1
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Zhou X, Zhao L, Wang C, Sun W, Jia B, Li D, Fu J. Diverse functions and pathogenetic role of Crumbs in retinopathy. Cell Commun Signal 2024; 22:290. [PMID: 38802833 PMCID: PMC11129452 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-024-01673-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The Crumbs protein (CRB) family plays a crucial role in maintaining the apical-basal polarity and integrity of embryonic epithelia. The family comprises different isoforms in different animals and possesses diverse structural, localization, and functional characteristics. Mutations in the human CRB1 or CRB2 gene may lead to a broad spectrum of retinal dystrophies. Various CRB-associated experimental models have recently provided mechanistic insights into human CRB-associated retinopathies. The knowledge obtained from these models corroborates the importance of CRB in retinal development and maintenance. Therefore, complete elucidation of these models can provide excellent therapeutic prospects for human CRB-associated retinopathies. In this review, we summarize the current animal models and human-derived models of different CRB family members and describe the main characteristics of their retinal phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuebin Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China
| | - Liangliang Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China
| | - Chenguang Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China
| | - Wei Sun
- College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China
| | - Bo Jia
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China
| | - Jinling Fu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130000, China.
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2
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Kim B, Kim M, Choi H, Suk HJ. Brightness and hue judgment of dyed hair color. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2024; 242:104120. [PMID: 38157751 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
This study aims to investigate human hair color perception through two empirical studies in the context of colored hair. The preliminary study was intended to establish a numerical representation of perceptually meaningful brightness levels. It identified that the brightness level was proportional to the power of 0.766 of L*. In the visual assessment, participants (N = 47) categorized 246 hair color samples into eight color hue groups aligned with the Munsell system. Hue judgment was conducted by visually comparing dyed hair tresses with natural black hair. Based on the L*, a*, and b* values of hair tresses and visual assessments thereof, we observed the ranges of hue categories for hair color alongside the brightness levels. Additionally, the differences between the Munsell hue names and the assessment results were compared. Predominantly influenced by the dark brown hair color, the neutral orientation was shifted to the first quadrant of the a*-b* plane. The study contributes to an understanding of human hair color perception and provides insights into color categorization and labeling, especially when the context is confined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boram Kim
- Department of Industrial Design, KAIST, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Moonha Kim
- Next Beauty II, AMOREPACIFIC CORPORATION, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyun Choi
- Next Beauty II, AMOREPACIFIC CORPORATION, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyeon-Jeong Suk
- Department of Industrial Design, KAIST, Daejeon, South Korea.
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3
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Liu Y, Mahony BW, Wang X, Daye PM, Wang W, Cavanagh P, Pouget P, Andolina IM. Assessing perceptual chromatic equiluminance using a reflexive pupillary response. Sci Rep 2024; 14:2420. [PMID: 38286801 PMCID: PMC10825167 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-51982-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Equiluminant stimuli help assess the integrity of colour perception and the relationship of colour to other visual features. As a result of individual variation, it is necessary to calibrate experimental visual stimuli to suit each individual's unique equiluminant ratio. Most traditional methods rely on training observers to report their subjective equiluminance point. Such paradigms cannot easily be implemented on pre-verbal or non-verbal observers. Here, we present a novel Pupil Frequency-Tagging Method (PFTM) for detecting a participant's unique equiluminance point without verbal instruction and with minimal training. PFTM analyses reflexive pupil oscillations induced by slow (< 2 Hz) temporal alternations between coloured stimuli. Two equiluminant stimuli will induce a similar pupil dilation response regardless of colour; therefore, an observer's equiluminant point can be identified as the luminance ratio between two colours for which the oscillatory amplitude of the pupil at the tagged frequency is minimal. We compared pupillometry-based equiluminance ratios to those obtained with two established techniques in humans: minimum flicker and minimum motion. In addition, we estimated the equiluminance point in non-human primates, demonstrating that this new technique can be successfully employed in non-verbal subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Liu
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | | | - Xiaochun Wang
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Pierre M Daye
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, ICM, Paris, France
| | - Wei Wang
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Patrick Cavanagh
- Glendon College and Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Pierre Pouget
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm, CNRS, ICM, Paris, France.
| | - Ian Max Andolina
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Key Laboratory of Primate Neurobiology, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China.
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4
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Abstract
When vertebrates first conquered the land, they encountered a visual world that was radically distinct from that of their aquatic ancestors. Fish exploit the strong wavelength-dependent interactions of light with water by differentially feeding the signals from up to 5 spectral photoreceptor types into distinct behavioural programmes. However, above the water the same spectral rules do not apply, and this called for an update to visual circuit strategies. Early tetrapods soon evolved the double cone, a still poorly understood pair of new photoreceptors that brought the "ancestral terrestrial" complement from 5 to 7. Subsequent nonmammalian lineages differentially adapted this highly parallelised retinal input strategy for their diverse visual ecologies. By contrast, mammals shed most ancestral photoreceptors and converged on an input strategy that is exceptionally general. In eutherian mammals including in humans, parallelisation emerges gradually as the visual signal traverses the layers of the retina and into the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Baden
- University of Sussex, Sussex Neuroscience, Sussex Center for Sensory Neuroscience and Computation, Brighton, United Kingdom
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5
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Conway BR, Malik-Moraleda S, Gibson E. Color appearance and the end of Hering's Opponent-Colors Theory. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:791-804. [PMID: 37394292 PMCID: PMC10527909 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Hering's Opponent-Colors Theory has been central to understanding color appearance for 150 years. It aims to explain the phenomenology of colors with two linked propositions. First, a psychological hypothesis stipulates that any color is described necessarily and sufficiently by the extent to which it appears reddish-versus-greenish, bluish-versus-yellowish, and blackish-versus-whitish. Second, a physiological hypothesis stipulates that these perceptual mechanisms are encoded by three innate brain mechanisms. We review the evidence and conclude that neither side of the linking proposition is accurate: the theory is wrong. We sketch out an alternative, Utility-Based Coding, by which the known retinal cone-opponent mechanisms represent optimal encoding of spectral information given competing selective pressure to extract high-acuity spatial information; and phenomenological color categories represent an adaptive, efficient, output of the brain governed by behavioral demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bevil R Conway
- Laboratory of Sensorimotor Research, National Eye Institute and National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | - Saima Malik-Moraleda
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Program in Speech and Hearing Bioscience and Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02114, USA
| | - Edward Gibson
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, M.I.T., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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6
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Pandiyan VP, Schleufer S, Slezak E, Fong J, Upadhyay R, Roorda A, Ng R, Sabesan R. Characterizing cone spectral classification by optoretinography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 13:6574-6594. [PMID: 36589563 PMCID: PMC9774847 DOI: 10.1364/boe.473608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Light propagation in photoreceptor outer segments is affected by photopigment absorption and the phototransduction amplification cascade. Photopigment absorption has been studied using retinal densitometry, while recently, optoretinography (ORG) has provided an avenue to probe changes in outer segment optical path length due to phototransduction. With adaptive optics (AO), both densitometry and ORG have been used for cone spectral classification based on the differential bleaching signatures of the three cone types. Here, we characterize cone classification by ORG, implemented in an AO line-scan optical coherence tomography (OCT), and compare it against densitometry. The cone mosaics of five color normal subjects were classified using ORG showing high probability (∼0.99), low error (<0.22%), high test-retest reliability (∼97%), and short imaging durations (< 1 hour). Of these, the cone spectral assignments in two subjects were compared against AO-scanning laser opthalmoscope densitometry. High agreement (mean: 91%) was observed between the two modalities in these two subjects, with measurements conducted 6-7 years apart. Overall, ORG benefits from higher sensitivity and dynamic range to probe cone photopigments compared to densitometry, and thus provides greater fidelity for cone spectral classification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vimal Prabhu Pandiyan
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sierra Schleufer
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Emily Slezak
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - James Fong
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Rishi Upadhyay
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Austin Roorda
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ren Ng
- Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ramkumar Sabesan
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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7
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Munds RA, Cooper EB, Janiak MC, Lam LG, DeCasien AR, Bauman Surratt S, Montague MJ, Martinez MI, Research Unit CB, Kawamura S, Higham JP, Melin AD. Variation and heritability of retinal cone ratios in a free-ranging population of rhesus macaques. Evolution 2022; 76:1776-1789. [PMID: 35790204 PMCID: PMC9544366 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A defining feature of catarrhine primates is uniform trichromacy-the ability to distinguish red (long; L), green (medium; M), and blue (short; S) wavelengths of light. Although the tuning of photoreceptors is conserved, the ratio of L:M cones in the retina is variable within and between species, with human cone ratios differing from other catarrhines. Yet, the sources and structure of variation in cone ratios are poorly understood, precluding a broader understanding of color vision variability. Here, we report a large-scale study of a pedigreed population of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). We collected foveal RNA and analyzed opsin gene expression using cDNA and estimated additive genetic variance of cone ratios. The average L:M ratio and standard error was 1.03:1 ± 0.02. There was no age effect, and genetic contribution to variation was negligible. We found marginal sex effects with females having larger ratios than males. S cone ratios (0.143:1 ± 0.002) had significant genetic variance with a heritability estimate of 43% but did not differ between sexes or age groups. Our results contextualize the derived human condition of L-cone dominance and provide new information about the heritability of cone ratios and variation in primate color vision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel A. Munds
- Department of Anthropology and ArchaeologyUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryABT2N 1N4Canada
| | - Eve B. Cooper
- Department of AnthropologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew York10003,New York Consortium in Evolutionary PrimatologyNew YorkNew York10460
| | - Mareike C. Janiak
- Department of Anthropology and ArchaeologyUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryABT2N 1N4Canada,Department of AnthropologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew York10003,School of Science, Engineering and EnvironmentUniversity of SalfordSalfordM5 4NTUnited Kingdom
| | - Linh Gia Lam
- Department of Anthropology and ArchaeologyUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryABT2N 1N4Canada
| | - Alex R. DeCasien
- Department of AnthropologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew York10003,New York Consortium in Evolutionary PrimatologyNew YorkNew York10460,Section on Developmental NeurogenomicsNational Institute of Mental HealthBethesdaMaryland20892
| | | | - Michael J. Montague
- Department of NeuroscienceUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaPennsylvania19104
| | - Melween I. Martinez
- Caribbean Primate Research CenterUniversity of Puerto RicoSan JuanPuerto Rico00936
| | | | - Shoji Kawamura
- Department of Integrated BiosciencesUniversity of TokyoKashiwa277‐8562Japan
| | - James P. Higham
- Department of AnthropologyNew York UniversityNew YorkNew York10003,New York Consortium in Evolutionary PrimatologyNew YorkNew York10460
| | - Amanda D. Melin
- Department of Anthropology and ArchaeologyUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryABT2N 1N4Canada,Department of Medical GeneticsUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryABT2N 1N4Canada,Alberta Children's Hospital Research InstituteUniversity of CalgaryCalgaryABT2N 1N4Canada
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8
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Singh V, Burge J, Brainard DH. Equivalent noise characterization of human lightness constancy. J Vis 2022; 22:2. [PMID: 35394508 PMCID: PMC8994201 DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.5.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
A goal of visual perception is to provide stable representations of task-relevant scene properties (e.g. object reflectance) despite variation in task-irrelevant scene properties (e.g. illumination and reflectance of other nearby objects). To study such stability in the context of the perceptual representation of lightness, we introduce a threshold-based psychophysical paradigm. We measure how thresholds for discriminating the achromatic reflectance of a target object (task-relevant property) in rendered naturalistic scenes are impacted by variation in the reflectance functions of background objects (task-irrelevant property), using a two-alternative forced-choice paradigm in which the reflectance of the background objects is randomized across the two intervals of each trial. We control the amount of background reflectance variation by manipulating a statistical model of naturally occurring surface reflectances. For low background object reflectance variation, discrimination thresholds were nearly constant, indicating that observers’ internal noise determines threshold in this regime. As background object reflectance variation increases, its effects start to dominate performance. A model based on signal detection theory allows us to express the effects of task-irrelevant variation in terms of the equivalent noise, that is relative to the intrinsic precision of the task-relevant perceptual representation. The results indicate that although naturally occurring background object reflectance variation does intrude on the perceptual representation of target object lightness, the effect is modest – within a factor of two of the equivalent noise level set by internal noise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Singh
- Department of Physics, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, USA.,Computational Neuroscience Initiative, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,
| | - Johannes Burge
- Computational Neuroscience Initiative, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Bioengineering Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,
| | - David H Brainard
- Computational Neuroscience Initiative, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Bioengineering Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,
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9
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Zhang LQ, Cottaris NP, Brainard DH. An image reconstruction framework for characterizing initial visual encoding. eLife 2022; 11:e71132. [PMID: 35037622 PMCID: PMC8846596 DOI: 10.7554/elife.71132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed an image-computable observer model of the initial visual encoding that operates on natural image input, based on the framework of Bayesian image reconstruction from the excitations of the retinal cone mosaic. Our model extends previous work on ideal observer analysis and evaluation of performance beyond psychophysical discrimination, takes into account the statistical regularities of the visual environment, and provides a unifying framework for answering a wide range of questions regarding the visual front end. Using the error in the reconstructions as a metric, we analyzed variations of the number of different photoreceptor types on human retina as an optimal design problem. In addition, the reconstructions allow both visualization and quantification of information loss due to physiological optics and cone mosaic sampling, and how these vary with eccentricity. Furthermore, in simulations of color deficiencies and interferometric experiments, we found that the reconstructed images provide a reasonable proxy for modeling subjects' percepts. Lastly, we used the reconstruction-based observer for the analysis of psychophysical threshold, and found notable interactions between spatial frequency and chromatic direction in the resulting spatial contrast sensitivity function. Our method is widely applicable to experiments and applications in which the initial visual encoding plays an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling-Qi Zhang
- Department of Psychology, University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - Nicolas P Cottaris
- Department of Psychology, University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
| | - David H Brainard
- Department of Psychology, University of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphiaUnited States
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10
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Taveras-Cruz Y, He J, Eskew RT. Visual psychophysics: Luminance and color. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2022; 273:231-256. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2022.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Conway BR. Colors. Curr Biol 2021; 31:R982-R983. [PMID: 34428415 PMCID: PMC10759307 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.06.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Bevil Conway introduces colors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bevil R Conway
- Laboratory of Sensorimotor Research, National Eye Institute and National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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12
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Abstract
The use of spectral information in natural light to inform behaviour is one of the oldest and most fundamental abilities of visual systems. It long-predates animals' venture onto the land, and even the appearance of image-forming eyes. Accordingly, circuits for colour vision evolved under the surface of ancient oceans for hundreds of millions of years. These aquatic beginnings fundamentally underpin, and likely constrain, the organisation of modern visual systems. In contrast to our detailed circuit level understanding from diverse terrestrial vertebrates, however, comparatively little is known about their aquatic counterparts. Here, I summarise some of what is known about neural circuits for colour vision in fish, the most species-diverse group of vertebrates. With a focus on zebrafish, I will explore how their computational strategies are linked to the statistics of natural light in the underwater world, and how their study might help us understand vision in general, including in our own eyes.
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13
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Human Eye Optics within a Non-Euclidian Geometrical Approach and Some Implications in Vision Prosthetics Design. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11020215. [PMID: 33557081 PMCID: PMC7913825 DOI: 10.3390/biom11020215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
An analogy with our previously published theory on the ionospheric auroral gyroscope provides a new perspective in human eye optics. Based on cone cells’ real distribution, we model the human eye macula as a pseudospherical surface. This allows the rigorous description of the photoreceptor cell densities in the parafoveal zones modeled further by an optimized paving method. The hexagonal photoreceptors’ distribution has been optimally projected on the elliptical pseudosphere, thus designing a prosthetic array counting almost 7000 pixel points. Thanks to the high morphological similarities to a normal human retina, the visual prosthesis performance in camera-free systems might be significantly improved.
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14
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Hao Q, Zheng M, Weng K, Hao Y, Zhou Y, Lin Y, Gao F, Kou Z, Kawamura S, Yao K, Xu P, Chen J, Zou J. Crumbs proteins stabilize the cone mosaics of photoreceptors and improve vision in zebrafish. J Genet Genomics 2021; 48:52-62. [PMID: 33771456 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgg.2020.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Revised: 12/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Although the unique organization of vertebrate cone mosaics was first described long ago, both their underlying molecular basis and physiological significance are largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that Crumbs proteins, the key regulators of epithelial apical polarity, establish the planar cellular polarity of photoreceptors in zebrafish. Via heterophilic Crb2a-Crb2b interactions, the apicobasal polarity protein Crb2b restricts the asymmetric planar distribution of Crb2a in photoreceptors. The planar polarized Crumbs proteins thus balance intercellular adhesions and tension between photoreceptors, thereby stabilizing the geometric organization of cone mosaics. Notably, loss of Crb2b in zebrafish induces a nearsightedness-like phenotype in zebrafish accompanied by an elongated eye axis and impairs zebrafish visual perception for predation. These data reveal a detailed mechanism for cone mosaic homeostasis via previously undiscovered apical-planar polarity coordination and propose a pathogenic mechanism for nearsightedness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinlong Hao
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China; The Institute of Translational Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Mingjie Zheng
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China; The Institute of Translational Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Kechao Weng
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China; The Institute of Translational Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yumei Hao
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China; The Institute of Translational Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yao Zhou
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China; The Institute of Translational Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yuchen Lin
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Feng Gao
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China; Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Ziqi Kou
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China; The Institute of Translational Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Shoji Kawamura
- Department of Integrated Biosciences, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8562, Japan
| | - Ke Yao
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Lab of Ophthalmology, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Pinglong Xu
- MOE Laboratory of Biosystems Homeostasis & Protection and Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, Life Sciences Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jinghai Chen
- The Institute of Translational Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Department of Cardiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China
| | - Jian Zou
- Eye Center of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310009, China; The Institute of Translational Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Lab of Ophthalmology, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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15
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Abstract
Textbook trichromacy accounts for human color vision in terms of spectral sampling by three classes of cone photoreceptors. This account neglects entangling of color and pattern information created by wavelength-dependent optical blur (chromatic aberrations) and interleaved spatial sampling of the retinal image by the three classes of cones. Recent experimental, computational, and neurophysiological work is now considering color and pattern vision at the elementary scale of daylight vison, that is at the scale of individual cones. The results provide insight about rich interactions between color and pattern vision as well as the role of the statistical structure of natural scenes in shaping visual processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H Brainard
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104
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16
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Thoreson WB, Dacey DM. Diverse Cell Types, Circuits, and Mechanisms for Color Vision in the Vertebrate Retina. Physiol Rev 2019; 99:1527-1573. [PMID: 31140374 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00027.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Synaptic interactions to extract information about wavelength, and thus color, begin in the vertebrate retina with three classes of light-sensitive cells: rod photoreceptors at low light levels, multiple types of cone photoreceptors that vary in spectral sensitivity, and intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells that contain the photopigment melanopsin. When isolated from its neighbors, a photoreceptor confounds photon flux with wavelength and so by itself provides no information about color. The retina has evolved elaborate color opponent circuitry for extracting wavelength information by comparing the activities of different photoreceptor types broadly tuned to different parts of the visible spectrum. We review studies concerning the circuit mechanisms mediating opponent interactions in a range of species, from tetrachromatic fish with diverse color opponent cell types to common dichromatic mammals where cone opponency is restricted to a subset of specialized circuits. Distinct among mammals, primates have reinvented trichromatic color vision using novel strategies to incorporate evolution of an additional photopigment gene into the foveal structure and circuitry that supports high-resolution vision. Color vision is absent at scotopic light levels when only rods are active, but rods interact with cone signals to influence color perception at mesopic light levels. Recent evidence suggests melanopsin-mediated signals, which have been identified as a substrate for setting circadian rhythms, may also influence color perception. We consider circuits that may mediate these interactions. While cone opponency is a relatively simple neural computation, it has been implemented in vertebrates by diverse neural mechanisms that are not yet fully understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wallace B Thoreson
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Truhlsen Eye Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, Nebraska ; and Department of Biological Structure, Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington , Seattle, Washington
| | - Dennis M Dacey
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Truhlsen Eye Institute, University of Nebraska Medical Center , Omaha, Nebraska ; and Department of Biological Structure, Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington , Seattle, Washington
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Abstract
The jawless fish that were ancestral to all living vertebrates had four spectral cone types that were probably served by chromatic-opponent retinal circuits. Subsequent evolution of photoreceptor spectral sensitivities is documented for many vertebrate lineages, giving insight into the ecological adaptation of color vision. Beyond the photoreceptors, retinal color processing is best understood in mammals, especially the blueON system, which opposes short- against long-wavelength receptor responses. For other vertebrates that often have three or four types of cone pigment, new findings from zebrafish are extending older work on teleost fish and reptiles to reveal rich color circuitry. Here, horizontal cells establish diverse and complex spectral responses even in photoreceptor outputs. Cone-selective connections to bipolar cells then set up color-opponent synaptic layers in the inner retina, which lead to a large variety of color-opponent channels for transmission to the brain via retinal ganglion cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Baden
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, BN1 9QG Brighton, United Kingdom; ,
- Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - D Osorio
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, BN1 9QG Brighton, United Kingdom; ,
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18
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Schmidt BP, Boehm AE, Tuten WS, Roorda A. Spatial summation of individual cones in human color vision. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211397. [PMID: 31344029 PMCID: PMC6658054 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The human retina contains three classes of cone photoreceptors each sensitive to different portions of the visual spectrum: long (L), medium (M) and short (S) wavelengths. Color information is computed by downstream neurons that compare relative activity across the three cone types. How cone signals are combined at a cellular scale has been more difficult to resolve. This is especially true near the fovea, where spectrally-opponent neurons in the parvocellular pathway draw excitatory input from a single cone and thus even the smallest stimulus projected through natural optics will engage multiple color-signaling neurons. We used an adaptive optics microstimulator to target individual and pairs of cones with light. Consistent with prior work, we found that color percepts elicited from individual cones were predicted by their spectral sensitivity, although there was considerable variability even between cones within the same spectral class. The appearance of spots targeted at two cones were predicted by an average of their individual activations. However, two cones of the same subclass elicited percepts that were systematically more saturated than predicted by an average. Together, these observations suggest both spectral opponency and prior experience influence the appearance of small spots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian P. Schmidt
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Alexandra E. Boehm
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - William S. Tuten
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - Austin Roorda
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
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Ding X, Radonjic A, Cottaris NP, Jiang H, Wandell BA, Brainard DH. Computational-observer analysis of illumination discrimination. J Vis 2019; 19:11. [PMID: 31323097 PMCID: PMC6645618 DOI: 10.1167/19.7.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The spectral properties of the ambient illumination provide useful information about time of day and weather. We study the perceptual representation of illumination by analyzing measurements of how well people discriminate between illuminations across scene configurations. More specifically, we compare human performance to a computational-observer analysis that evaluates the information available in the isomerizations of cone photopigment in a model human photoreceptor mosaic. The performance of such an observer is limited by the Poisson variability of the number of isomerizations in each cone. The overall level of Poisson-limited computational-observer sensitivity exceeded that of human observers. This was modeled by increasing the amount of noise in the number of isomerizations of each cone. The additional noise brought the overall level of performance of the computational observer into the same range as that of human observers, allowing us to compare the pattern of sensitivity across stimulus manipulations. Key patterns of human performance were not accounted for by the computational observer. In particular, neither the elevation of illumination-discrimination thresholds for illuminant changes in a blue color direction (when thresholds are expressed in CIELUV ΔE units), nor the effects of varying the ensemble of surfaces in the scenes being viewed, could be accounted for by variation in the information available in the cone isomerizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomao Ding
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Ana Radonjic
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Nicolas P Cottaris
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Haomiao Jiang
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Sunnyvale, CA, USA
- Current address: Google Research
| | - Brian A Wandell
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Sunnyvale, CA, USA
| | - David H Brainard
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Abstract
Human vision provides useful information about the shape and color of the objects around us. It works well in many, but not all, lighting conditions. Since the advent of human-made light sources, it has been important to understand how illumination affects vision quality, but this has been surprisingly difficult. The widespread introduction of solid-state light emitters has increased the urgency of this problem. Experts still debate how lighting can best enable high-quality vision-a key issue since about one-fifth of global electrical power production is used to make light. Photometry, the measurement of the visual quantity of light, is well established, yet significant uncertainties remain. Colorimetry, the measurement of color, has achieved good reproducibility, but researchers still struggle to understand how illumination can best enable high-quality color vision. Fortunately, in recent years, considerable progress has been made. Here, we summarize the current understanding and discuss key areas for future study.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kevin A G Smet
- Department of Electrical Engineering, KU Leuven, BE-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lorne Whitehead
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver BC V6T 1Z1, Canada;
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21
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Schmidt BP, Boehm AE, Foote KG, Roorda A. The spectral identity of foveal cones is preserved in hue perception. J Vis 2019; 18:19. [PMID: 30372729 PMCID: PMC6205561 DOI: 10.1167/18.11.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Organisms are faced with the challenge of making inferences about the physical world from incomplete incoming sensory information. One strategy to combat ambiguity in this process is to combine new information with prior experiences. We investigated the strategy of combining these information sources in color vision. Single cones in human subjects were stimulated and the associated percepts were recorded. Subjects rated each flash for brightness, hue, and saturation. Brightness ratings were proportional to stimulus intensity. Saturation was independent of intensity, but varied between cones. Hue, in contrast, was assigned in a stereotyped manner that was predicted by cone type. These experiments revealed that, near the fovea, long and middle wavelength sensitive cones produce sensations that can be reliably distinguished on the basis of hue, but not saturation or brightness. Taken together, these observations implicate the high-resolution, color-opponent parvocellular pathway in this low-level visual task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian P Schmidt
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Alexandra E Boehm
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Katharina G Foote
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Austin Roorda
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
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22
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Singh V, Cottaris NP, Heasly BS, Brainard DH, Burge J. Computational luminance constancy from naturalistic images. J Vis 2018; 18:19. [PMID: 30593061 PMCID: PMC6314111 DOI: 10.1167/18.13.19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The human visual system supports stable percepts of object color even though the light that reflects from object surfaces varies significantly with the scene illumination. To understand the computations that support stable color perception, we study how estimating a target object's luminous reflectance factor (LRF; a measure of the light reflected from the object under a standard illuminant) depends on variation in key properties of naturalistic scenes. Specifically, we study how variation in target object reflectance, illumination spectra, and the reflectance of background objects in a scene impact estimation of a target object's LRF. To do this, we applied supervised statistical learning methods to the simulated excitations of human cone photoreceptors, obtained from labeled naturalistic images. The naturalistic images were rendered with computer graphics. The illumination spectra of the light sources and the reflectance spectra of the surfaces in the scene were generated using statistical models of natural spectral variation. Optimally decoding target object LRF from the responses of a small learned set of task-specific linear receptive fields that operate on a contrast representation of the cone excitations yields estimates that are within 13% of the correct LRF. Our work provides a framework for evaluating how different sources of scene variability limit performance on luminance constancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Singh
- Computational Neuroscience Initiative, Department of Physics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Nicolas P Cottaris
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Benjamin S Heasly
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - David H Brainard
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Johannes Burge
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, Bioengineering Graduate Group, Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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23
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Abstract
Color has been scientifically investigated by linking color appearance to colorimetric measurements of the light that enters the eye. However, the main purpose of color perception is not to determine the properties of incident light, but to aid the visual perception of objects and materials in our environment. We review the state of the art on object colors, color constancy, and color categories to gain insight into the functional aspects of color perception. The common ground between these areas of research is that color appearance is tightly linked to the identification of objects and materials and the communication across observers. In conclusion, we argue that research should focus on how color processing is adapted to the surface properties of objects in the natural environment in order to bridge the gap between the known early stages of color perception and the subjective appearance of color.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Witzel
- Department of Psychology, University of Giessen, 35394 Giessen, Germany;,
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25
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Jimenez LO, Tring E, Trachtenberg JT, Ringach DL. Local tuning biases in mouse primary visual cortex. J Neurophysiol 2018; 120:274-280. [PMID: 29668380 PMCID: PMC6093950 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00150.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons in primary visual cortex are selective to the orientation and spatial frequency of sinusoidal gratings. In the classic model of cortical organization, a population of neurons responding to the same region of the visual field but tuned to all possible feature combinations provides a detailed representation of the local image. Such a functional module is assumed to be replicated across primary visual cortex to provide a uniform representation of the image across the entire visual field. In contrast, it has been hypothesized that the tiling properties of ON- and OFF-center receptive fields in the retina, largely mirrored in the geniculate, may constrain cortical tuning at each location in the visual field. This model predicts the existence of local biases in tuning that vary across the visual field and would prevent the cortex from developing a uniform, modular representation as postulated by the classic model. Here, we confirm the existence of local tuning biases in the primary visual cortex of the mouse, lending support to the notion that cortical tuning may be constrained by signals from the periphery. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Populations of cortical neurons responding to the same part of the visual field are shown to have similar tuning. Such local biases are consistent with the hypothesis that cortical tuning, in mouse primary visual cortex, is constrained by signals from the periphery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis O Jimenez
- Department of Psychology, University of California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Elaine Tring
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Dario L Ringach
- Department of Psychology, University of California , Los Angeles, California
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California , Los Angeles, California
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26
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Sabesan R, Schmidt BP, Tuten WS, Roorda A. The elementary representation of spatial and color vision in the human retina. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2016; 2:e1600797. [PMID: 27652339 PMCID: PMC5023317 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1600797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The retina is the most accessible element of the central nervous system for linking behavior to the activity of isolated neurons. We unraveled behavior at the elementary level of single input units-the visual sensation generated by stimulating individual long (L), middle (M), and short (S) wavelength-sensitive cones with light. Spectrally identified cones near the fovea of human observers were targeted with small spots of light, and the type, proportion, and repeatability of the elicited sensations were recorded. Two distinct populations of cones were observed: a smaller group predominantly associated with signaling chromatic sensations and a second, more numerous population linked to achromatic percepts. Red and green sensations were mainly driven by L- and M-cones, respectively, although both cone types elicited achromatic percepts. Sensations generated by cones were rarely stochastic; rather, they were consistent over many months and were dominated by one specific perceptual category. Cones lying in the midst of a pure spectrally opponent neighborhood, an arrangement purported to be most efficient in producing chromatic signals in downstream neurons, were no more likely to signal chromatic percepts. Overall, the results are consistent with the idea that the nervous system encodes high-resolution achromatic information and lower-resolution color signals in separate pathways that emerge as early as the first synapse. The lower proportion of cones eliciting color sensations may reflect a lack of evolutionary pressure for the chromatic system to be as fine-grained as the high-acuity achromatic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramkumar Sabesan
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Corresponding author.
| | - Brian P. Schmidt
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - William S. Tuten
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Austin Roorda
- School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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