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Hahn J, Monavarfeshani A, Qiao M, Kao AH, Kölsch Y, Kumar A, Kunze VP, Rasys AM, Richardson R, Wekselblatt JB, Baier H, Lucas RJ, Li W, Meister M, Trachtenberg JT, Yan W, Peng YR, Sanes JR, Shekhar K. Evolution of neuronal cell classes and types in the vertebrate retina. Nature 2023; 624:415-424. [PMID: 38092908 PMCID: PMC10719112 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06638-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
The basic plan of the retina is conserved across vertebrates, yet species differ profoundly in their visual needs1. Retinal cell types may have evolved to accommodate these varied needs, but this has not been systematically studied. Here we generated and integrated single-cell transcriptomic atlases of the retina from 17 species: humans, two non-human primates, four rodents, three ungulates, opossum, ferret, tree shrew, a bird, a reptile, a teleost fish and a lamprey. We found high molecular conservation of the six retinal cell classes (photoreceptors, horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and Müller glia), with transcriptomic variation across species related to evolutionary distance. Major subclasses were also conserved, whereas variation among cell types within classes or subclasses was more pronounced. However, an integrative analysis revealed that numerous cell types are shared across species, based on conserved gene expression programmes that are likely to trace back to an early ancestral vertebrate. The degree of variation among cell types increased from the outer retina (photoreceptors) to the inner retina (RGCs), suggesting that evolution acts preferentially to shape the retinal output. Finally, we identified rodent orthologues of midget RGCs, which comprise more than 80% of RGCs in the human retina, subserve high-acuity vision, and were previously believed to be restricted to primates2. By contrast, the mouse orthologues have large receptive fields and comprise around 2% of mouse RGCs. Projections of both primate and mouse orthologous types are overrepresented in the thalamus, which supplies the primary visual cortex. We suggest that midget RGCs are not primate innovations, but are descendants of evolutionarily ancient types that decreased in size and increased in number as primates evolved, thereby facilitating high visual acuity and increased cortical processing of visual information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Hahn
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Aboozar Monavarfeshani
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Mu Qiao
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- LinkedIn, Mountain View, CA, USA
| | - Allison H Kao
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Yvonne Kölsch
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Ayush Kumar
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Vincent P Kunze
- Retinal Neurophysiology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ashley M Rasys
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Rose Richardson
- Division of Neuroscience and Centre for Biological Timing, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Joseph B Wekselblatt
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Herwig Baier
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Robert J Lucas
- Division of Neuroscience and Centre for Biological Timing, Faculty of Biology Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Wei Li
- Retinal Neurophysiology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Markus Meister
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Wenjun Yan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Yi-Rong Peng
- Department of Ophthalmology, Stein Eye Institute, UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Joshua R Sanes
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Karthik Shekhar
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute,Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- Center for Computational Biology, Biophysics Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- California Institute of Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.
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Hahn J, Monavarfeshani A, Qiao M, Kao A, Kölsch Y, Kumar A, Kunze VP, Rasys AM, Richardson R, Baier H, Lucas RJ, Li W, Meister M, Trachtenberg JT, Yan W, Peng YR, Sanes JR, Shekhar K. Evolution of neuronal cell classes and types in the vertebrate retina. bioRxiv 2023:2023.04.07.536039. [PMID: 37066415 PMCID: PMC10104162 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.07.536039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
The basic plan of the retina is conserved across vertebrates, yet species differ profoundly in their visual needs (Baden et al., 2020). One might expect that retinal cell types evolved to accommodate these varied needs, but this has not been systematically studied. Here, we generated and integrated single-cell transcriptomic atlases of the retina from 17 species: humans, two non-human primates, four rodents, three ungulates, opossum, ferret, tree shrew, a teleost fish, a bird, a reptile and a lamprey. Molecular conservation of the six retinal cell classes (photoreceptors, horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, retinal ganglion cells [RGCs] and Muller glia) is striking, with transcriptomic differences across species correlated with evolutionary distance. Major subclasses are also conserved, whereas variation among types within classes or subclasses is more pronounced. However, an integrative analysis revealed that numerous types are shared across species based on conserved gene expression programs that likely trace back to the common ancestor of jawed vertebrates. The degree of variation among types increases from the outer retina (photoreceptors) to the inner retina (RGCs), suggesting that evolution acts preferentially to shape the retinal output. Finally, we identified mammalian orthologs of midget RGCs, which comprise >80% of RGCs in the human retina, subserve high-acuity vision, and were believed to be primate-specific (Berson, 2008); in contrast, the mouse orthologs comprise <2% of mouse RGCs. Projections both primate and mouse orthologous types are overrepresented in the thalamus, which supplies the primary visual cortex. We suggest that midget RGCs are not primate innovations, but descendants of evolutionarily ancient types that decreased in size and increased in number as primates evolved, thereby facilitating high visual acuity and increased cortical processing of visual information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Hahn
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Aboozar Monavarfeshani
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, MA 02138, USA
| | - Mu Qiao
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Allison Kao
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, MA 02138, USA
| | - Yvonne Kölsch
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Ayush Kumar
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Vincent P Kunze
- Retinal Neurophysiology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ashley M. Rasys
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
| | - Rose Richardson
- Division of Neuroscience and Centre for Biological Timing, Faculty of Biology Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Upper Brook Street, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Herwig Baier
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Robert J. Lucas
- Division of Neuroscience and Centre for Biological Timing, Faculty of Biology Medicine & Health, University of Manchester, Upper Brook Street, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Wei Li
- Retinal Neurophysiology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Markus Meister
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - Joshua T. Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Wenjun Yan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, MA 02138, USA
| | - Yi-Rong Peng
- Department of Ophthalmology, Stein Eye Institute, UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90095 United States
| | - Joshua R. Sanes
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, MA 02138, USA
| | - Karthik Shekhar
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, Vision Science Graduate Group, Center for Computational Biology, Biophysics Graduate Group, California Institute of Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley CA 94720, USA
- Faculty Scientist, Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Cheng S, Butrus S, Tan L, Xu R, Sagireddy S, Trachtenberg JT, Shekhar K, Zipursky SL. Vision-dependent specification of cell types and function in the developing cortex. Cell 2022; 185:311-327.e24. [PMID: 35063073 PMCID: PMC8813006 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The role of postnatal experience in sculpting cortical circuitry, while long appreciated, is poorly understood at the level of cell types. We explore this in the mouse primary visual cortex (V1) using single-nucleus RNA sequencing, visual deprivation, genetics, and functional imaging. We find that vision selectively drives the specification of glutamatergic cell types in upper layers (L) (L2/3/4), while deeper-layer glutamatergic, GABAergic, and non-neuronal cell types are established prior to eye opening. L2/3 cell types form an experience-dependent spatial continuum defined by the graded expression of ∼200 genes, including regulators of cell adhesion and synapse formation. One of these genes, Igsf9b, a vision-dependent gene encoding an inhibitory synaptic cell adhesion molecule, is required for the normal development of binocular responses in L2/3. In summary, vision preferentially regulates the development of upper-layer glutamatergic cell types through the regulation of cell-type-specific gene expression programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Cheng
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, Stein Eye Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Salwan Butrus
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Liming Tan
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Runzhe Xu
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Srikant Sagireddy
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Karthik Shekhar
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Faculty Scientist, Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
| | - S Lawrence Zipursky
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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Tan L, Ringach DL, Zipursky SL, Trachtenberg JT. Vision is required for the formation of binocular neurons prior to the classical critical period. Curr Biol 2021; 31:4305-4313.e5. [PMID: 34411526 PMCID: PMC8511080 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.07.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Depth perception emerges from the development of binocular neurons in primary visual cortex. Vision is required for these neurons to acquire their mature responses to visual stimuli. The prevailing view is that vision does not influence binocular circuitry until the onset of the critical period, about a week after eye opening, and that plasticity of visual responses is triggered by increased inhibition. Here, we show that vision is required to form binocular neurons and to improve binocular tuning and matching from eye opening until critical period closure. Enhancing inhibition does not accelerate this process. Vision soon after eye opening improves the tuning properties of binocular neurons by strengthening and sharpening ipsilateral eye cortical responses. This progressively changes the population of neurons in the binocular pool, and this plasticity is sensitive to interocular differences prior to critical period onset. Thus, vision establishes binocular circuitry and guides binocular plasticity from eye opening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liming Tan
- Department of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Dario L Ringach
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - S Lawrence Zipursky
- Department of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815, USA
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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Tan L, Tring E, Ringach DL, Zipursky SL, Trachtenberg JT. Vision Changes the Cellular Composition of Binocular Circuitry during the Critical Period. Neuron 2020; 108:735-747.e6. [PMID: 33091339 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
High acuity stereopsis emerges during an early postnatal critical period when binocular neurons in the primary visual cortex sharpen their receptive field tuning properties. We find that this sharpening is achieved by dismantling the binocular circuit present at critical period onset and building it anew. Longitudinal imaging of receptive field tuning (e.g., orientation selectivity) of thousands of neurons reveals that most binocular neurons present in layer 2/3 at critical period onset are poorly tuned and are rendered monocular. In parallel, new binocular neurons are established by conversion of well-tuned monocular neurons as they gain matched input from the other eye. These improvements in binocular tuning in layer 2/3 are not inherited from layer 4 but are driven by the experience-dependent sharpening of ipsilateral eye responses. Thus, vision builds a new and more sharply tuned binocular circuit in layer 2/3 by cellular exchange and not by refining the original circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liming Tan
- Department of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute
| | - Elaine Tring
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Dario L Ringach
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - S Lawrence Zipursky
- Department of Biological Chemistry, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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Abstract
Sensory experience in early postnatal life, during so-called critical periods, restructures neural circuitry to enhance information processing1. Why the cortex is susceptible to sensory instruction in early life and why this susceptibility wanes with age are unclear. Here we define a developmentally restricted engagement of inhibitory circuitry that shapes localized dendritic activity and is needed for vision to drive the emergence of binocular visual responses in the mouse primary visual cortex. We find that at the peak of the critical period for binocular plasticity, acetylcholine released from the basal forebrain during periods of heightened arousal directly excites somatostatin (SST)-expressing interneurons. Their inhibition of pyramidal cell dendrites and of fast-spiking, parvalbumin-expressing interneurons enhances branch-specific dendritic responses and somatic spike rates within pyramidal cells. By adulthood, this cholinergic sensitivity is lost, and compartmentalized dendritic responses are absent but can be re-instated by optogenetic activation of SST cells. Conversely, suppressing SST cell activity during the critical period prevents the normal development of binocular receptive fields by impairing the maturation of ipsilateral eye inputs. This transient cholinergic modulation of SST cells, therefore, seems to orchestrate two features of neural plasticity-somatic disinhibition and compartmentalized dendritic spiking. Loss of this modulation may contribute to critical period closure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney E Yaeger
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Dario L Ringach
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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Garcia-Junco-Clemente P, Tring E, Ringach DL, Trachtenberg JT. State-Dependent Subnetworks of Parvalbumin-Expressing Interneurons in Neocortex. Cell Rep 2019; 26:2282-2288.e3. [PMID: 30811979 PMCID: PMC6407626 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain state determines patterns of spiking output that underlie behavior. In neocortex, brain state is reflected in the spontaneous activity of the network, which is regulated in part by neuromodulatory input from the brain stem and by local inhibition. We find that fast-spiking, parvalbumin-expressing inhibitory neurons, which exert state-dependent control of network gain and spike patterns, cluster into two stable and functionally distinct subnetworks that are differentially engaged by ascending neuromodulation. One group is excited as a function of increased arousal state; this excitation is driven in part by the increase in cortical norepinephrine that occurs when the locus coeruleus is active. A second group is suppressed during movement when acetylcholine is released into the cortex via projections from the nucleus basalis. These data establish the presence of functionally independent subnetworks of Parvalbumin (PV) cells in the upper layers of the neocortex that are differentially engaged by the ascending reticular activating system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Garcia-Junco-Clemente
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla, IBiS, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla and Departamento de Fisiología Médica y Biofísica, Universidad de Sevilla, and CIBERNED, Seville, Spain.
| | - Elaine Tring
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Dario L Ringach
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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Jimenez LO, Tring E, Trachtenberg JT, Ringach DL. Local tuning biases in mouse primary visual cortex. J Neurophysiol 2018; 120:274-280. [PMID: 29668380 PMCID: PMC6093950 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00150.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons in primary visual cortex are selective to the orientation and spatial frequency of sinusoidal gratings. In the classic model of cortical organization, a population of neurons responding to the same region of the visual field but tuned to all possible feature combinations provides a detailed representation of the local image. Such a functional module is assumed to be replicated across primary visual cortex to provide a uniform representation of the image across the entire visual field. In contrast, it has been hypothesized that the tiling properties of ON- and OFF-center receptive fields in the retina, largely mirrored in the geniculate, may constrain cortical tuning at each location in the visual field. This model predicts the existence of local biases in tuning that vary across the visual field and would prevent the cortex from developing a uniform, modular representation as postulated by the classic model. Here, we confirm the existence of local tuning biases in the primary visual cortex of the mouse, lending support to the notion that cortical tuning may be constrained by signals from the periphery. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Populations of cortical neurons responding to the same part of the visual field are shown to have similar tuning. Such local biases are consistent with the hypothesis that cortical tuning, in mouse primary visual cortex, is constrained by signals from the periphery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis O Jimenez
- Department of Psychology, University of California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Elaine Tring
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California , Los Angeles, California
| | - Dario L Ringach
- Department of Psychology, University of California , Los Angeles, California
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California , Los Angeles, California
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Garcia-Junco-Clemente P, Ikrar T, Tring E, Xu X, Ringach DL, Trachtenberg JT. An inhibitory pull-push circuit in frontal cortex. Nat Neurosci 2017; 20:389-392. [PMID: 28114295 PMCID: PMC5967235 DOI: 10.1038/nn.4483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Push-pull is a canonical computation of excitatory cortical circuits.
Here we identify a pull-push inhibitory circuit in frontal cortex that
originates in vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) expressing interneurons.
During arousal, VIP cells rapidly and directly inhibit pyramidal neurons; VIP
cells also indirectly excite these pyramidal neurons via parallel disinhibition.
Thus, arousal exerts a feed-back pull-push influence on excitatory neurons
– an inversion of the canonical push-pull of feed-forward input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Garcia-Junco-Clemente
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla, IBiS, Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla and Departamento de Fisiología Médica y Biofísica, Universidad de Sevilla, and CIBERNED, Seville, Spain
| | - Taruna Ikrar
- Department of Anatomy &Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Elaine Tring
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Xiangmin Xu
- Department of Anatomy &Neurobiology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Dario L Ringach
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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10
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Ringach DL, Mineault PJ, Tring E, Olivas ND, Garcia-Junco-Clemente P, Trachtenberg JT. Spatial clustering of tuning in mouse primary visual cortex. Nat Commun 2016; 7:12270. [PMID: 27481398 PMCID: PMC4974656 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The primary visual cortex of higher mammals is organized into two-dimensional maps, where the preference of cells for stimulus parameters is arranged regularly on the cortical surface. In contrast, the preference of neurons in the rodent appears to be arranged randomly, in what is termed a salt-and-pepper map. Here we revisited the spatial organization of receptive fields in mouse primary visual cortex by measuring the tuning of pyramidal neurons in the joint orientation and spatial frequency domain. We found that the similarity of tuning decreases as a function of cortical distance, revealing a weak but statistically significant spatial clustering. Clustering was also observed across different cortical depths, consistent with a columnar organization. Thus, the mouse visual cortex is not strictly a salt-and-pepper map. At least on a local scale, it resembles a degraded version of the organization seen in higher mammals, hinting at a possible common origin. The preference of cells in mouse primary visual cortex are thought to be randomly distributed in a salt-and-pepper map, in contrast to the smooth cortical maps observed in higher mammals. Here the authors show that excitatory cells in mouse primary visual cortex are spatially clustered, resembling a degraded version of the organization seen in higher mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario L Ringach
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Patrick J Mineault
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Elaine Tring
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Nicholas D Olivas
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Pablo Garcia-Junco-Clemente
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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11
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Abstract
There has been a surge of interest in how inhibitory neurons influence the output of local circuits in the brain. In this issue of Neuron, Scholl et al. (2015) provide a compelling argument for what one class of inhibitory neurons actually does.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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12
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Abstract
Maturation of cortical inhibition just after eye opening is a necessary precedent for the emergence of competitive, experience-dependent ocular dominance plasticity in the visual cortex. What inhibition is doing in this context, though, is not clear. Here I outline new hypotheses on the roles of somatic and dendritic inhibition in the opening and closure of critical periods, and their roles in the competitive processes therein.
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13
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Gdalyahu A, Lazaro M, Penagarikano O, Golshani P, Trachtenberg JT, Geschwind DH. Correction: The Autism Related Protein Contactin-Associated Protein-Like 2 (CNTNAP2) Stabilizes New Spines: An In Vivo Mouse Study. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0129638. [PMID: 26024526 PMCID: PMC4449228 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0129638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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14
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Gdalyahu A, Lazaro M, Penagarikano O, Golshani P, Trachtenberg JT, Gescwind DH. The Autism Related Protein Contactin-Associated Protein-Like 2 (CNTNAP2) Stabilizes New Spines: An In Vivo Mouse Study. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125633. [PMID: 25951243 PMCID: PMC4423902 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The establishment and maintenance of neuronal circuits depends on tight regulation of synaptic contacts. We hypothesized that CNTNAP2, a protein associated with autism, would play a key role in this process. Indeed, we found that new dendritic spines in mice lacking CNTNAP2 were formed at normal rates, but failed to stabilize. Notably, rates of spine elimination were unaltered, suggesting a specific role for CNTNAP2 in stabilizing new synaptic circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amos Gdalyahu
- Department of Neurobiology, Integrative Center for Learning and Memory, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, Brain Research Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Maria Lazaro
- Department of Neurology, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, Program in Neurogenetics and Neurobehavioral Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Olga Penagarikano
- Department of Neurology, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, Program in Neurogenetics and Neurobehavioral Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Peyman Golshani
- Department of Neurology, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, Program in Neurogenetics and Neurobehavioral Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Joshua T. Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, Integrative Center for Learning and Memory, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, Brain Research Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
| | - Daniel H. Gescwind
- Department of Neurology, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, Program in Neurogenetics and Neurobehavioral Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
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15
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Kuhlman SJ, Olivas ND, Tring E, Ikrar T, Xu X, Trachtenberg JT. A disinhibitory microcircuit initiates critical-period plasticity in the visual cortex. Nature 2013; 501:543-6. [PMID: 23975100 PMCID: PMC3962838 DOI: 10.1038/nature12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 288] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Early sensory experience instructs the maturation of neural circuitry in cortex 1,2. This has been extensively studied in the primary visual cortex where loss of vision to one eye permanently degrades cortical responsiveness to that eye 3,4, a phenomenon known as ocular dominance plasticity (ODP). Cortical inhibition mediates this process 4-6, but the precise role of specific classes of inhibitory neurons in ODP is controversial. Here we report that evoked firing rates of binocular excitatory neurons in primary visual cortex immediately drop by half when vision is restricted to one eye, but gradually return to normal over the following 24 hours, despite the fact that vision remains restricted to one eye. This restoration of binocular-like excitatory firing rates following monocular deprivation results from a rapid, though transient reduction in the firing rates of fast-spiking, parvalbumin-positive (PV) interneurons, which in turn can be attributed to a decrease in local excitatory circuit input onto PV interneurons. This reduction in PV cell evoked responses following monocular lid suture is restricted to the critical period for ODP and appears to be necessary for subsequent shifts in excitatory ODP. Pharmacologically enhancing inhibition at the time of sight deprivation blocks ODP and, conversely, pharmaco-genetic reduction of PV cell firing rates can extend the critical period for ODP. These findings define the microcircuit changes initiating competitive plasticity during critical periods of cortical development. Moreover, they show that the restoration of evoked firing rates of L2/3 pyramidal neurons by PV-specific disinhibition is a key step in the progression of ocular dominance plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra J Kuhlman
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90048, USA
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16
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Gdalyahu A, Tring E, Polack PO, Gruver R, Golshani P, Fanselow MS, Silva AJ, Trachtenberg JT. Associative fear learning enhances sparse network coding in primary sensory cortex. Neuron 2012; 75:121-32. [PMID: 22794266 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Several models of associative learning predict that stimulus processing changes during association formation. How associative learning reconfigures neural circuits in primary sensory cortex to "learn" associative attributes of a stimulus remains unknown. Using 2-photon in vivo calcium imaging to measure responses of networks of neurons in primary somatosensory cortex, we discovered that associative fear learning, in which whisker stimulation is paired with foot shock, enhances sparse population coding and robustness of the conditional stimulus, yet decreases total network activity. Fewer cortical neurons responded to stimulation of the trained whisker than in controls, yet their response strength was enhanced. These responses were not observed in mice exposed to a nonassociative learning procedure. Our results define how the cortical representation of a sensory stimulus is shaped by associative fear learning. These changes are proposed to enhance efficient sensory processing after associative learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amos Gdalyahu
- Department of Neurobiology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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17
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Wyatt RM, Tring E, Trachtenberg JT. Pattern and not magnitude of neural activity determines dendritic spine stability in awake mice. Nat Neurosci 2012; 15:949-51. [PMID: 22706266 PMCID: PMC3386353 DOI: 10.1038/nn.3134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2012] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The stability of dendritic spines in the neocortex is profoundly influenced by sensory experience, which determines the magnitude and pattern of neural firing. By optically manipulating the temporal structure of neural activity in vivo using channelrhodopsin-2 and repeatedly imaging dendritic spines along these stimulated neurons over weeks, we show that the specific pattern, rather than the total amount of activity, determines spine stability in awake mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Wyatt
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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18
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Peñagarikano O, Abrahams BS, Herman EI, Winden KD, Gdalyahu A, Dong H, Sonnenblick LI, Gruver R, Almajano J, Bragin A, Golshani P, Trachtenberg JT, Peles E, Geschwind DH. Absence of CNTNAP2 leads to epilepsy, neuronal migration abnormalities, and core autism-related deficits. Cell 2011; 147:235-46. [PMID: 21962519 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2011.08.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 714] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2011] [Revised: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Although many genes predisposing to autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have been identified, the biological mechanism(s) remain unclear. Mouse models based on human disease-causing mutations provide the potential for understanding gene function and novel treatment development. Here, we characterize a mouse knockout of the Cntnap2 gene, which is strongly associated with ASD and allied neurodevelopmental disorders. Cntnap2(-/-) mice show deficits in the three core ASD behavioral domains, as well as hyperactivity and epileptic seizures, as have been reported in humans with CNTNAP2 mutations. Neuropathological and physiological analyses of these mice before the onset of seizures reveal neuronal migration abnormalities, reduced number of interneurons, and abnormal neuronal network activity. In addition, treatment with the FDA-approved drug risperidone ameliorates the targeted repetitive behaviors in the mutant mice. These data demonstrate a functional role for CNTNAP2 in brain development and provide a new tool for mechanistic and therapeutic research in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Peñagarikano
- Program in Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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19
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Smith SL, Trachtenberg JT. The refinement of ipsilateral eye retinotopic maps is increased by removing the dominant contralateral eye in adult mice. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9925. [PMID: 20369001 PMCID: PMC2848025 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2009] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Shortly after eye opening, initially disorganized visual cortex circuitry is rapidly refined to form smooth retinotopic maps. This process asymptotes long before adulthood, but it is unknown whether further refinement is possible. Prior work from our lab has shown that the retinotopic map of the non-dominant ipsilateral eye develops faster when the dominant contralateral eye is removed. We examined whether input from the contralateral eye might also limit the ultimate refinement of the ipsilateral eye retinotopic map in adults. In addition, we examined whether the increased refinement involved the recruitment of adjacent cortical area. Methodology/Principal Findings By surgically implanting a chronic optical window over visual cortex in mice, we repeatedly measured the degree of retinotopic map refinement using quantitative intrinsic signal optical imaging over four weeks. We removed the contralateral eye and observed that the retinotopic map for the ipsilateral eye was further refined and the maximum magnitude of response increased. However, these changes were not accompanied by an increase in the area of responsive cortex. Conclusions/Significance Since the retinotopic map was functionally refined to a greater degree without taking over adjacent cortical area, we conclude that input from the contralateral eye limits the normal refinement of visual cortical circuitry in mice. These findings suggest that the refinement capacity of cortical circuitry is normally saturated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer L. Smith
- Department of Neurobiology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (SLS); (JTT)
| | - Joshua T. Trachtenberg
- Department of Neurobiology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (SLS); (JTT)
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20
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Yuan X, Trachtenberg JT, Potter SM, Roysam B. MDL constrained 3-D grayscale skeletonization algorithm for automated extraction of dendrites and spines from fluorescence confocal images. Neuroinformatics 2009; 7:213-32. [PMID: 20012509 DOI: 10.1007/s12021-009-9057-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 10/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a method for improved automatic delineation of dendrites and spines from three-dimensional (3-D) images of neurons acquired by confocal or multi-photon fluorescence microscopy. The core advance presented here is a direct grayscale skeletonization algorithm that is constrained by a structural complexity penalty using the minimum description length (MDL) principle, and additional neuroanatomy-specific constraints. The 3-D skeleton is extracted directly from the grayscale image data, avoiding errors introduced by image binarization. The MDL method achieves a practical tradeoff between the complexity of the skeleton and its coverage of the fluorescence signal. Additional advances include the use of 3-D spline smoothing of dendrites to improve spine detection, and graph-theoretic algorithms to explore and extract the dendritic structure from the grayscale skeleton using an intensity-weighted minimum spanning tree (IW-MST) algorithm. This algorithm was evaluated on 30 datasets organized in 8 groups from multiple laboratories. Spines were detected with false negative rates less than 10% on most datasets (the average is 7.1%), and the average false positive rate was 11.8%. The software is available in open source form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaosong Yuan
- Jonsson Engineering Center, Center for Subsurface Sensing & Imaging Systems, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
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21
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Matter C, Pribadi M, Liu X, Trachtenberg JT. Delta-catenin is required for the maintenance of neural structure and function in mature cortex in vivo. Neuron 2009; 64:320-7. [PMID: 19914181 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Delta-catenin is a brain-specific member of the adherens junction complex that localizes to the postsynaptic and dendritic compartments. This protein is likely critical for normal cognitive function; its hemizygous loss is linked to the severe mental retardation syndrome Cri-du-Chat and it directly interacts with presenilin-1 (PS1), the protein most frequently mutated in familial Alzheimer's disease. Here we examine dendritic structure and cortical function in vivo in mice lacking delta-catenin. We find that in cerebral cortex of 5-week-old mice, dendritic complexity, spine density, and cortical responsiveness are similar between mutant and littermate controls; thereafter, mutant mice experience progressive dendritic retraction, a reduction in spine density and stability, and concomitant reductions in cortical responsiveness. Our results indicate that delta-catenin regulates the maintenance of dendrites and dendritic spines in mature cortex but does not appear to be necessary for the initial establishment of these structures during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl Matter
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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22
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Holtmaat A, Bonhoeffer T, Chow DK, Chuckowree J, De Paola V, Hofer SB, Hübener M, Keck T, Knott G, Lee WCA, Mostany R, Mrsic-Flogel TD, Nedivi E, Portera-Cailliau C, Svoboda K, Trachtenberg JT, Wilbrecht L. Long-term, high-resolution imaging in the mouse neocortex through a chronic cranial window. Nat Protoc 2009; 4:1128-44. [PMID: 19617885 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2009.89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 689] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
To understand the cellular and circuit mechanisms of experience-dependent plasticity, neurons and their synapses need to be studied in the intact brain over extended periods of time. Two-photon excitation laser scanning microscopy (2PLSM), together with expression of fluorescent proteins, enables high-resolution imaging of neuronal structure in vivo. In this protocol we describe a chronic cranial window to obtain optical access to the mouse cerebral cortex for long-term imaging. A small bone flap is replaced with a coverglass, which is permanently sealed in place with dental acrylic, providing a clear imaging window with a large field of view (approximately 0.8-12 mm(2)). The surgical procedure can be completed within approximately 1 h. The preparation allows imaging over time periods of months with arbitrary imaging intervals. The large size of the imaging window facilitates imaging of ongoing structural plasticity of small neuronal structures in mice, with low densities of labeled neurons. The entire dendritic and axonal arbor of individual neurons can be reconstructed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Holtmaat
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, NY, USA.
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23
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Chow DK, Groszer M, Pribadi M, Machniki M, Carmichael ST, Liu X, Trachtenberg JT. Laminar and compartmental regulation of dendritic growth in mature cortex. Nat Neurosci 2009; 12:116-8. [PMID: 19151711 DOI: 10.1038/nn.2255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2008] [Accepted: 12/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Can dendrites grow in mature cortex? We used chronic in vivo imaging to follow pyramidal neurons before and after cortical deletion of the Pten tumor suppressor gene in mature mice. We found that Pten/mTOR signaling uniquely regulates the growth of layer 2/3 apical dendrites; no effects of gene deletion were observed on basal dendrites of these pyramidal neurons or along layer 5 apical dendrites.
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Affiliation(s)
- David K Chow
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, 635 Charles Young Drive, South, Los Angeles, California 90095-1761, USA
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24
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Abstract
In the cerebral cortex, neuronal circuits are first laid down by intrinsic mechanisms and then refined by experience. In the canonical model, this refinement is driven by activity-dependent competition between inputs for some limited cortical resource. Here we examine this idea in the mouse visual cortex at the peak of the critical period for experience-dependent plasticity. By imaging intrinsic optical responses, we mapped the strength and size of each eye's cortical representation in normal mice, mice that had been deprived of patterned vision uni- or bilaterally, and in mice in which the contralateral eye had been removed. We find that for both eyes, a period of visual deprivation results in a loss of cortical responsiveness to stimulation through the deprived eye. In addition, the ipsilateral eye pathway is affected by the quality of vision through the opposite eye. Our findings indicate that although both contra- and ipsilateral eye pathways require visual experience for their maintenance, ipsilateral eye projections bear an additional, unique sensitivity to binocular interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Faguet
- Department of Neurobiology, The David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, 635 Charles Young Dr., Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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25
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Chen BE, Trachtenberg JT, Holtmaat AJGD, Svoboda K. Long-term, high-resolution imaging in the neocortex in vivo. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 2008:pdb.prot4902. [PMID: 21356671 DOI: 10.1101/pdb.prot4902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTIONIn the neocortex, elucidating the mechanisms of structural plasticity is essential to an understanding of the emergent network properties and fundamental cognitive phenomena, such as memory formation. Time-lapse imaging microscopy has revealed a remarkable array of dynamic activities in dendritic structures in developing cortical tissue in vitro, the developing cortex in vivo, and even the adult neocortex. Chronic high-resolution in vivo imaging of the structure of neurons in the cortex became possible with the invention of two-photon laser scanning microscopy (2PLSM). This technique has key advantages over conventional, single-photon excitation techniques, such as confocal microscopy. Two-photon excitation is the near-simultaneous (within femtoseconds) absorption of two photons coinciding on a fluorophore. The absorption rate depends quadratically on the illumination intensity and is therefore confined to a small volume around the focal point. Scattered excitation light is too weak to generate fluorescence. Thus, the signal is generated exclusively in a tiny focal volume, and all emitted fluorescence photons constitute useful signals. A related advantage is that the longer wavelengths used to generate two-photon excitation penetrate scattering tissue more efficiently than the shorter wavelengths used to generate single-photon excitation of the same fluorophores. The upper layers (1-4) of neocortex are ideal for high-resolution 2PLSM imaging. This protocol describes experimental procedures for in vivo imaging in the neocortex.
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26
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Smith SL, Trachtenberg JT. Experience-dependent binocular competition in the visual cortex begins at eye opening. Nat Neurosci 2007; 10:370-5. [PMID: 17293862 DOI: 10.1038/nn1844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2006] [Accepted: 01/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Visual experience begins at eye opening, but current models consider cortical circuitry to be resistant to experience-dependent competitive modification until the activation of a later critical period. Here we examine this idea using optical imaging to map the time course of receptive field refinement in normal mice, mice in which the contralateral eye never opens and mice in which the contralateral eye is silenced. We found that the refinement of ipsilateral eye retinotopy is retarded by contralateral deprivation, but accelerated by silencing of the contralateral eye. Patterned visual experience through the ipsilateral eye is required for this acceleration. These differences are most obvious at postnatal day 15, long before the start of the critical period, indicating that experience-dependent binocular plasticity occurs much earlier than was previously thought. Furthermore, these results suggest that the quality of activity, in terms of signal to noise, and not the quantity, determines robust receptive field development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer L Smith
- Department of Neurobiology, University of California at Los Angeles, 695 Charles Young Drive South, Los Angeles, California 90095-1761, USA
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27
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Holtmaat AJGD, Trachtenberg JT, Wilbrecht L, Shepherd GM, Zhang X, Knott GW, Svoboda K. Transient and persistent dendritic spines in the neocortex in vivo. Neuron 2005; 45:279-91. [PMID: 15664179 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2005.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 818] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2004] [Revised: 08/04/2004] [Accepted: 12/30/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic spines were imaged over days to months in the apical tufts of neocortical pyramidal neurons (layers 5 and 2/3) in vivo. A fraction of thin spines appeared and disappeared over a few days, while most thick spines persisted for months. In the somatosensory cortex, from postnatal day (PND) 16 to PND 25 spine retractions exceeded additions, resulting in a net loss of spines. The fraction of persistent spines (lifetime > or = 8 days) grew gradually during development and into adulthood (PND 16-25, 35%; PND 35-80, 54%; PND 80-120, 66%; PND 175-225, 73%), providing evidence that synaptic circuits continue to stabilize even in the adult brain, long after the closure of known critical periods. In 6-month-old mice, spines turn over more slowly in visual compared to somatosensory cortex, possibly reflecting differences in the capacity for experience-dependent plasticity in these brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J G D Holtmaat
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA
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28
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Trachtenberg JT, Chen BE, Knott GW, Feng G, Sanes JR, Welker E, Svoboda K. Long-term in vivo imaging of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in adult cortex. Nature 2002; 420:788-94. [PMID: 12490942 DOI: 10.1038/nature01273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1340] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2002] [Accepted: 10/23/2002] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Do new synapses form in the adult cortex to support experience-dependent plasticity? To address this question, we repeatedly imaged individual pyramidal neurons in the mouse barrel cortex over periods of weeks. We found that, although dendritic structure is stable, some spines appear and disappear. Spine lifetimes vary greatly: stable spines, about 50% of the population, persist for at least a month, whereas the remainder are present for a few days or less. Serial-section electron microscopy of imaged dendritic segments revealed retrospectively that spine sprouting and retraction are associated with synapse formation and elimination. Experience-dependent plasticity of cortical receptive fields was accompanied by increased synapse turnover. Our measurements suggest that sensory experience drives the formation and elimination of synapses and that these changes might underlie adaptive remodelling of neural circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua T Trachtenberg
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 11724, USA
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29
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Trachtenberg JT, Stryker MP. Rapid anatomical plasticity of horizontal connections in the developing visual cortex. J Neurosci 2001; 21:3476-82. [PMID: 11331376 PMCID: PMC2452996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Experience can dramatically alter the responses of cortical neurons. During a critical period in the development of visual cortex, these changes are extremely rapid, taking place in 2 d or less. Anatomical substrates of these changes have long been sought, primarily in alterations in the principal visual input from the thalamus, but the significant changes that have been found take 1 week. Recent results indicate that the initial physiological changes in the cortical circuit take place outside of the primary input layer. We now find that rapid plasticity of binocular responses in the upper layers of cortex is mirrored by similarly rapid anatomical changes in the horizontal connections between ocular dominance columns in the upper layers, which reorganize within 2 d.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T Trachtenberg
- Department of Physiology and W. M. Keck Center for Integrative Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94143-0444, USA.
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30
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Abstract
Monocular deprivation during early postnatal development remodels the circuitry of the primary visual cortex so that most neurons respond poorly to stimuli presented to the deprived eye. This rapid physiological change is ultimately accompanied by a matching anatomical loss of input from the deprived eye. This remodeling is thought to be initiated at the thalamocortical synapse. Ocular dominance plasticity after brief (24 hours) monocular deprivation was analyzed by intrinsic signal optical imaging and by targeted extracellular unit recordings. Deprived-eye responsiveness was lost in the extragranular layers, whereas normal binocularity in layer IV was preserved. This finding supports the hypothesis that thalamocortical organization is guided by earlier changes at higher stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T Trachtenberg
- W. M. Keck Foundation Center for Integrative Neuroscience and Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0444, USA
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31
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Issa NP, Trachtenberg JT, Chapman B, Zahs KR, Stryker MP. The critical period for ocular dominance plasticity in the Ferret's visual cortex. J Neurosci 1999; 19:6965-78. [PMID: 10436053 PMCID: PMC2413141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Microelectrode recordings and optical imaging of intrinsic signals were used to define the critical period for susceptibility to monocular deprivation (MD) in the primary visual cortex of the ferret. Ferrets were monocularly deprived for 2, 7 or >14 d, beginning between postnatal day 19 (P19) and P110. The responses of visual cortical neurons to stimulation of the two eyes were used to gauge the onset, peak, and decline of the critical period. MDs ending before P32 produced little or no loss of response to the deprived eye. MDs of 7 d or more beginning around P42 produced the greatest effects. A rapid decline in cortical susceptibility to MD was observed after the seventh week of life, such that MDs beginning between P50 and P65 were approximately half as effective as those beginning on P42; MDs beginning after P100 did not reduce the response to the deprived eye below that to the nondeprived eye. At all ages, 2 d deprivations were 55-85% as effective as 7 d of MD. Maps of intrinsic optical responses from the deprived eye were weaker and less well tuned for orientation than those from the nondeprived eye, with the weakest maps seen in the hemisphere ipsilateral to the deprived eye. Analysis of the effects of 7 d and longer deprivations revealed a second period of plasticity in cortical responses in which MD induced an effect like that of strabismus. After P70, MD caused a marked loss of binocular responses with little or no overall loss of response to the deprived eye. The critical period measured here is compared to other features of development in ferret and cat.
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Affiliation(s)
- N P Issa
- Keck Center for Integrative Neuroscience, Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143-0444, USA
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Abstract
Motor neurons are thought to critically regulate the survival of a subset of developing muscle fibers. In muscles that develop in the absence of innervation, primary muscle fibers appear to form in normal numbers, but their long-term survival is thought to require innervation-induced suprathreshold activity. Here I examine interactions between motor neurons and muscle fibers in newborn rats. I report that a small fraction of muscle fibers in developing muscles undergo apoptosis. Many, if not all, of these fibers appear to have lost innervation owing to the retraction of nerve terminals. That the apoptosis is initiated by the loss of functional innervation is suggested by a severalfold increase in the magnitude of fiber apoptosis following denervation and muscle paralysis. Finally, both naturally occurring and denervation-induced muscle fiber apoptosis can be prevented by exogenous administration of neuregulin. These results argue that the survival of all or a subset of developing muscle fibers is ultimately regulated by neuregulin. Furthermore, these results suggest a model in which innervation-induced suprathreshold activity indirectly regulates muscle fiber survival by modulating the levels of neuregulin at developing neuromuscular junctions.
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Kopp DM, Trachtenberg JT, Thompson WJ. Glial growth factor rescues Schwann cells of mechanoreceptors from denervation-induced apoptosis. J Neurosci 1997; 17:6697-706. [PMID: 9254682 PMCID: PMC6573136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Golgi tendon organs and Pacinian corpuscles are peripheral mechanoreceptors that disappear after denervation during a critical period in early postnatal development. Even if regeneration is allowed to occur, Golgi tendon organs do not reform, and the reformation of Pacinian corpuscles is greatly impaired. The sensory nerve terminals of both types of mechanoreceptors are closely associated with Schwann cells. Here we investigate the changes in the Schwann cells found in Golgi tendon organs and Pacinian corpuscles after nerve resection in the early neonatal period. We report that denervation induces the apoptotic death of these Schwann cells and that this apoptosis can be prevented by administration of a soluble form of neuregulin, glial growth factor 2. Schwann cells associated with these mechanoreceptors are immunoreactive for the neuregulin receptors erbB2, erbB3, and erbB4, and the sensory nerve terminals are immunoreactive for neuregulin. Our results suggest that Schwann cells in developing sensory end organs are trophically dependent on sensory axon terminals and that an axon-derived neuregulin mediates this trophic interaction. The denervation-induced death of mechanoreceptor Schwann cells is correlated with deficiencies in the re-establishment of these sensory end organs by regenerating axons.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Kopp
- Department of Zoology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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Trachtenberg JT, Thompson WJ. Nerve terminal withdrawal from rat neuromuscular junctions induced by neuregulin and Schwann cells. J Neurosci 1997; 17:6243-55. [PMID: 9236235 PMCID: PMC6568340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Schwann cells (SCs) that cap neuromuscular junctions (nmjs) play roles in guiding nerve terminal growth in paralyzed and partially denervated muscles; however, the role of these cells in the day-to-day maintenance of this synapse is obscure. Neuregulins, alternatively spliced ligands for several erbB receptor tyrosine kinases, are thought to play important roles in cell-cell communication at the nmj, affecting synapse-specific gene expression in muscle fibers and the survival of terminal SCs during development. Here we show that application of a soluble neuregulin isoform, glial growth factor II (GGF2), to developing rat muscles alters terminal SCs, nerve terminals, and muscle fibers. SCs extend processes and migrate from the synapse. Nerve terminals retract from acetylcholine receptor-rich synaptic sites, and their axons grow, in association with SCs, to the ends of the muscle. These axons make effective synapses only after withdrawal of GGF2. These synaptic alterations appear to be induced by the actions of neuregulin on SCs, because SC transplants growing into contact with synaptic sites also caused withdrawal of nerve terminal branches. These results show that SCs can alter synaptic structure at the nmj and implicate these cells in the maintenance of this synapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T Trachtenberg
- Department of Zoology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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Abstract
The "terminal' Schwann cells that sit atop the neuromuscular junction sense neuromuscular transmission and respond to perturbations of this transmission by extending long processes. These processes have the ability to induce nerve growth and serve as substrates to guide this growth. These processes thus play major roles in muscle reinnervation and in sprouting. An absence of nerve sprouting is correlated with the apoptotic death of terminal Schwann cells at denervated endplates in neonatal muscles. Thus, Schwann cells appear to participate actively in the maintenance and repair of neuromuscular synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y J Son
- Dept of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Abstract
Denervated adult mammalian muscle fibres are reinnervated by regenerating axons and, in the case of partially denervated muscles, by sprouts extended from remaining, intact axons. Recent experiments suggest that Schwann cells (SCs) regulate these events, inducing and guiding axonal outgrowth through the processes they extend. In contrast to adults, reinnervation o denervated neonatal muscles is deficient and axonal sprouting is absent. In light of the proposed roles for SCs in these processes, we examined whether SCs in neonatal muscles exhibit altered responses to denervation. We report here that neonatal denervation leads to the rapid, apoptotic death of SCs at rat neuro-muscular junctions. Injection of glial growth factor, a member of the neuregulin family of trophic factors present in developing sensory and motor neurons, prevents this apoptosis in vivo. These results provide further evidence for the importance of SCs in regulating nerve growth and suggest that axon-Schwann cell trophic interactions play a role in the normal development of the neuromuscular system.
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