold enhancement of fluorescence. Furthermore, we characterize the utility of NR-based HaloTag ligands for real-time monitoring of receptor internalization upon agonist stimulation. These new reagents enable potential multiplexing with existing GPCR activity assays in order to identify new modulators of GPCR activity as well as ligands for orphan receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Lesiak
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
| | - Xinqi Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
| | - Yuan Fang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA. and Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Jia Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
| | - Jon R Beck
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
| | - Cliff I Stains
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA. and Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA and Nebraska Center for Integrated Biomolecular Communication, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA and Cancer Genes and Molecular Regulation Program, Fred & Pamela Buffet Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198, USA
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7
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Kumar GA, Chattopadhyay A. Statin-Induced Chronic Cholesterol Depletion Switches GPCR Endocytosis and Trafficking: Insights from the Serotonin 1A Receptor. ACS Chem Neurosci 2020; 11:453-465. [PMID: 31880914 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Endocytosis is a key regulatory mechanism adopted by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to modulate downstream signaling responses within a stringent spatiotemporal regime. Although the role of membrane lipids has been extensively studied in the context of the function, organization, and dynamics of GPCRs, their role in receptor endocytosis remains largely unexplored. Cholesterol, the predominant sterol in higher eukaryotes, plays a crucial role in maintaining the structure and organization of cell membranes and is involved in essential cellular processes in health and disease. The serotonin1A receptor is a representative GPCR involved in neuronal development and in neuropsychiatric disorders such as anxiety and depression. We recently combined quantitative flow cytometric and confocal microscopic approaches to demonstrate that the serotonin1A receptor undergoes clathrin-mediated endocytosis upon agonist stimulation and subsequently traffics along the endosomal recycling pathway. In this work, we show that statin-induced chronic cholesterol depletion switches the endocytic pathway of the serotonin1A receptor from clathrin- to caveolin-mediated endocytosis. Interestingly, under these conditions, a significant proportion of endocytosed receptors is rerouted toward lysosomal degradation. To the best of our knowledge, these results constitute one of the first comprehensive reports on the role of membrane cholesterol in GPCR endocytosis and trafficking. These results are significant in our overall understanding of the modulatory effects of membrane lipids on GPCR endocytosis and trafficking and could provide novel insight in developing therapeutic interventions against neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. Aditya Kumar
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India
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8
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Chu F, Hogan D, Gupta R, Gao XZ, Nguyen HT, Cote RH. Allosteric Regulation of Rod Photoreceptor Phosphodiesterase 6 (PDE6) Elucidated by Chemical Cross-Linking and Quantitative Mass Spectrometry. J Mol Biol 2019; 431:3677-3689. [PMID: 31394113 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 06/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Photoreceptor phosphodiesterase (PDE6) is the central effector enzyme in the visual excitation pathway in rod and cone photoreceptors. Its tight regulation is essential for the speed, sensitivity, recovery, and adaptation of visual signaling. The rod PDE6 holoenzyme (Pαβγ2) is composed of a catalytic heterodimer (Pαβ) that binds two inhibitory γ subunits. Each of the two catalytic subunits (Pα and Pβ) contains a catalytic domain responsible for cGMP hydrolysis and two tandem GAF domains, one of which binds cGMP noncatalytically. Unlike related GAF-containing PDEs where cGMP binding allosterically activates catalysis, the physiological significance of cGMP binding to the GAF domains of PDE6 is unknown. To elucidate the structural determinants of PDE6 allosteric regulators, we biochemically characterized PDE6 complexes in various allosteric states (Pαβ, Pαβ-cGMP, Pαβγ2, and Pαβγ2-cGMP) with a quantitative cross-linking/mass spectrometry approach. We employed a normalization strategy to dissect the cross-linking reactivity of individual residues in order to assess the spatial cross-linking propensity of detected pairs. In addition to identifying cross-linked pairs that undergo conformational changes upon ligand binding, we observed an asymmetric binding of the inhibitory γ-subunit and the noncatalytic cGMP to the GAFa domains of rod PDE6, as well as a stable open conformation of Pαβ catalytic dimer in different allosteric states. These results advance our understanding of the exquisite regulatory control of the lifetime of rod PDE6 activation/deactivation during visual signaling, as well as providing a structural basis for interpreting how mutations in rod PDE6 subunits can lead to retinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feixia Chu
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA; Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA.
| | - Donna Hogan
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Richa Gupta
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Xiong-Zhuo Gao
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Hieu T Nguyen
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Rick H Cote
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA; Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
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9
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Berry M, Ahmed Z, Logan A. Return of function after CNS axon regeneration: Lessons from injury-responsive intrinsically photosensitive and alpha retinal ganglion cells. Prog Retin Eye Res 2019; 71:57-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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10
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Nguyen MTT, Vemaraju S, Nayak G, Odaka Y, Buhr ED, Alonzo N, Tran U, Batie M, Upton BA, Darvas M, Kozmik Z, Rao S, Hegde RS, Iuvone PM, Van Gelder RN, Lang RA. An opsin 5-dopamine pathway mediates light-dependent vascular development in the eye. Nat Cell Biol 2019; 21:420-429. [PMID: 30936473 PMCID: PMC6573021 DOI: 10.1038/s41556-019-0301-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
During mouse postnatal eye development, the embryonic hyaloid vascular network regresses from the vitreous as an adaption for high-acuity vision. This process occurs with precisely controlled timing. Here, we show that opsin 5 (OPN5; also known as neuropsin)-dependent retinal light responses regulate vascular development in the postnatal eye. In Opn5-null mice, hyaloid vessels regress precociously. We demonstrate that 380-nm light stimulation via OPN5 and VGAT (the vesicular GABA/glycine transporter) in retinal ganglion cells enhances the activity of inner retinal DAT (also known as SLC6A3; a dopamine reuptake transporter) and thus suppresses vitreal dopamine. In turn, dopamine acts directly on hyaloid vascular endothelial cells to suppress the activity of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) and promote hyaloid vessel regression. With OPN5 loss of function, the vitreous dopamine level is elevated and results in premature hyaloid regression. These investigations identify violet light as a developmental timing cue that, via an OPN5-dopamine pathway, regulates optic axis clearance in preparation for visual function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minh-Thanh T Nguyen
- The Visual Systems Group, Abrahamson Pediatric Eye Institute, Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Center for Chronobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Shruti Vemaraju
- The Visual Systems Group, Abrahamson Pediatric Eye Institute, Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Center for Chronobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Gowri Nayak
- The Visual Systems Group, Abrahamson Pediatric Eye Institute, Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Center for Chronobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Yoshinobu Odaka
- The Visual Systems Group, Abrahamson Pediatric Eye Institute, Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Center for Chronobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Ethan D Buhr
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington Medical School, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Nuria Alonzo
- The Visual Systems Group, Abrahamson Pediatric Eye Institute, Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Uyen Tran
- The Visual Systems Group, Abrahamson Pediatric Eye Institute, Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Matthew Batie
- Clinical Engineering, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Brian A Upton
- The Visual Systems Group, Abrahamson Pediatric Eye Institute, Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
- Center for Chronobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Martin Darvas
- Pathology, University of Washington Medical School, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Zbynek Kozmik
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Sujata Rao
- Ophthalmic Research, Cole Eye Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Rashmi S Hegde
- Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - P Michael Iuvone
- Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Russell N Van Gelder
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington Medical School, Seattle, WA, USA
- Pathology, University of Washington Medical School, Seattle, WA, USA
- Biological Structure, University of Washington Medical School, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Richard A Lang
- The Visual Systems Group, Abrahamson Pediatric Eye Institute, Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
- Center for Chronobiology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
- Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cincinnati, College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
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11
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Kumar GA, Sarkar P, Jafurulla M, Singh SP, Srinivas G, Pande G, Chattopadhyay A. Exploring Endocytosis and Intracellular Trafficking of the Human Serotonin1A Receptor. Biochemistry 2019; 58:2628-2641. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.9b00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G. Aditya Kumar
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India
| | - Parijat Sarkar
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India
| | - Md. Jafurulla
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India
| | - Shishu Pal Singh
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, UAS-GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bangalore 560 065, India
| | - Gunda Srinivas
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India
| | - Gopal Pande
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Uppal Road, Hyderabad 500 007, India
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12
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Sarkar P, Chattopadhyay A. Exploring membrane organization at varying spatiotemporal resolutions utilizing fluorescence-based approaches: implications in membrane biology. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2019; 21:11554-11563. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cp02087j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Representative experimental approaches based on dynamic fluorescence microscopy to analyze organization and dynamics of membrane lipids and proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parijat Sarkar
- CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
- Hyderabad 500 007
- India
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13
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Stenkamp RE. Identifying G protein-coupled receptor dimers from crystal packings. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION D-STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2018; 74:655-670. [PMID: 29968675 DOI: 10.1107/s2059798318008136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Dimers of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are believed to be important for signaling with their associated G proteins. Low-resolution electron microscopy has shown rhodopsin dimers in native retinal membranes, and CXCR4 dimers have been found in several different crystal structures. Evidence for dimers of other GPCRs is more indirect. An alternative to computational modeling studies is to search for parallel dimers in the packing environments of the reported crystal structures of GPCRs. Two major structural types of GPCR dimers exist (as predicted by others), but there is considerable structural variation within each cluster. The different structural variants described here might reflect different functional properties and should provide a range of model structures for computational and experimental examination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald E Stenkamp
- Departments of Biological Structure and Biochemistry, Biomolecular Structure Center, University of Washington, Box 357420, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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14
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15
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Lobysheva E, Taylor CM, Marshall GR, Kisselev OG. Tauroursodeoxycholic acid binds to the G-protein site on light activated rhodopsin. Exp Eye Res 2018; 170:51-57. [PMID: 29454859 PMCID: PMC5983371 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2018.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2017] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The heterotrimeric G-protein binding site on G-protein coupled receptors remains relatively unexplored regarding its potential as a new target of therapeutic intervention or as a secondary site of action by the existing drugs. Tauroursodeoxycholic acid bears structural resemblance to several compounds that were previously identified to specifically bind to the light-activated form of the visual receptor rhodopsin and to inhibit its activation of transducin. We show that TUDCA stabilizes the active form of rhodopsin, metarhodopsin II, and does not display the detergent-like effects of common amphiphilic compounds that share the cholesterol scaffold structure, such as deoxycholic acid. Computer docking of TUDCA to the model of light-activated rhodopsin revealed that it interacts using similar mode of binding to the C-terminal domain of transducin alpha subunit. The ring regions of TUDCA made hydrophobic contacts with loop 3 region of rhodopsin, while the tail of TUDCA is exposed to solvent. The results show that TUDCA interacts specifically with rhodopsin, which may contribute to its wide-ranging effects on retina physiology and as a potential therapeutic compound for retina degenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Lobysheva
- Department of Ophthalmology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63104, USA
| | - C M Taylor
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - G R Marshall
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - O G Kisselev
- Department of Ophthalmology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63104, USA.
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16
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Izquierdo C, Gómez-Tamayo JC, Nebel JC, Pardo L, Gonzalez A. Identifying human diamine sensors for death related putrescine and cadaverine molecules. PLoS Comput Biol 2018; 14:e1005945. [PMID: 29324768 PMCID: PMC5783396 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pungent chemical compounds originating from decaying tissue are strong drivers of animal behavior. Two of the best-characterized death smell components are putrescine (PUT) and cadaverine (CAD), foul-smelling molecules produced by decarboxylation of amino acids during decomposition. These volatile polyamines act as ‘necromones’, triggering avoidance or attractive responses, which are fundamental for the survival of a wide range of species. The few studies that have attempted to identify the cognate receptors for these molecules have suggested the involvement of the seven-helix trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs), localized in the olfactory epithelium. However, very little is known about the precise chemosensory receptors that sense these compounds in the majority of organisms and the molecular basis of their interactions. In this work, we have used computational strategies to characterize the binding between PUT and CAD with the TAAR6 and TAAR8 human receptors. Sequence analysis, homology modeling, docking and molecular dynamics studies suggest a tandem of negatively charged aspartates in the binding pocket of these receptors which are likely to be involved in the recognition of these small biogenic diamines. The distinctive dead smell comes largely from molecules like cadaverine and putrescine that are produced during decomposition of organic tissues. These volatile compounds act as powerful chemical signals important for the survival of a wide range of species. Previous studies have identified the trace amine-associated receptor 13c (or TAAR13c) in zebrafish as the cognate receptor of cadaverine in bony fishes. In this work, we employed computational strategies to disclose the human TAAR6 and TAAR8 receptors as sensors of the putrescine and cadaverine molecules. Our results indicate that several negatively charged residues in the ligand binding pocket of these receptors constitute the molecular basis for recognition of these necromones in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Izquierdo
- Laboratori de Medicina Computacional, Unitat de Bioestadística, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, E-08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - José C. Gómez-Tamayo
- Laboratori de Medicina Computacional, Unitat de Bioestadística, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, E-08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Jean-Christophe Nebel
- Faculty of Science, Engineering and Computing, Kingston University, London, United Kingdom
| | - Leonardo Pardo
- Laboratori de Medicina Computacional, Unitat de Bioestadística, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, E-08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Angel Gonzalez
- Laboratori de Medicina Computacional, Unitat de Bioestadística, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, E-08193 Bellaterra, Spain
- * E-mail:
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17
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Liu Y, Sun J. G protein-coupled receptors mediate neural regulation of innate immune responses in caenorhabditis elegans. RECEPTORS & CLINICAL INVESTIGATION 2017; 4:e1543. [PMID: 30386810 PMCID: PMC6206870 DOI: 10.14800/rci.1543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of transmembrane proteins that perceive many extracellular signals and transduce them into cellular physiological responses. GPCRs regulate immunity in both vertebrates and invertebrates. However, the mechanisms responsible for such regulation are not fully understood. Recent research using the genetically tractable model organism Caenorhabditis elegans has led to the identification of specific GPCRs, neurotransmitters, neurons and non-neural cells in the regulation of innate immunity. Several neural circuits have been demonstrated to function in GPCR-dependent immuno-regulatory pathways. Besides being essential in neural-immune interactions, GPCRs also regulate innate immune response in non-neural tissues cell-autonomously through mechanisms independent of neural circuits. Here we review GPCR-mediated neural control of innate immunity in C. elegans and briefly discuss GPCR-dependent immune regulation via non-neural mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyong Liu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington, 99202, USA
| | - Jingru Sun
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington, 99202, USA
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18
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Li Z, Ji X, Wang W, Liu J, Liang X, Wu H, Liu J, Eggert US, Liu Q, Zhang X. Ammonia Induces Autophagy through Dopamine Receptor D3 and MTOR. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153526. [PMID: 27077655 PMCID: PMC4831814 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperammonemia is frequently seen in tumor microenvironments as well as in liver diseases where it can lead to severe brain damage or death. Ammonia induces autophagy, a mechanism that tumor cells may use to protect themselves from external stresses. However, how cells sense ammonia has been unclear. Here we show that culture medium alone containing Glutamine can generate milimolar of ammonia at 37 degrees in the absence of cells. In addition, we reveal that ammonia acts through the G protein-coupled receptor DRD3 (Dopamine receptor D3) to induce autophagy. At the same time, ammonia induces DRD3 degradation, which involves PIK3C3/VPS34-dependent pathways. Ammonia inhibits MTOR (mechanistic target of Rapamycin) activity and localization in cells, which is mediated by DRD3. Therefore, ammonia has dual roles in autophagy: one to induce autophagy through DRD3 and MTOR, the other to increase autophagosomal pH to inhibit autophagic flux. Our study not only adds a new sensing and output pathway for DRD3 that bridges ammonia sensing and autophagy induction, but also provides potential mechanisms for the clinical consequences of hyperammonemia in brain damage, neurodegenerative diseases and tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyuan Li
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
| | - Xinmiao Ji
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
| | - Wenchao Wang
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
| | - Juanjuan Liu
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
| | - Xiaofei Liang
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
| | - Hong Wu
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
| | - Jing Liu
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
| | - Ulrike S Eggert
- Department of Chemistry and Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Qingsong Liu
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
| | - Xin Zhang
- High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, P. R. China
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19
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Buckley SJ, Fitzgibbon QP, Smith GG, Ventura T. In silico prediction of the G-protein coupled receptors expressed during the metamorphic molt of Sagmariasus verreauxi (Crustacea: Decapoda) by mining transcriptomic data: RNA-seq to repertoire. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2016; 228:111-127. [PMID: 26850661 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2016.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Against a backdrop of food insecurity, the farming of decapod crustaceans is a rapidly expanding and globally significant source of food protein. Sagmariasus verreauxi spiny lobster, the subject of this study, are decapods of underdeveloped aquaculture potential. Crustacean neuropeptide G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate endocrine pathways that are integral to animal fecundity, growth and survival. The potential use of novel biotechnologies to enhance GPCR-mediated physiology may assist in improving the health and productivity of farmed decapod populations. This study catalogues the GPCRs expressed in the early developmental stages, as well as adult tissues, with a view to illuminating key neuropeptide receptors. De novo assembled contiguous sequences generated from transcriptomic reads of metamorphic and post metamorphic S. verreauxi were filtered for seven transmembrane domains, and used as a reference for iterative re-mapping. Subsequent putative GPCR open reading frames (ORFs) were BLAST annotated, categorised, and compared to published orthologues based on phylogenetic analysis. A total of 85 GPCRs were digitally predicted, that represented each of the four arthropod subfamilies. They generally displayed low-level and non-differential metamorphic expression with few exceptions that we examined using RT-PCR and qPCR. Two putative CHH-like neuropeptide receptors were annotated. Three dimensional structural modelling suggests that these receptors exhibit a conserved extracellular ligand binding pocket, providing support to the notion that these receptors co-evolved with their ligands across Decapoda. This perhaps narrows the search for means to increase productivity of farmed decapod populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean J Buckley
- GeneCology Research Centre, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, 4 Locked Bag, Maroochydore, Queensland 4558, Australia
| | - Quinn P Fitzgibbon
- Fisheries and Aquaculture, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Gregory G Smith
- Fisheries and Aquaculture, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Tomer Ventura
- GeneCology Research Centre, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, 4 Locked Bag, Maroochydore, Queensland 4558, Australia.
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20
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Promoting axon regeneration in the adult CNS by modulation of the melanopsin/GPCR signaling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:1937-42. [PMID: 26831088 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1523645113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell-type-specific G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling regulates distinct neuronal responses to various stimuli and is essential for axon guidance and targeting during development. However, its function in axonal regeneration in the mature CNS remains elusive. We found that subtypes of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) in mice maintained high mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) levels after axotomy and that the light-sensitive GPCR melanopsin mediated this sustained expression. Melanopsin overexpression in the RGCs stimulated axonal regeneration after optic nerve crush by up-regulating mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1). The extent of the regeneration was comparable to that observed after phosphatase and tensin homolog (Pten) knockdown. Both the axon regeneration and mTOR activity that were enhanced by melanopsin required light stimulation and Gq/11 signaling. Specifically, activating Gq in RGCs elevated mTOR activation and promoted axonal regeneration. Melanopsin overexpression in RGCs enhanced the amplitude and duration of their light response, and silencing them with Kir2.1 significantly suppressed the increased mTOR signaling and axon regeneration that were induced by melanopsin. Thus, our results provide a strategy to promote axon regeneration after CNS injury by modulating neuronal activity through GPCR signaling.
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21
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Black JB, Premont RT, Daaka Y. Feedback regulation of G protein-coupled receptor signaling by GRKs and arrestins. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 50:95-104. [PMID: 26773211 PMCID: PMC4779377 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
GPCRs are ubiquitous in mammalian cells and present intricate mechanisms for cellular signaling and communication. Mechanistically, GPCR signaling was identified to occur vectorially through heterotrimeric G proteins that are negatively regulated by GRK and arrestin effectors. Emerging evidence highlights additional roles for GRK and Arrestin partners, and establishes the existence of interconnected feedback pathways that collectively define GPCR signaling. GPCRs influence cellular dynamics and can mediate pathologic development, such as cancer and cardiovascular remolding. Hence, a better understanding of their overall signal regulation is of great translational interest and research continues to exploit the pharmacologic potential for modulating their activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph B Black
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States
| | - Richard T Premont
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, United States
| | - Yehia Daaka
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, United States.
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22
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Lans I, Dalton JAR, Giraldo J. Selective Protonation of Acidic Residues Triggers Opsin Activation. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:9510-9. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b01908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Isaias Lans
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology
and Bioinformatics, Institut de Neurociències and Unitat de
Bioestadística, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - James A. R. Dalton
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology
and Bioinformatics, Institut de Neurociències and Unitat de
Bioestadística, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Jesús Giraldo
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology
and Bioinformatics, Institut de Neurociències and Unitat de
Bioestadística, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
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23
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Yuan S, Palczewski K, Peng Q, Kolinski M, Vogel H, Filipek S. The Mechanism of Ligand-Induced Activation or Inhibition of μ- and κ-Opioid Receptors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201501742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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24
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Yuan S, Palczewski K, Peng Q, Kolinski M, Vogel H, Filipek S. The mechanism of ligand-induced activation or inhibition of μ- and κ-opioid receptors. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:7560-3. [PMID: 25968837 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201501742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are important targets for treating severe diseases. However why certain molecules act as activators whereas others, with similar structures, block GPCR activation, is poorly understood since the same molecule can activate one receptor subtype while blocking another closely related receptor. To shed light on these central questions, we used all-atom, long-time-scale molecular dynamics simulations on the κ-opioid and μ-opioid receptors (κOR and μOR). We found that water molecules penetrating into the receptor interior mediate the activating versus blocking effects of a particular ligand-receptor interaction. Both the size and the flexibility of the bound ligand regulated water influx into the receptor. The solvent-accessible inner surface area was found to be a parameter that can help predict the function of the bound ligand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuguang Yuan
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Lausanne (Switzerland).
| | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland (USA)
| | - Qian Peng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford (UK)
| | - Michal Kolinski
- Bioinformatics Laboratory, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw (Poland)
| | - Horst Vogel
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Lausanne (Switzerland).
| | - Slawomir Filipek
- Laboratory of Biomodeling, Faculty of Chemistry & Biological and Chemical Research Centre, University of Warsaw, Warsaw (Poland).
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25
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Chen L, Chu C, Lu J, Kong X, Huang T, Cai YD. Gene Ontology and KEGG Pathway Enrichment Analysis of a Drug Target-Based Classification System. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0126492. [PMID: 25951454 PMCID: PMC4423955 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug-target interaction (DTI) is a key aspect in pharmaceutical research. With the ever-increasing new drug data resources, computational approaches have emerged as powerful and labor-saving tools in predicting new DTIs. However, so far, most of these predictions have been based on structural similarities rather than biological relevance. In this study, we proposed for the first time a "GO and KEGG enrichment score" method to represent a certain category of drug molecules by further classification and interpretation of the DTI database. A benchmark dataset consisting of 2,015 drugs that are assigned to nine categories ((1) G protein-coupled receptors, (2) cytokine receptors, (3) nuclear receptors, (4) ion channels, (5) transporters, (6) enzymes, (7) protein kinases, (8) cellular antigens and (9) pathogens) was constructed by collecting data from KEGG. We analyzed each category and each drug for its contribution in GO terms and KEGG pathways using the popular feature selection "minimum redundancy maximum relevance (mRMR)" method, and key GO terms and KEGG pathways were extracted. Our analysis revealed the top enriched GO terms and KEGG pathways of each drug category, which were highly enriched in the literature and clinical trials. Our results provide for the first time the biological relevance among drugs, targets and biological functions, which serves as a new basis for future DTI predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Chen
- College of Life Science, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
- College of Information Engineering, Shanghai Maritime University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chen Chu
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jing Lu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Shandong, Yantai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiangyin Kong
- Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tao Huang
- Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yu-Dong Cai
- College of Life Science, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
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26
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Chen Y, Palczewski K. Systems Pharmacology Links GPCRs with Retinal Degenerative Disorders. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2015; 56:273-98. [PMID: 25839098 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010715-103033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In most biological systems, second messengers and their key regulatory and effector proteins form links between multiple cellular signaling pathways. Such signaling nodes can integrate the deleterious effects of genetic aberrations, environmental stressors, or both in complex diseases, leading to cell death by various mechanisms. Here we present a systems (network) pharmacology approach that, together with transcriptomics analyses, was used to identify different G protein-coupled receptors that experimentally protected against cellular stress and death caused by linked signaling mechanisms. We describe the application of this concept to degenerative and diabetic retinopathies in appropriate mouse models as an example. Systems pharmacology also provides an attractive framework for devising strategies to combat complex diseases by using (repurposing) US Food and Drug Administration-approved pharmacological agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Yueyang Hospital and.,Clinical Research Institute of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200437, China
| | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106;
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27
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Abstract
Neurons are defined as polarized secretory cells specializing in directional propagation of electrical signals leading to the release of extracellular messengers - features that enable them to transmit information, primarily chemical in nature, beyond their immediate neighbors without affecting all intervening cells en route. Multiple origins of neurons and synapses from different classes of ancestral secretory cells might have occurred more than once during ~600 million years of animal evolution with independent events of nervous system centralization from a common bilaterian/cnidarian ancestor without the bona fide central nervous system. Ctenophores, or comb jellies, represent an example of extensive parallel evolution in neural systems. First, recent genome analyses place ctenophores as a sister group to other animals. Second, ctenophores have a smaller complement of pan-animal genes controlling canonical neurogenic, synaptic, muscle and immune systems, and developmental pathways than most other metazoans. However, comb jellies are carnivorous marine animals with a complex neuromuscular organization and sophisticated patterns of behavior. To sustain these functions, they have evolved a number of unique molecular innovations supporting the hypothesis of massive homoplasies in the organization of integrative and locomotory systems. Third, many bilaterian/cnidarian neuron-specific genes and 'classical' neurotransmitter pathways are either absent or, if present, not expressed in ctenophore neurons (e.g. the bilaterian/cnidarian neurotransmitter, γ-amino butyric acid or GABA, is localized in muscles and presumed bilaterian neuron-specific RNA-binding protein Elav is found in non-neuronal cells). Finally, metabolomic and pharmacological data failed to detect either the presence or any physiological action of serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline, octopamine, acetylcholine or histamine - consistent with the hypothesis that ctenophore neural systems evolved independently from those in other animals. Glutamate and a diverse range of secretory peptides are first candidates for ctenophore neurotransmitters. Nevertheless, it is expected that other classes of signal and neurogenic molecules would be discovered in ctenophores as the next step to decipher one of the most distinct types of neural organization in the animal kingdom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonid L Moroz
- The Whitney Laboratory of Marine Biosciences and Department of Neuroscience and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, FL 32080, USA. The Whitney Laboratory, University of Florida, 9505 Ocean Shore Boulevard, St. Augustine, FL 32080, USA
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28
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Abstract
Rhodopsin is a key light-sensitive protein expressed exclusively in rod photoreceptor cells of the retina. Failure to express this transmembrane protein causes a lack of rod outer segment formation and progressive retinal degeneration, including the loss of cone photoreceptor cells. Molecular studies of rhodopsin have paved the way to understanding a large family of cell-surface membrane proteins called G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Work started on rhodopsin over 100 years ago still continues today with substantial progress made every year. These activities underscore the importance of rhodopsin as a prototypical GPCR and receptor required for visual perception-the fundamental process of translating light energy into a biochemical cascade of events culminating in vision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Hofmann
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
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29
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Yuan S, Hu Z, Filipek S, Vogel H. W2466.48Opens a Gate for a Continuous Intrinsic Water Pathway during Activation of the Adenosine A2AReceptor. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201409679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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30
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Yuan S, Hu Z, Filipek S, Vogel H. W246(6.48) opens a gate for a continuous intrinsic water pathway during activation of the adenosine A2A receptor. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 54:556-9. [PMID: 25403323 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201409679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The question how G-protein-coupled receptors transduce an extracellular signal by a sequence of transmembrane conformational transitions into an intracellular response remains to be solved at molecular detail. Herein, we use molecular dynamics simulations to reveal distinct conformational transitions of the adenosine A2A receptor, and we found that the conserved W246(6.48) residue in transmembrane helix TM6 performs a key rotamer toggle switch. Agonist binding induces the sidechain of W246(6.48) to fluctuate between two distinct conformations enabling the diffusion of water molecules from the bulk into the center of the receptor. After passing the W246(6.48) gate, the internal water molecules induce another conserved residue, Y288(7.53), to switch to a distinct rotamer conformation establishing a continuous transmembrane water pathway. Further, structural changes of TM6 and TM7 induce local structural changes of the adjacent lipid bilayer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuguang Yuan
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Polymers and Membranes, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne (Switzerland).
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31
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Computational studies to predict or explain G protein coupled receptor polypharmacology. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2014; 35:658-63. [PMID: 25458540 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2014.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Since G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) belong to a very large superfamily of evolutionarily related receptors (>800 members in humans), and due to the rapid progress on their structural biology, they are ideal candidates for polypharmacology studies. Broad screening and bioinformatics/chemoinformatics have been applied to understanding off-target effects of GPCR ligands. It is now feasible to approach the question of GPCR polypharmacology using molecular modeling and the available X-ray GPCR structures. As an example, large and sterically constrained adenosine derivatives (potent adenosine receptor ligands with low conformational freedom and multiple extended substituents) were screened for binding at diverse receptors. Unanticipated off-target interactions, including at biogenic amine receptors, were then modeled using a structure-based approach to provide a consistent understanding of recognition. A conserved Asp in TM3 changed its role from counterion for biogenic amines to characteristic H-bonding to adenosine. The same systematic approach could potentially be applied to many GPCRs or other receptors using other sets of congeneric ligands.
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32
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Palczewski K. Chemistry and biology of the initial steps in vision: the Friedenwald lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2014; 55:6651-72. [PMID: 25338686 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.14-15502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Visual transduction is the process in the eye whereby absorption of light in the retina is translated into electrical signals that ultimately reach the brain. The first challenge presented by visual transduction is to understand its molecular basis. We know that maintenance of vision is a continuous process requiring the activation and subsequent restoration of a vitamin A-derived chromophore through a series of chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes in the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Diverse biochemical approaches that identified key proteins and reactions were essential to achieve a mechanistic understanding of these visual processes. The three-dimensional arrangements of these enzymes' polypeptide chains provide invaluable insights into their mechanisms of action. A wealth of information has already been obtained by solving high-resolution crystal structures of both rhodopsin and the retinoid isomerase from pigment RPE (RPE65). Rhodopsin, which is activated by photoisomerization of its 11-cis-retinylidene chromophore, is a prototypical member of a large family of membrane-bound proteins called G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). RPE65 is a retinoid isomerase critical for regeneration of the chromophore. Electron microscopy (EM) and atomic force microscopy have provided insights into how certain proteins are assembled to form much larger structures such as rod photoreceptor cell outer segment membranes. A second challenge of visual transduction is to use this knowledge to devise therapeutic approaches that can prevent or reverse conditions leading to blindness. Imaging modalities like optical coherence tomography (OCT) and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) applied to appropriate animal models as well as human retinal imaging have been employed to characterize blinding diseases, monitor their progression, and evaluate the success of therapeutic agents. Lately two-photon (2-PO) imaging, together with biochemical assays, are revealing functional aspects of vision at a new molecular level. These multidisciplinary approaches combined with suitable animal models and inbred mutant species can be especially helpful in translating provocative cell and tissue culture findings into therapeutic options for further development in animals and eventually in humans. A host of different approaches and techniques is required for substantial progress in understanding fundamental properties of the visual system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Palczewski
- Department of Pharmacology, Cleveland Center for Membrane and Structural Biology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
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Zeng-Elmore X, Gao XZ, Pellarin R, Schneidman-Duhovny D, Zhang XJ, Kozacka KA, Tang Y, Sali A, Chalkley RJ, Cote RH, Chu F. Molecular architecture of photoreceptor phosphodiesterase elucidated by chemical cross-linking and integrative modeling. J Mol Biol 2014; 426:3713-3728. [PMID: 25149264 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2014.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Revised: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Photoreceptor phosphodiesterase (PDE6) is the central effector enzyme in visual excitation pathway in rod and cone photoreceptors. Its tight regulation is essential for the speed, sensitivity, recovery and adaptation of visual detection. Although major steps in the PDE6 activation/deactivation pathway have been identified, mechanistic understanding of PDE6 regulation is limited by the lack of knowledge about the molecular organization of the PDE6 holoenzyme (αβγγ). Here, we characterize the PDE6 holoenzyme by integrative structural determination of the PDE6 catalytic dimer (αβ), based primarily on chemical cross-linking and mass spectrometric analysis. Our models built from high-density cross-linking data elucidate a parallel organization of the two catalytic subunits, with juxtaposed α-helical segments within the tandem regulatory GAF domains to provide multiple sites for dimerization. The two catalytic domains exist in an open configuration when compared to the structure of PDE2 in the apo state. Detailed structural elements for differential binding of the γ-subunit to the GAFa domains of the α- and β-subunits are revealed, providing insight into the regulation of the PDE6 activation/deactivation cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Zeng-Elmore
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA; Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Xiong-Zhuo Gao
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Riccardo Pellarin
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Dina Schneidman-Duhovny
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Xiu-Jun Zhang
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Katie A Kozacka
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Yang Tang
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA; Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Andrej Sali
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Robert J Chalkley
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Rick H Cote
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Feixia Chu
- Department of Molecular, Cellular & Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA; Hubbard Center for Genome Studies, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA.
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34
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The ctenophore genome and the evolutionary origins of neural systems. Nature 2014; 510:109-14. [PMID: 24847885 PMCID: PMC4337882 DOI: 10.1038/nature13400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 455] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The origins of neural systems remain unresolved. In contrast to other basal metazoans, ctenophores, or comb jellies, have both complex nervous and mesoderm-derived muscular systems. These holoplanktonic predators also have sophisticated ciliated locomotion, behaviour and distinct development. Here, we present the draft genome of Pleurobrachia bachei, Pacific sea gooseberry, together with ten other ctenophore transcriptomes and show that they are remarkably distinct from other animal genomes in their content of neurogenic, immune and developmental genes. Our integrative analyses place Ctenophora as the earliest lineage within Metazoa. This hypothesis is supported by comparative analysis of multiple gene families, including the apparent absence of HOX genes, canonical microRNA machinery, and reduced immune complement in ctenophores. Although two distinct nervous systems are well-recognized in ctenophores, many bilaterian neuron-specific genes and genes of “classical” neurotransmitter pathways either are absent or, if present, are not expressed in neurons. Our metabolomic and physiological data are consistent with the hypothesis that ctenophore neural systems, and possibly muscle specification, evolved independently from those in other animals.
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35
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Costanzi S. Modeling G protein-coupled receptors in complex with biased agonists. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2014; 35:277-83. [PMID: 24793542 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2014.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Revised: 03/01/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The biological response to the activation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) typically originates from the simultaneous modulation of various signaling pathways that lead to distinct biological consequences. Hence, 'biased agonists' (i.e., compounds that selectively activate one of the pathways while blocking the others) are highly sought-after molecules to provide fine-tuned pharmacological interventions. This review describes strategies that can be deployed to model the conformation of GPCRs in complex with ligands endowed with specific signaling profiles useful for the generation of hypotheses on the structural requirements for the activation of different signaling pathways or for rational computer-aided ligand discovery campaigns. In particular, it focuses on strategies potentially applicable to model the global or local conformational states of GPCRs stabilized by specific ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Costanzi
- Department of Chemistry, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA; Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA.
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36
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Two-photon microscopy reveals early rod photoreceptor cell damage in light-exposed mutant mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:E1428-37. [PMID: 24706832 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1317986111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Atrophic age-related and juvenile macular degeneration are especially devastating due to lack of an effective cure. Two retinal cell types, photoreceptor cells and the adjacent retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE), reportedly display the earliest pathological changes. Abca4(-/-)Rdh8(-/-) mice, which mimic many features of human retinal degeneration, allowed us to determine the sequence of light-induced events leading to retinal degeneration. Using two-photon microscopy with 3D reconstruction methodology, we observed an initial strong retinoid-derived fluorescence and expansion of Abca4(-/-)Rdh8(-/-) mouse rod cell outer segments accompanied by macrophage infiltration after brief exposure of the retina to bright light. Additionally, light-dependent fluorescent compounds produced in rod outer segments were not transferred to the RPE of mice genetically defective in RPE phagocytosis. Collectively, these findings suggest that for light-induced retinopathies in mice, rod photoreceptors are the primary site of toxic retinoid accumulation and degeneration, followed by secondary changes in the RPE.
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Chen Y, Palczewska G, Mustafi D, Golczak M, Dong Z, Sawada O, Maeda T, Maeda A, Palczewski K. Systems pharmacology identifies drug targets for Stargardt disease-associated retinal degeneration. J Clin Invest 2013; 123:5119-34. [PMID: 24231350 DOI: 10.1172/jci69076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A systems pharmacological approach that capitalizes on the characterization of intracellular signaling networks can transform our understanding of human diseases and lead to therapy development. Here, we applied this strategy to identify pharmacological targets for the treatment of Stargardt disease, a severe juvenile form of macular degeneration. Diverse GPCRs have previously been implicated in neuronal cell survival, and crosstalk between GPCR signaling pathways represents an unexplored avenue for pharmacological intervention. We focused on this receptor family for potential therapeutic interventions in macular disease. Complete transcriptomes of mouse and human samples were analyzed to assess the expression of GPCRs in the retina. Focusing on adrenergic (AR) and serotonin (5-HT) receptors, we found that adrenoceptor α 2C (Adra2c) and serotonin receptor 2a (Htr2a) were the most highly expressed. Using a mouse model of Stargardt disease, we found that pharmacological interventions that targeted both GPCR signaling pathways and adenylate cyclases (ACs) improved photoreceptor cell survival, preserved photoreceptor function, and attenuated the accumulation of pathological fluorescent deposits in the retina. These findings demonstrate a strategy for the identification of new drug candidates and FDA-approved drugs for the treatment of monogenic and complex diseases.
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MESH Headings
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/deficiency
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/genetics
- Adenine/analogs & derivatives
- Adenine/pharmacology
- Adenine/therapeutic use
- Adenylyl Cyclase Inhibitors
- Adrenergic alpha-Agonists/pharmacology
- Adrenergic alpha-Agonists/therapeutic use
- Adrenergic alpha-Antagonists/pharmacology
- Adrenergic alpha-Antagonists/therapeutic use
- Alcohol Oxidoreductases/deficiency
- Alcohol Oxidoreductases/genetics
- Animals
- Cell Survival
- Disease Models, Animal
- Doxazosin/pharmacology
- Doxazosin/therapeutic use
- Drug Evaluation, Preclinical
- Guanabenz/pharmacology
- Guanabenz/therapeutic use
- Humans
- Light/adverse effects
- Macaca fascicularis
- Macular Degeneration/congenital
- Macular Degeneration/drug therapy
- Macular Degeneration/genetics
- Macular Degeneration/prevention & control
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Knockout
- Molecular Targeted Therapy
- Nerve Tissue Proteins/biosynthesis
- Nerve Tissue Proteins/genetics
- Photoreceptor Cells, Vertebrate/drug effects
- Photoreceptor Cells, Vertebrate/pathology
- Photoreceptor Cells, Vertebrate/physiology
- Photoreceptor Cells, Vertebrate/radiation effects
- Reactive Oxygen Species
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A/biosynthesis
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A/genetics
- Receptors, Adrenergic, alpha-2/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Adrenergic, alpha-2/genetics
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/biosynthesis
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/genetics
- Serotonin Antagonists/pharmacology
- Serotonin Antagonists/therapeutic use
- Signal Transduction
- Stargardt Disease
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