1
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Masangkay FR, Milanez GD, Dionisio JD, Ormita LAGL, Alvarez AV, Karanis P. Well water sources simultaneous contamination with Cryptosporidium and Acanthamoeba in East-Southeast Asia and Acanthamoeba spp. in biofilms in the Philippines. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 837:155752. [PMID: 35533862 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium is the leading agent of waterborne parasitic protozoan outbreaks and is the second leading cause of infant mortality due to diarrhoea worldwide. Acanthamoeba spp. causes Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) and a life-threatening condition known as granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE). The present study aimed to assess the water quality of an indigenous and a rural community for waterborne parasitic protozoan contamination. Aquatic samples (n = 22) were processed by filtration of 500 mL portion through a 1.2 μm pore size glass microfiber filter and eluted for light microscopy, culture in non-nutrient agar, and PCR analysis. Overall, 36% (8/22) of the investigated aquatic samples were positive for either Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts (13%; 3/22) or Acanthamoeba spp., (36%; 8/22) or both (13%; 3/22). Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts were detected in 27% (3/11) of wet season samples only while Acanthamoeba spp. were detected in 18% (2/11) and 55% (6/11) of wet and dry season samples, respectively. Subsequently, molecular detection for Acanthamoeba species identified A. lenticulata and A. hatchetti with 98-99% BLAST similarity. This is the first report on the simultaneous contamination of Cryptosporidium and Acanthamoeba in well water sources in East-Southeast Asia, the first detection of Acanthamoeba spp. in biofilms in the Philippines, and the longest viability demonstrated for A. lenticulata in two-year-old water samples stored at room temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick R Masangkay
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santo Tomas, Manila 1008, Philippines.
| | - Giovanni D Milanez
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santo Tomas, Manila 1008, Philippines
| | - Joseph D Dionisio
- Department of Medical Technology, Far Eastern University-Manila, Manila 1015, Philippines
| | - Luzelle Anne G-L Ormita
- Department of Psychology, Far Eastern University-Manila, Manila 1015, Philippines; Community Extension Services, Far Eastern University-Manila, Manila 1015, Philippines
| | - Abel V Alvarez
- Community Extension Services, Far Eastern University-Manila, Manila 1015, Philippines
| | - Panagiotis Karanis
- University of Cologne, Faculty of Medical and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne 50923, Germany; Medical School, Department of Basic and Clinical Science, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, 2417, Cyprus.
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2
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Development and evaluation of a molecular based protocol for detection and quantification of Cryptosporidium spp. In wastewater. Exp Parasitol 2022; 234:108216. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2022.108216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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3
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Yang X, Xiong W, Huang T, He J. Meteorological and social conditions contribute to infectious diarrhea in China. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23374. [PMID: 34862400 PMCID: PMC8642416 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00932-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious diarrhea in China showed a significant pattern. Many researchers have tried to reveal the drivers, yet usually only meteorological factors were taken into consideration. Furthermore, the diarrheal data they analyzed were incomplete and the algorithms they exploited were inefficient of adapting realistic relationships. Here, we investigate the impacts of meteorological and social factors on the number of infectious diarrhea cases in China. A machine learning algorithm called the Random Forest is utilized. Our results demonstrate that nearly half of infectious diarrhea occurred among children under 5 years old. Generally speaking, increasing temperature or relative humidity leads to increased cases of infectious diarrhea in China. Nevertheless, people from different age groups or different regions own different sensitivities to meteorological factors. The weight of feces that are harmfully treated could be a possible reason for infectious diarrhea of the elderly as well as children under 5 years old. These findings indicate that infectious diarrhea prevention for children under 5 years old remains a primary task in China. Personalized prevention countermeasures ought to be provided to different age groups and different regions. It is essential to bring the weight of feces that are harmfully treated to the forefront when considering infectious diarrhea prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Yang
- grid.24695.3c0000 0001 1431 9176Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, No. 11, Bei San Huan Dong Lu, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029 China
| | - Weifeng Xiong
- grid.24695.3c0000 0001 1431 9176Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, No. 11, Bei San Huan Dong Lu, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029 China
| | - Tianyao Huang
- grid.12527.330000 0001 0662 3178Tsinghua University, Haidian District, Beijing, 100084 China
| | - Juan He
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, No. 11, Bei San Huan Dong Lu, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China.
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4
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Goddard FB, Ban R, Barr DB, Brown J, Cannon J, Colford JM, Eisenberg JNS, Ercumen A, Petach H, Freeman MC, Levy K, Luby SP, Moe C, Pickering AJ, Sarnat JA, Stewart J, Thomas E, Taniuchi M, Clasen T. Measuring Environmental Exposure to Enteric Pathogens in Low-Income Settings: Review and Recommendations of an Interdisciplinary Working Group. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:11673-11691. [PMID: 32813503 PMCID: PMC7547864 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Infections with enteric pathogens impose a heavy disease burden, especially among young children in low-income countries. Recent findings from randomized controlled trials of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions have raised questions about current methods for assessing environmental exposure to enteric pathogens. Approaches for estimating sources and doses of exposure suffer from a number of shortcomings, including reliance on imperfect indicators of fecal contamination instead of actual pathogens and estimating exposure indirectly from imprecise measurements of pathogens in the environment and human interaction therewith. These shortcomings limit the potential for effective surveillance of exposures, identification of important sources and modes of transmission, and evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions. In this review, we summarize current and emerging approaches used to characterize enteric pathogen hazards in different environmental media as well as human interaction with those media (external measures of exposure), and review methods that measure human infection with enteric pathogens as a proxy for past exposure (internal measures of exposure). We draw from lessons learned in other areas of environmental health to highlight how external and internal measures of exposure can be used to more comprehensively assess exposure. We conclude by recommending strategies for advancing enteric pathogen exposure assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick
G. B. Goddard
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Radu Ban
- Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington 98109, United States
| | - Dana Boyd Barr
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Joe Brown
- School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Jennifer Cannon
- Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention Foundation, Atlanta, Georgia 30308, United States
| | - John M. Colford
- Division
of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of California−Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Joseph N. S. Eisenberg
- Department
of Epidemiology, University of Michigan
School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- Department
of Forestry and Environmental Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Helen Petach
- U.S. Agency
for International Development, Washington, DC 20004, United States
| | - Matthew C. Freeman
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Karen Levy
- Department
of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105, United States
| | - Stephen P. Luby
- Division
of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, California 94305, United States
| | - Christine Moe
- Center
for
Global Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, Rollins School of Public
Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Jeremy A. Sarnat
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Jill Stewart
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global
Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Evan Thomas
- Mortenson
Center in Global Engineering, University
of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
| | - Mami Taniuchi
- Division
of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, United States
| | - Thomas Clasen
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
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5
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Masangkay FR, Milanez GD, Tsiami A, Hapan FZ, Somsak V, Kotepui M, Tangpong J, Karanis P. Waterborne protozoan pathogens in environmental aquatic biofilms: Implications for water quality assessment strategies. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 259:113903. [PMID: 32023789 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 12/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Biofilms containing pathogenic organisms from the water supply are a potential source of protozoan parasite outbreaks and a significant public health concern. The aim of the present study was to demonstrate the simultaneous and multi-spatial occurrence of waterborne protozoan pathogens (WBPP) in substrate-associated biofilms (SAB) and compare it to surface water (SW) and sediments with bottom water (BW) counterparts using manual filtration and elution from low-volume samples. For scenario purposes, simulated environmental biofilm contamination was created from in-situ grown one-month-old SAB (OM-SAB) that were spiked with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Samples were collected from the largest freshwater reservoirs in Luzon, Philippines and a University Lake in Thailand. A total of 69 samples (23 SAB, 23 SW, and 23 BW) were evaluated using traditional staining techniques for Cryptosporidium, and Immunofluorescence staining for the simultaneous detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia. WBPP were found in 43% SAB, 39% SW, and 39% BW of the samples tested in the present study with SAB results reflecting SW and BW results. Further highlights were demonstrated in the potential of using low-volume samples for the detection of parasites in source water. Scanning electron microscopy of OM-SAB samples revealed a naturally-associated testate amoeba shell, while Cryptosporidium oocysts spiked samples provided a visual profile of what can be expected from naturally contaminated biofilms. This study provides the first evidence for the simultaneous and multi-spatial occurrence of waterborne protozoan pathogens in low-volume aquatic matrices and further warrants SAB testing along with SW and BW matrices for improved water quality assessment strategies (iWQAS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick R Masangkay
- Biomedical Sciences Program, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand; Department of Medical Technology, Institute of Arts and Sciences, Far Eastern University Manila, 1015, Philippines.
| | - Giovanni D Milanez
- Biomedical Sciences Program, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand; Department of Medical Technology, Institute of Arts and Sciences, Far Eastern University Manila, 1015, Philippines.
| | - Amalia Tsiami
- London Geller College of Hospitality and Tourism, University of West London, St Mary's Road, Ealing, London, W5 5RF, United Kingdom.
| | - Freida Z Hapan
- Department of Medical Technology, College of Pharmacy, The Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas, España Blvd, Sampaloc, Manila, 1008, Philippines.
| | - Voravuth Somsak
- Biomedical Sciences Program, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand.
| | - Manas Kotepui
- Biomedical Sciences Program, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand.
| | - Jitbanjong Tangpong
- Biomedical Sciences Program, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, 80160, Thailand.
| | - Panagiotis Karanis
- Medical Faculty and University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, 50923, Germany; University of Nicosia Medical School, Nicosia, 2408, Cyprus.
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6
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Abdel Gawad SS, Ismail MAM, Imam NFA, Eassa AHA, Abu-Sarea EY. Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in Diarrheic Immunocompetent Patients in Beni-Suef, Egypt: Insight into Epidemiology and Diagnosis. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2018; 56:113-119. [PMID: 29742865 PMCID: PMC5976013 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2018.56.2.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium species is an important cause of gastrointestinal infections globally. This study aimed to shed light on its role in diarrheic immunocompetent patients in Beni-Suef, Egypt and to compare three diagnostic methods. Two hundred diarrheic patients, 37±16.8 year old, were enrolled. Stool samples were examined by light microscopy, using modified Ziehl-Neelsen stain (MZN) for Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts. Coproantigens were detected by sandwich ELISA. DNA molecular diagnosis was done by nested PCR. PCR yielded the highest detection rates (21.0%), compared to ELISA (12.5%) and MZN staining method (9.5%). The higher infection rates were in 20–40 year-old group, followed by 40–60 year-old. Association between epidemiologic factors was statistically not significant; positivity and gender, clinical manifestations, residence, source or water, or contact with animals. Cryptosporidiosis is an important enteric parasitic infection in Beni-Suef and PCR remains the gold standard for diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mousa A M Ismail
- Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - Naglaa F A Imam
- Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
| | - Ahmed H A Eassa
- Parasitology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt
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7
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Ibáñez-Cervantes G, León-Ávila G, Bello-López JM, Pérez-Rangel A, León-García G, Nogueda-Torres B, Hernández JM. Changes in the incidence of intestinal giardiosis in Mexican population during five years (2011-2015). Acta Parasitol 2018; 63:40-47. [PMID: 29351067 DOI: 10.1515/ap-2018-0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Giardiosis is a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Giardia intestinalis, which is distributed worldwide. Most of the data on the prevalence of giardiosis in Mexico comes from research, but it is also necessary to study the data provided by the Mexican Health Ministry and issued by the General Directorate of Epidemiology. The aim of this work was analyse the national surveillance data for human giardiosis in order to update the epidemiological data of this disease in Mexico. A retrospective observational analysis of giardiosis (from January 2011 to December 2015) was performed in the annual reports emitted by the GDE in Mexico. The cases were classified by year, state, age group, gender and seasons of the year. During the period of 2011-2015, a reduction of 38.51% was observed in the total number of new cases of giardiosis reported in the whole country The states of Sinaloa, Yucatan, and Chiapas presented the highest number of new cases reported during the analysed period. Giardiosis rates were always higher among women in all age groups, but the maximum incidence was observed in both sexes in the age group of 1-4 years old (the most susceptible group). On the other hand, the number of cases increased dramatically in southern states during warmer months. Giardiosis is influenced by ambient temperature changes along the year, although this study suggests that tends to decrease in all the analysed states and could be related to the overall improvement of hygienic practices within the Mexican population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Ibáñez-Cervantes
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. IPN 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, 07360. México City, México
| | - Gloria León-Ávila
- Departamento de Zoología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala, Col. Casco de Santo Tomás, 11340, México City, México
| | - Juan Manuel Bello-López
- Unidad de Investigación en Microbiología y Toxicología Hospital, Juárez de México, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 5160, Zacatenco, Gustavo A. Madero, 07360, México City, México
| | - Armando Pérez-Rangel
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. IPN 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, 07360. México City, México
| | - Gregorio León-García
- Servicio de Medicina Interna, Hospital Español, Ejército Nacional 617, Col. Granada, C.P. 11520 México, México City, México
| | - Benjamín Nogueda-Torres
- Departamento de Parasitología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Carpio y Plan de Ayala, Col. Casco de Santo Tomás, 11340, México City, México
| | - José Manuel Hernández
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Av. IPN 2508, Col. San Pedro Zacatenco, 07360. México City, México
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8
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Gherman CM, Kalmár Z, Györke A, Mircean V. Occurrence of Giardia duodenalis assemblages in farmed long-tailed chinchillas Chinchilla lanigera (Rodentia) from Romania. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:86. [PMID: 29415759 PMCID: PMC5804011 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2652-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Giardia duodenalis is a parasitic protist that infects a large number of species, being localized in the small intestine. Two of the eight recognized assemblages have zoonotic potential, but studies regarding their distribution in less important pet or farm species are scarce. Of these species, the long-tailed chinchilla is a host for Giardia spp., although data on the spread of infection and assemblages involved are confined. The present work aimed to determine the prevalence of Giardia infection and assemblage identification in farmed chinchillas in Romania. A total of 341 fecal samples were collected from 5 farms and microscopically examined using flotation test based on saturated sodium chloride solution. DNA from all positive samples was extracted and identified by PCR targeting the gdh gene. Results The overall prevalence of Giardia infection was 55.7% (190/341); there was no statistically significant difference (P = 0.25) in prevalence between young animals (58.8%) and adults (52.6%). Assemblages B (151/190), D (33/190) and E (6/190) were identified. Among assemblage B, sub-assemblages BIII (6/151) and BIV (145/151) were determined. Conclusions This study demonstrates that Giardia spp. infection is highly prevalent in farmed chinchillas from Romania, and the sub-assemblages identified are potentially zoonotic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Călin Mircea Gherman
- Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases Department Cluj-Napoca, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Zsuzsa Kalmár
- Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases Department Cluj-Napoca, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
| | - Adriana Györke
- Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases Department Cluj-Napoca, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Viorica Mircean
- Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases Department Cluj-Napoca, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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9
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Incani RN, Ferrer E, Hoek D, Ramak R, Roelfsema J, Mughini-Gras L, Kortbeek T, Pinelli E. Diagnosis of intestinal parasites in a rural community of Venezuela: Advantages and disadvantages of using microscopy or RT-PCR. Acta Trop 2017; 167:64-70. [PMID: 28007484 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2016.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the prevalence and diagnostic performance of microscopy and real time PCR (RT-PCR) for 14 intestinal parasites in a Venezuelan rural community with a long history of persistent intestinal parasitic infections despite the implementation of regular anthelminthic treatments. A total of 228 participants were included in this study. A multiplex RT-PCR was used for the detection of Dientamoeba fragilis, Giardia intestinalis, Cryptosporidium sp. and a monoplex RT-PCR for Entamoeba histolytica. Furthermore, a multiplex PCR was performed for detection of Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis, Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale. Combined microscopy-PCR revealed prevalences of 49.3% for A. lumbricoides, 10.1% for N. americanus (no A. duodenale was detected), 2.0% for S. stercoralis, 40.4% for D. fragilis, 35.1% for G. intestinalis, and 7.9% for E. histolytica/dispar. Significant increases in prevalence at PCR vs. microscopy were found for A. lumbricoides, G. intestinalis and D. fragilis. Other parasites detected by microscopy alone were Trichuris trichiura (25.7%), Enterobius vermicularis (3.4%), Blastocystis sp. (65.8%), and the non-pathogenic Entamoeba coli (28.9%), Entamoeba hartmanni (12.3%), Endolimax nana (19.7%) and Iodamoeba bütschlii (7.5%). Age- but no gender-related differences in prevalences were found for A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, G. intestinalis, and E. histolytica/dispar. The persistently high prevalences of intestinal helminths are probably related to the high faecal pollution as also evidenced by the high prevalences of non-pathogenic intestinal protozoans. These results highlight the importance of using sensitive diagnostic techniques in combination with microscopy to better estimate the prevalence of intestinal parasites, especially in the case of D. fragilis trophozoites, which deteriorate very rapidly and would be missed by microscopy. In addition, the differentiation between the pathogenic E. histolytica and the non-pathogenic E. dispar can be attained. However, microscopy remains an important diagnostic tool since it can detect other intestinal parasites for which no PCR is available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renzo Nino Incani
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones en Bilharzia, Departamento de Parasitología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Carabobo, Campus Carabobo, Valencia, Venezuela.
| | - Elizabeth Ferrer
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas "Dr. Francisco J. Triana Alonso" (BIOMED) and Departamento de Parasitología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Carabobo, Sede Aragua, Maracay, Venezuela
| | - Denise Hoek
- Center for Infectious Diseases Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Robbert Ramak
- Center for Infectious Diseases Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Roelfsema
- Center for Infectious Diseases Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Lapo Mughini-Gras
- Center for Infectious Diseases Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands; Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Utrecht, The Netherlands, The Netherlands
| | - Titia Kortbeek
- Center for Infectious Diseases Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Elena Pinelli
- Center for Infectious Diseases Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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10
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Robertson LJ, Gjerde B. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in raw waters in Norway. Scand J Public Health 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/14034948010290030901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Aims: This paper reports the first investigation into the occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Norwegian raw water sources. Methods: Between June 1998 and October 1999, 408 raw water samples, collected from 147 different sites across Norway, were analysed for these parasites. Analysis was based upon US EPA Method 1623. Results: In 305 samples (75%), parasites were not detected. In 55 samples (13.5%), Cryptosporidium only was detected. In 38 samples (9%), Giardia only was detected. In 10 samples (2.5%) both Cryptosporidium and Giardia were detected. Of the sites sampled, parasites were not detected at 100 (68%) of them, Cryptosporidium only was detected at 20 (13.5%), Giardia only was detected at 11 (7.5%), and both Cryptosporidium and Giardia were detected at 16 (11%). Concentrations of parasites were low; usually one cyst/ oocyst detected per 10 litres of water. Conclusions: Significant associations were demonstrated for these samples between the detection of these parasites and (a) turbidity ≥2.0 NTU, and (b) high numbers of domestic animals within the catchment area. No association between seasonality and the occurrence of these parasites could be detected. The results are discussed in relation to other studies and the potential public health implications for Norway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy J. Robertson
- Section of Parasitology, Department of Pharmacology, Microbiology and Food Hygiene, The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo, Norway,
| | - Bjørn Gjerde
- Section of Parasitology, Department of Pharmacology, Microbiology and Food Hygiene, The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo, Norway
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11
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Mahande AM, Mahande MJ. Prevalence of parasitic infections and associations with pregnancy complications and outcomes in northern Tanzania: a registry-based cross-sectional study. BMC Infect Dis 2016; 16:78. [PMID: 26874788 PMCID: PMC4753041 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-016-1413-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parasitic infection(s) during pregnancy have been associated with increased risk of pregnancy complications and adverse outcomes in low resource settings. However, little is known about their influence on pregnancy outcomes. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of parasitic infections and their association with pregnancy complications and adverse outcomes. METHODS A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted using maternally-linked data from Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Center (KCMC) medical birth registry. Birth records from all women who delivered singleton infants from 2000-2011 were utilized. We excluded multiple gestations and rural medical referral for various medical complications. A total of 30,797 births were evaluated. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 18.0. Odds ratio (ORs) with 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) for adverse pregnancy outcomes and complications associated with parasitic infections were estimated using multiple logistic regression models. A p-value of less than 5 % was considered statistically significant. RESULTS The most prevalent parasitic infection recorded was malaria (17.0 %), while helminths and amebiasis were infrequently recorded (0.6 % vs. 0.7 %, respectively). Women who had malaria during pregnancy had 13 % increased odds of having a preterm delivery (OR = 1.13; 95 % CI: 1.01-1. 26) as compared to those who were not infected. They also had 33 % increased odds of getting maternal anemia (OR = 1.33; 95 % CI: 1.11-1.72). Likewise, pregnant women who were recorded with helminths infections had 29 % increased odds of having maternal anemia as compared to those who had no helminths infection (OR = 1.29; 95 % CI:0.48-3.53). Moreover, pregnant women who were recorded to have amebiasis had 79 % increased odds of having a preterm delivery as compared to those who had no ameba infection (OR = 1.79; 95 % CI: 1.12-2.91). CONCLUSIONS Malaria was the prevalent parasitic infection in the studied population while helminth and ameba infections were infrequently reported. These parasitic infections were also associated with increased risk of anemia and delivery of a preterm infant. These were the only three infections/infestations which were evaluated. Our analysis revealed that malaria, helminth and ameba infections during pregnancy is dangerous and has life threatening consequences. This highlight the need to provide early diagnosis and treatment for infected women to prevent pregnancy complications and associated adverse pregnancy outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneth Mkunde Mahande
- Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Institute of Public Health, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania
| | - Michael Johnson Mahande
- Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Institute of Public Health, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania
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Almeida JC, Martins FDC, Ferreira Neto JM, Santos MMD, Garcia JL, Navarro IT, Kuroda EK, Freire RL. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in a public water-treatment system, Paraná, Southern Brazil. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2015; 24:303-8. [DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612015051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in a public water-treatment system. Samples of raw and treated water were collected and concentrated using the membrane filtration technique. Direct Immunofluorescence Test was performed on the samples. DNA extraction using a commercial kit was performed and the DNA extracted was submitted to a nested-PCR reaction (n-PCR) and sequencing. In the immunofluorescence, 2/24 (8.33%) samples of raw water were positive for Giardia spp.. In n-PCR and sequencing, 2/24 (8.33%) samples of raw water were positive for Giardia spp., and 2/24 (8.33%) samples were positive for Cryptosporidium spp.. The sequencing showed Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia duodenalis DNA. In raw water, there was moderate correlation among turbidity, color and Cryptosporidium spp. and between turbidity and Giardia spp.. The presence of these protozoans in the water indicates the need for monitoring for water-treatment companies.
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Effects of source- versus household contamination of tubewell water on child diarrhea in rural Bangladesh: a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0121907. [PMID: 25816342 PMCID: PMC4376788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Shallow tubewells are the primary drinking water source for most rural Bangladeshis. Fecal contamination has been detected in tubewells, at low concentrations at the source and at higher levels at the point of use. We conducted a randomized controlled trial to assess whether improving the microbiological quality of tubewell drinking water by household water treatment and safe storage would reduce diarrhea in children <2 years in rural Bangladesh. METHODS We randomly assigned 1800 households with a child aged 6-18 months (index child) into one of three arms: chlorine plus safe storage, safe storage and control. We followed households with monthly visits for one year to promote the interventions, track their uptake, test participants' source and stored water for fecal contamination, and record caregiver-reported child diarrhea prevalence (primary outcome). To assess reporting bias, we also collected data on health outcomes that are not expected to be impacted by our interventions. FINDINGS Both interventions had high uptake. Safe storage, alone or combined with chlorination, reduced heavy contamination of stored water. Compared to controls, diarrhea in index children was reduced by 36% in the chlorine plus safe storage arm (prevalence ratio, PR = 0.64, 0.55-0.73) and 31% in the safe storage arm (PR = 0.69, 0.60-0.80), with no difference between the two intervention arms. One limitation of the study was the non-blinded design with self-reported outcomes. However, the prevalence of health outcomes not expected to be impacted by water interventions did not differ between study arms, suggesting minimal reporting bias. CONCLUSIONS Safe storage significantly improved drinking water quality at the point of use and reduced child diarrhea in rural Bangladesh. There was no added benefit from combining safe storage with chlorination. Efforts should be undertaken to implement and evaluate long-term efforts for safe water storage in Bangladesh. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01350063.
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Ercumen A, Gruber JS, Colford JM. Water distribution system deficiencies and gastrointestinal illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2014; 122:651-60. [PMID: 24659576 PMCID: PMC4080524 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1306912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Water distribution systems are vulnerable to performance deficiencies that can cause (re)contamination of treated water and plausibly lead to increased risk of gastrointestinal illness (GII) in consumers. OBJECTIVES It is well established that large system disruptions in piped water networks can cause GII outbreaks. We hypothesized that routine network problems can also contribute to background levels of waterborne illness and conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the impact of distribution system deficiencies on endemic GII. METHODS We reviewed published studies that compared direct tap water consumption to consumption of tap water re-treated at the point of use (POU) and studies of specific system deficiencies such as breach of physical or hydraulic pipe integrity and lack of disinfectant residual. RESULTS In settings with network malfunction, consumers of tap water versus POU-treated water had increased GII [incidence density ratio (IDR) = 1.34; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.79]. The subset of nonblinded studies showed a significant association between GII and tap water versus POU-treated water consumption (IDR = 1.52; 95% CI: 1.05, 2.20), but there was no association based on studies that blinded participants to their POU water treatment status (IDR = 0.98; 95% CI: 0.90, 1.08). Among studies focusing on specific network deficiencies, GII was associated with temporary water outages (relative risk = 3.26; 95% CI: 1.48, 7.19) as well as chronic outages in intermittently operated distribution systems (odds ratio = 1.61; 95% CI: 1.26, 2.07). CONCLUSIONS Tap water consumption is associated with GII in malfunctioning distribution networks. System deficiencies such as water outages also are associated with increased GII, suggesting a potential health risk for consumers served by piped water networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayse Ercumen
- Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA
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Onichandran S, Kumar T, Lim YAL, Sawangjaroen N, Andiappan H, Salibay CC, Chye TT, Ithoi I, Dungca JZ, Sulaiman WYW, Ling LY, Nissapatorn V. Waterborne parasites and physico-chemical assessment of selected lakes in Malaysia. Parasitol Res 2013; 112:4185-91. [PMID: 24046263 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-013-3610-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to assess the physico-chemical parameters and waterborne parasites in selected recreational lakes from Malaysia. Samples were collected from seven stations of Recreational Lake A (RL-A) and six stations of Recreational Lake B (RL-B). The samples were processed to detect the presence of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. using immunomagnetic separation kit, helminth eggs or ova by bright field microscopy and Acanthamoeba spp. by cultivation in non-nutrient agar. Chemical parameters such as ammonia, chlorine, fluoride, nitrate and nitrite and physical parameters such as dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, pH, salinity, temperature and total dissolved solid were also measured. Both lakes were freshwater with salinity ranging from 0.05 to 0.09 ppt. Most stations of these lakes were contaminated with Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., Ascaris spp. and hookworm. Schistosoma spp. was found in RL-B only, while Acanthamoeba spp. was found in all stations. Of all sampling sites, station 5 of RL-B is the most contaminated. Linear regression and correlation analysis revealed that Giardia spp. and Schistosoma spp. showed a significant negative correlation with turbidity (p < 0.01). Based on the preliminary data obtained, it is clearly shown that there is a necessity to implement the detection of waterborne parasites and physico-chemical analysis in Malaysia. Future work on heavy metals (chromium, copper, mercury and zinc) is recommended to enhance the overall water quality monitoring and to take appropriate safety measures to ensure maintenance of good water standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subashini Onichandran
- Department of Parasitology (Southeast Asia Water Team), Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
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Desai NT, Sarkar R, Kang G. Cryptosporidiosis: An under-recognized public health problem. Trop Parasitol 2013; 2:91-8. [PMID: 23767015 PMCID: PMC3680871 DOI: 10.4103/2229-5070.105173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium spp. is under recognized as an important pathogen causing diarrhea in children and HIV-infected individuals with associated high morbidity and mortality. In endemic areas, most symptomatic infections are in childhood and in immunocompromised adults. The immune status of the host plays a critical role in determining the severity of cryptosporidiosis. Infection is self-limited in immunocompetent hosts, but can be severe and persistent in the immunocompromised such as AIDS patients or malnourished children. Cryptosporidiosis in developing countries is a major cause of acute and persistent diarrhea in children and is associated with subsequent impairment in growth, physical fitness, and cognitive function. Despite recognition of the importance of immune status, the correlates of protective immunity in cryptosporidiosis in humans are poorly understood, and treatment modalities are limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niyati T Desai
- Department of Gastrointestinal Sciences, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Kothavade RJ. Potential molecular tools for assessing the public health risk associated with waterborne Cryptosporidium oocysts. J Med Microbiol 2012; 61:1039-1051. [DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.043158-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Kwakye-Nuako G, Borketey P, Mensah-Attipoe I, Asmah R, Ayeh-Kumi P. Sachet drinking water in accra: the potential threats of transmission of enteric pathogenic protozoan organisms. Ghana Med J 2011; 41:62-7. [PMID: 17925844 DOI: 10.4314/gmj.v41i2.55303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY BACKGROUND The recent introduction of sachet water to consumers was to provide safe, hygienic and affordable instant drinking water to the public. Although this is a laudable idea current trends seem to suggest that sachet drinking water could be a route of transmission of enteric pathogens. OBJECTIVE To assess the safety of sachet drinking water. MATERIALS AND METHODS Twenty seven different brands of 500ml sachet water samples randomly selected and purchased from various vendors in Accra were subjected to microscopic examinations to determine the presence of parasitic protozoa. The study was carried out between January and May 2005. RESULTS Seventy-seven percent of the samples contained infective stages of pathogenic parasitic organisms. Common pathogens identified include, Microsporidia sp 14/27 (51.2%), Cryptosporidium parvum 17/27 (63.0%), Cyclospora cayetenensis 16/27 (59.3%), Sarcocystis sp. 18/27 (66.7%). Rotifers 5/27 (18.5%), and Charcoat Leyden crystals 12/27 (44.4%). Ninety-three percent of the samples contained unidentified impurities/artifacts. 29.6% of the samples contained at least one type of parasite, 14.8% contained at least 2 types of parasites, 25.9% contained at least three types of parasites, while 29.6% contained four types of parasites. CONCLUSION The study indicated the presence of contaminants of feacal and zoonotic origin in some of the sachet water examined. This has grim public health implications as the organisms identified can cause water related diseases which have serious complications in children and adults particularly immunocompromised individuals. Sachet water should be constantly monitored for its microbial quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Kwakye-Nuako
- Department of Microbiology, University of Ghana Medical School, P. O. Box 4236, Accra, Ghana
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Chatterjee A, Carpentieri A, Ratner DM, Bullitt E, Costello CE, Robbins PW, Samuelson J. Giardia cyst wall protein 1 is a lectin that binds to curled fibrils of the GalNAc homopolymer. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1001059. [PMID: 20808847 PMCID: PMC2924369 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1001059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2010] [Accepted: 07/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The infectious and diagnostic stage of Giardia lamblia (also known as G. intestinalis or G. duodenalis) is the cyst. The Giardia cyst wall contains fibrils of a unique beta-1,3-linked N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) homopolymer and at least three cyst wall proteins (CWPs) composed of Leu-rich repeats (CWP(LRR)) and a C-terminal conserved Cys-rich region (CWP(CRR)). Our goals were to dissect the structure of the cyst wall and determine how it is disrupted during excystation. The intact Giardia cyst wall is thin (approximately 400 nm), easily fractured by sonication, and impermeable to small molecules. Curled fibrils of the GalNAc homopolymer are restricted to a narrow plane and are coated with linear arrays of oval-shaped protein complex. In contrast, cyst walls of Giardia treated with hot alkali to deproteinate fibrils of the GalNAc homopolymer are thick (approximately 1.2 microm), resistant to sonication, and permeable. The deproteinated GalNAc homopolymer, which forms a loose lattice of curled fibrils, is bound by native CWP1 and CWP2, as well as by maltose-binding protein (MBP)-fusions containing the full-length CWP1 or CWP1(LRR). In contrast, neither MBP alone nor MBP fused to CWP1(CRR) bind to the GalNAc homopolymer. Recombinant CWP1 binds to the GalNAc homopolymer within secretory vesicles of Giardia encysting in vitro. Fibrils of the GalNAc homopolymer are exposed during excystation or by treatment of heat-killed cysts with chymotrypsin, while deproteinated fibrils of the GalNAc homopolymer are degraded by extracts of Giardia cysts but not trophozoites. These results show the Leu-rich repeat domain of CWP1 is a lectin that binds to curled fibrils of the GalNAc homopolymer. During excystation, host and Giardia proteases appear to degrade bound CWPs, exposing fibrils of the GalNAc homopolymer that are digested by a stage-specific glycohydrolase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparajita Chatterjee
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Andrea Carpentieri
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Daniel M. Ratner
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Esther Bullitt
- Department of Biophysics and Physiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Catherine E. Costello
- Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Phillips W. Robbins
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - John Samuelson
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Girones R, Ferrús MA, Alonso JL, Rodriguez-Manzano J, Calgua B, Corrêa ADA, Hundesa A, Carratala A, Bofill-Mas S. Molecular detection of pathogens in water--the pros and cons of molecular techniques. WATER RESEARCH 2010; 44:4325-39. [PMID: 20619868 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2010] [Revised: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 06/14/2010] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Pollution of water by sewage and run-off from farms produces a serious public health problem in many countries. Viruses, along with bacteria and protozoa in the intestine or in urine are shed and transported through the sewer system. Even in highly industrialized countries, pathogens, including viruses, are prevalent throughout the environment. Molecular methods are used to monitor viral, bacterial, and protozoan pathogens, and to track pathogen- and source-specific markers in the environment. Molecular techniques, specifically polymerase chain reaction-based methods, provide sensitive, rapid, and quantitative analytical tools with which to study such pathogens, including new or emerging strains. These techniques are used to evaluate the microbiological quality of food and water, and to assess the efficiency of virus removal in drinking and wastewater treatment plants. The range of methods available for the application of molecular techniques has increased, and the costs involved have fallen. These developments have allowed the potential standardization and automation of certain techniques. In some cases they facilitate the identification, genotyping, enumeration, viability assessment, and source-tracking of human and animal contamination. Additionally, recent improvements in detection technologies have allowed the simultaneous detection of multiple targets in a single assay. However, the molecular techniques available today and those under development require further refinement in order to be standardized and applicable to a diversity of matrices. Water disinfection treatments may have an effect on the viability of pathogens and the numbers obtained by molecular techniques may overestimate the quantification of infectious microorganisms. The pros and cons of molecular techniques for the detection and quantification of pathogens in water are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosina Girones
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona. Av. Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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Mitra S, Cui J, Robbins PW, Samuelson J. A deeply divergent phosphoglucomutase (PGM) of Giardia lamblia has both PGM and phosphomannomutase activities. Glycobiology 2010; 20:1233-40. [PMID: 20507884 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwq081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia lamblia, which is an important parasitic cause of diarrhea, uses activated forms of glucose to make glycogen and activated forms of mannose to make glycophosphosphoinositol anchors. A necessary step for glucose activation is isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose-1-phosphate by a phosphoglucomutase (PGM). Similarly, a phosphomannomutase (PMM) converts mannose-6-phosphate to mannose-1-phosphate. While whole genome sequences of Giardia predict two PGM candidates, no PMM candidate is present. The hypothesis tested here is that at least one of the two Giardia PGM candidates has both PGM and PMM activity, as has been described for bacterial PGM orthologs. Nondenaturing gels showed that Giardia has two proteins with PGM activity, one of which also has PMM activity. Phylogenetic analyses showed that one of the two Giardia PGM candidates (Gl-PGM1) shares recent common ancestry with other eukaryotic PGMs, while the other Giardia PGM candidate (Gl-PGM2) is deeply divergent. Both Gl-PGM1 and Gl-PGM2 rescue a Saccharomyces cerevisiae pgm1Delta/pgm2Delta double deletion strain, while only Gl-PGM2 rescues a temperature-sensitive PMM mutant of S. cerevisiae (sec53-ts). Recombinant Gl-PGM1 has PGM activity only, whereas Gl-PGM2 has both PGM and PMM activities. We conclude that Gl-PGM1 behaves as a conventional eukaryotic PGM, while Gl-PGM2 is a novel eukaryotic PGM that also has PMM activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanghamitra Mitra
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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Cummins E, Kennedy R, Cormican M. Quantitative risk assessment of Cryptosporidium in tap water in Ireland. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2010; 408:740-753. [PMID: 19945145 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2009] [Revised: 11/02/2009] [Accepted: 11/06/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium species are protozoan parasites associated with gastro-intestinal illness. Following a number of high profile outbreaks worldwide, it has emerged as a parasite of major public health concern. A quantitative Monte Carlo simulation model was developed to evaluate the annual risk of infection from Cryptosporidium in tap water in Ireland. The assessment considers the potential initial contamination levels in raw water, oocyst removal and decontamination events following various process stages, including coagulation/flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. A number of scenarios were analysed to represent potential risks from public water supplies, group water schemes and private wells. Where surface water is used additional physical and chemical water treatment is important in terms of reducing the risk to consumers. The simulated annual risk of illness for immunocompetent individuals was below 1 x 10(-4) per year (as set by the US EPA) except under extreme contamination events. The risk for immunocompromised individuals was 2-3 orders of magnitude greater for the scenarios analysed. The model indicates a reduced risk of infection from tap water that has undergone microfiltration, as this treatment is more robust in the event of high contamination loads. The sensitivity analysis highlighted the importance of watershed protection and the importance of adequate coagulation/flocculation in conventional treatment. The frequency of failure of the treatment process is the most important parameter influencing human risk in conventional treatment. The model developed in this study may be useful for local authorities, government agencies and other stakeholders to evaluate the likely risk of infection given some basic input data on source water and treatment processes used.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Cummins
- UCD School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, College of Life Sciences, Agriculture and Food Science Centre, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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Presence of pathogens and indicator microbes at a non-point source subtropical recreational marine beach. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009; 76:724-32. [PMID: 19966020 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02127-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Swimming in ocean water, including ocean water at beaches not impacted by known point sources of pollution, is an increasing health concern. This study was an initial evaluation of the presence of indicator microbes and pathogens and the association among the indicator microbes, pathogens, and environmental conditions at a subtropical, recreational marine beach in south Florida impacted by non-point sources of pollution. Twelve water and eight sand samples were collected during four sampling events at high or low tide under elevated or reduced solar insolation conditions. The analyses performed included analyses of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) (fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, enterococci, and Clostridium perfringens), human-associated microbial source tracking (MST) markers (human polyomaviruses [HPyVs] and Enterococcus faecium esp gene), and pathogens (Vibrio vulnificus, Staphylococcus aureus, enterovirus, norovirus, hepatitis A virus, Cryptosporidium spp., and Giardia spp.). The enterococcus concentrations in water and sand determined by quantitative PCR were greater than the concentrations determined by membrane filtration measurement. The FIB concentrations in water were below the recreational water quality standards for three of the four sampling events, when pathogens and MST markers were also generally undetectable. The FIB levels exceeded regulatory guidelines during one event, and this was accompanied by detection of HPyVs and pathogens, including detection of the autochthonous bacterium V. vulnificus in sand and water, detection of the allochthonous protozoans Giardia spp. in water, and detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in sand samples. The elevated microbial levels were detected at high tide and under low-solar-insolation conditions. Additional sampling should be conducted to further explore the relationships between tidal and solar insolation conditions and between indicator microbes and pathogens in subtropical recreational marine waters impacted by non-point source pollution.
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Identification of particle size classes inhibiting protozoan recovery from surface water samples via U.S. Environmental Protection Agency method 1623. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009; 75:6619-21. [PMID: 19684177 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01136-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia species recovery by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency method 1,623 appears significantly impacted by a wide size range (2 to 30 microm) of particles in water and organic matter. Cryptosporidium species recovery seems negatively correlated only with smaller (2 to 10 microm), presumably inorganic particles. Results suggest constituents and mechanisms interfering with method performance may differ by protozoan type.
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Banerjee S, Robbins PW, Samuelson J. Molecular characterization of nucleocytosolic O-GlcNAc transferases of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. Glycobiology 2008; 19:331-6. [PMID: 18948359 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwn107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
O-Linked N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (OGT) catalyzes the transfer of a single GlcNAc to the Ser or Thr of nucleocytoplasmic proteins. OGT activity, which may compete with that of kinases, is involved in signaling in animals and plants, and abnormalities in OGT activities have been associated with type 2 diabetes. Here, we show that ogt genes that predict enzymes with characteristic tetratricopeptide repeats and a spindly domain are present in some protists (Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, and Dictyostelium) but are absent from the majority of protists examined (e.g., Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, Entamoeba, and Trichomonas). Similarly, ogt genes are present in some fungi but are absent from numerous other fungi, suggesting that secondary loss is an important contributor to the evolution of ogt genes. Nucleocytosolic extracts of Giardia and Cryptosporidium show OGT activity, and recombinant Giardia and Cryptosporidium OGTs are active in yeast and bacteria, respectively. These results suggest the possibility that O-GlcNAc modification of nucleocytosolic proteins also has function(s) in simple eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sulagna Banerjee
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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Cohen SA, Egorov AI, Jagai JS, Matyas BT, DeMaria A, Chui KKH, Griffiths JK, Naumova EN. The SEEDs of two gastrointestinal diseases: socioeconomic, environmental, and demographic factors related to cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in Massachusetts. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2008; 108:185-91. [PMID: 18706542 PMCID: PMC2730214 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2008.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2007] [Revised: 05/09/2008] [Accepted: 06/23/2008] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We assessed associations between community-level socioeconomic, demographic, and environmental characteristics, and the presence of two potentially waterborne infectious diseases, cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis, as reported to the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. METHODS We created a series of maps showing the spatial distribution of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in Massachusetts (1993-2002) overall and by age, using logistic regression to analyze associations between community-level characteristics and the presence of at least one reported case of each disease. This analysis was repeated for communities with predominantly private water supplies. RESULT After adjusting for population size, higher population density and larger than average household sizes were associated with increased odds of reported cases of cryptosporidiosis. Giardiasis was also associated with high population density, but was not associated with household size. In the elderly, income was positively associated with the presence of giardiasis. DISCUSSION These findings suggest that greater population density and larger household sizes may increase the likelihood of protozoan gastrointestinal infection. The results emphasize the necessity to account for distal factors, such as demographic characteristics, that may ultimately play a role in the transmission or reporting of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven A Cohen
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, MD, USA
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Changes in the N-glycome, glycoproteins with Asn-linked glycans, of Giardia lamblia with differentiation from trophozoites to cysts. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2008; 7:1930-40. [PMID: 18820077 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00268-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Giardia lamblia is present in the intestinal lumen as a binucleate, flagellated trophozoite or a quadranucleate, immotile cyst. Here we used the plant lectin wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), which binds to the disaccharide di-N-acetyl-chitobiose (GlcNAc(2)), which is the truncated Asn-linked glycan (N-glycan) of Giardia, to affinity purify the N-glycomes (glycoproteins with N-glycans) of trophozoites and cysts. Fluorescent WGA bound to the perinuclear membranes, peripheral acidified vesicles, and plasma membranes of trophozoites. In contrast, WGA bound strongly to membranes adjacent to the wall of Giardia cysts and less strongly to the endoplasmic reticulum and acidified vesicles. WGA lectin-affinity chromatography dramatically enriched secreted and membrane proteins of Giardia, including proteases and acid phosphatases that retain their activities. With mass spectroscopy, we identified 91 glycopeptides with N-glycans and 194 trophozoite-secreted and membrane proteins, including 42 unique proteins. The Giardia oligosaccharyltransferase, which contains a single catalytic subunit, preferred N glycosylation sites with Thr to those with Ser in vivo but had no preference for flanking amino acids. The most-abundant glycoproteins in the N-glycome of trophozoites were lysosomal enzymes, folding-associated proteins, and unique transmembrane proteins with Cys-, Leu-, or Gly-rich repeats. We identified 157 secreted and membrane proteins in the Giardia cysts, including 20 unique proteins. Compared to trophozoites, cysts were enriched in Gly-rich repeat transmembrane proteins, cyst wall proteins, and unique membrane proteins but had relatively fewer Leu-rich repeat proteins, folding-associated proteins, and unique secreted proteins. In summary, there are major changes in the Giardia N-glycome with the differentiation from trophozoites to cysts.
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Trang DT, Hien BTT, Mølbak K, Cam PD, Dalsgaard A. Epidemiology and aetiology of diarrhoeal diseases in adults engaged in wastewater-fed agriculture and aquaculture in Hanoi, Vietnam. Trop Med Int Health 2007; 12 Suppl 2:23-33. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2007.01938.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Borges JCG, Alves LC, Faustino MADG. Criptosporidiose: uma revisão sobre a sua implicação na conservação dos mamíferos aquáticos. BIOTA NEOTROPICA 2007. [DOI: 10.1590/s1676-06032007000300010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A criptosporidiose é uma doença parasitária emergente que vem sendo relatada em diversas espécies de mamíferos, incluindo os aquáticos. Esta revisão trata da epidemiologia da infecção por Cryptosporidium spp. em mamíferos aquáticos. A idade dos animais, dose infectante e o estado imunológico podem influenciar na apresentação clínica, e quando associados a outros patógenos pode levar o animal a óbito. A contaminação dos recursos hídricos constitui um dos principais meios de disseminação do parasito, que foi identificado por diferentes técnicas de análise. A adequação das estruturas de saneamento, utilização de métodos apropriados para a inativação dos oocistos e garantia das normas de higiene pessoal constituem algumas das maneiras recomendadas para minimizar a disseminação do Cryptosporidium entre os mamíferos aquáticos.
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Combinatorial decomposition of an outbreak signature. Math Biosci 2006; 202:269-87. [PMID: 16631819 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbs.2006.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2005] [Revised: 01/17/2006] [Accepted: 03/10/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
We use mathematically rigorous definitions of epidemiological concepts in order to derive a sequential combinatorial model of disease outbreak decomposition. We define the idea of a population specific 'disease signature' and use this in order to decompose and further understand outbreaks as incidents of spatial and temporal spread of disease exposure both in, and across, populations. This allows us to differentiate between different disease spread scenarios with a level of sensitivity that previous models were unable to provide. This perspective leads us to propose a new practical definition for 'outbreak'. In addition, we are able to use this model to understand, estimate, and, in some cases, correct for, the likely instances of reporting error inherent in disease surveillance. We demonstrate our model first with a hypothetical outbreak scenario and then in an analysis of suspected outbreaks of waterborne diseases in Massachusetts (MA) in 1995.
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Escobedo LG, Homedes N, von Alt K, Escobedo MA. Intestinal parasites in children from three west Texas border communities. THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH 2004; 74:411-413. [PMID: 15724569 DOI: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2004.tb06609.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Luis G Escobedo
- New Mexico Dept. of Health, 1170 North Solano Drive, Suite L, Las Cruces, NM 88001, USA.
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Abo-Shehada M, Hindyia M, Saiah A. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum in private drinking water cisterns in Bani-Kenanah district, northern Jordan. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2004; 14:351-358. [PMID: 15385214 DOI: 10.1080/09603120400004030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Due to water scarcity in Jordan, the water authority only pump the water once or twice a week to the population. Thus people in rural areas, including the Bani-Kenanah district, make the most of their water resources by storing rainwater in private reservoirs for use during periods of water shortage. These reservoirs include; underground cisterns and concrete or metal tanks. The water collected in these reservoirs is at risk of contamination. During the period March-July 2002, the three types of reservoirs from 368 households were surveyed for presence of Escherichia coli and Cryptosporidium parvum, indicators of contamination. The cistern was the most contaminated reservoir with 17% (95% CI: 13,22) for E. coli (significant, P<0.05), and 2% (95% CI: 1,4) for C. parvum. Only 1% (95% CI: 1,6) of the metal reservoirs had E. coli, while concrete reservoirs were free. No C. parvum oocysts were detected in either the concrete or metal reservoirs. Reservoirs opening at floor level and the bucket kept outside the reservoir were significant (P<0.05) enhancing risk factors for contamination with C. parvum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Abo-Shehada
- Parasitology Research Laboratory, Department of Basic Veterinary Medical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Jordan University of Science and Technology PO Box 3030 Irbid 22110 Jordan.
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Odoi A, Martin SW, Michel P, Middleton D, Holt J, Wilson J. Investigation of clusters of giardiasis using GIS and a spatial scan statistic. Int J Health Geogr 2004; 3:11. [PMID: 15176979 PMCID: PMC436063 DOI: 10.1186/1476-072x-3-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2004] [Accepted: 06/04/2004] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Giardia lamblia is the most frequently identified human intestinal parasite in Canada with prevalence estimates of 4–10%. However, infection rates vary by geographical area and localized 'pockets' of high or low infection rates are thought to exist. Water-borne transmission is one of the major routes of infection. Sources of contamination of drinking water include humans, domestic and wild animals. A previous study in southern Ontario, Canada, indicated a bivariate association between giardiasis rates and livestock density and/or manure use on agricultural land; however these variables were not significant when the variable 'rural' was added to the model. In that study, urban areas were defined as those with a minimum of 1,000 persons and a population density of at least 400 persons per Km2; all other areas were considered rural. This paper investigates the presence of local giardiasis clusters and considers the extent to which livestock density and manure application on agricultural land might explain the 'rural' effect. A spatial scan statistic was used to identify spatial clusters and geographical correlation analysis was used to explore associations of giardiasis rates with manure application on agricultural land and livestock density. Results Significant (P < 0.05) high rate spatial clusters were identified in a number of areas. Results also showed significant (P < 0.05) associations between giardiasis rates and both livestock density and manure application on agricultural land. However, the associations were observed in only two regions. Conclusions There is evidence that giardiasis clusters in space in southern Ontario. However, there is no strong evidence to suggest that either livestock density or manure application on agricultural land plays an important role in the epidemiology of giardiasis in the study area. Therefore these factors do not seem to explain the higher rates of giardiasis reported in rural areas. The spatial scan statistics methodology used in this study has an important potential use in disease surveillance for confirming or refuting cluster alarms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agricola Odoi
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Hamilton District Health Council, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - S Wayne Martin
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Pascal Michel
- Université de Montreal, CP 5000, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada
| | - Dean Middleton
- Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - John Holt
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jeff Wilson
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Division of Enteric, Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases, Population and Public Health Branch, Health Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Pouillot R, Beaudeau P, Denis JB, Derouin F. A quantitative risk assessment of waterborne cryptosporidiosis in France using second-order Monte Carlo simulation. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2004; 24:1-17. [PMID: 15027996 DOI: 10.1111/j.0272-4332.2004.00407.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A pragmatic quantitative risk assessment (QRA) of the risks of waterborne Cryptosporidium parvum infection and cryptosporidiosis in immunocompetent and immunodeficient French populations is proposed. The model takes into account French specificities such as the French technique for oocyst enumeration performance and tap water consumption. The proportion of infective oocysts is based on literature review and expert knowledge. The probability of infection for a given number of ingested viable oocysts is modeled using the exponential dose-response model applied on published data from experimental infections in immunocompetent human volunteers challenged with the IOWA strain. Second-order Monte Carlo simulations are used to characterize the uncertainty and variability of the risk estimates. Daily risk of infection and illness for the immunocompetent and the immunodeficient populations are estimated according to the number of oocysts observed in a single storage reservoir water sample. As an example, the mean daily risk of infection in the immunocompetent population is estimated to be 1.08 x 10(-4) (95% confidence interval: [0.20 x 10(-4); 6.83 x 10(-4)]) when five oocysts are observed in a 100 L storage reservoir water sample. Annual risks of infection and disease are estimated from a set of oocyst enumeration results from distributed water samples, assuming a negative binomial distribution of day-to-day contamination variation. The model and various assumptions used in the model are fully explained and discussed. While caveats of this model are well recognized, this pragmatic QRA could represent a useful tool for the French Food Safety Agency (AFSSA) to define recommendations in case of water resource contamination by C. parvum whose infectivity is comparable to the IOWA strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Régis Pouillot
- Unité d'appui épidémiologique á l'analyse de risque, Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments, Maison-Alfort, France
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Carey CM, Lee H, Trevors JT. Biology, persistence and detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis oocyst. WATER RESEARCH 2004; 38:818-862. [PMID: 14769405 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2003.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2003] [Revised: 10/06/2003] [Accepted: 10/22/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis are obligate enteric protozoan parasites which infect the gastrointestinal tract of animals and humans. The mechanism(s) by which these parasites cause gastrointestinal distress in their hosts is not well understood. The risk of waterborne transmission of Cryptosporidium is a serious global issue in drinking water safety. Oocysts from these organisms are extremely robust, prevalent in source water supplies and capable of surviving in the environment for extended periods of time. Resistance to conventional water treatment by chlorination, lack of correlation with biological indicator microorganisms and the absence of adequate methods to detect the presence of infectious oocysts necessitates the development of consistent and effective means of parasite removal from the water supply. Additional research into improving water treatment and sewage treatment practices is needed, particularly in testing the efficiency of ozone in oocyst inactivation. Timely and efficient detection of infectious C. parvum and C. hominis oocysts in environmental samples requires the development of rapid and sensitive techniques for the concentration, purification and detection of these parasites. A major factor confounding proper detection remains the inability to adequately and efficiently concentrate oocysts from environmental samples, while limiting the presence of extraneous materials. Molecular-based techniques are the most promising methods for the sensitive and accurate detection of C. parvum and C. hominis. With the availability of numerous target sequences, RT-PCR will likely emerge as an important method to assess oocyst viability. In addition, a multiplex PCR for the simultaneous detection of C. parvum, C. hominis and other waterborne pathogens such as Giardia lamblia would greatly benefit the water industry and protect human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Carey
- Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ont, Canada N1G 2W1
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37
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Gaffield SJ, Goo RL, Richards LA, Jackson RJ. Public health effects of inadequately managed stormwater runoff. Am J Public Health 2003; 93:1527-33. [PMID: 12948975 PMCID: PMC1448005 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.93.9.1527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study investigated the scale of the public health risk from stormwater runoff caused by urbanization. METHODS We compiled turbidity data for municipal treated drinking water as an indication of potential risk in selected US cities and compared estimated costs of waterborne disease and preventive measures. RESULTS Turbidity levels in other US cities were similar to those linked to illnesses in Milwaukee, Wis, and Philadelphia, Pa. The estimated annual cost of waterborne illness is comparable to the long-term capital investment needed for improved drinking water treatment and stormwater management. CONCLUSIONS Although additional data on cost and effectiveness are needed, stormwater management to minimize runoff and associated pollution appears to make sense for protecting public health at the least cost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Gaffield
- Office of Children's Health Protection, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA.
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Feng YY, Ong SL, Hu JY, Song LF, Tan XL, Ng WJ. Effect of particles on the recovery of cryptosporidium oocysts from source water samples of various turbidities. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003; 69:1898-903. [PMID: 12676662 PMCID: PMC154797 DOI: 10.1128/aem.69.4.1898-1903.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum can be found in both source and drinking water and has been reported to cause serious waterborne outbreaks which threaten public health safety. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has developed method 1622 for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts present in water. Method 1622 involves four key processing steps: filtration, immunomagnetic separation (IMS), fluorescent-antibody (FA) staining, and microscopic evaluation. The individual performance of each of these four steps was evaluated in this study. We found that the levels of recovery of C. parvum oocysts at the IMS-FA and FA staining stages were high, averaging more than 95%. In contrast, the level of recovery declined significantly, to 14.4%, when the filtration step was incorporated with tap water as a spiking medium. This observation suggested that a significant fraction of C. parvum oocysts was lost during the filtration step. When C. parvum oocysts were spiked into reclaimed water, tap water, microfiltration filtrate, and reservoir water, the highest mean level of recovery of (85.0% +/- 5.2% [mean +/- standard deviation]) was obtained for the relatively turbid reservoir water. Further studies indicated that it was the suspended particles present in the reservoir water that contributed to the enhanced C. parvum oocyst recovery. The levels of C. parvum oocyst recovery from spiked reservoir water with different turbidities indicated that particle size and concentration could affect oocyst recovery. Similar observations were also made when silica particles of different sizes and masses were added to seeded tap water. The optimal particle size was determined to be in the range from 5 to 40 micro m, and the corresponding optimal concentration of suspended particles was 1.42 g for 10 liters of tap water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Yu Feng
- Center for Water Research, Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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Stuart JM, Orr HJ, Warburton FG, Jeyakanth S, Pugh C, Morris I, Sarangi J, Nichols G. Risk factors for sporadic giardiasis: a case-control study in southwestern England. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9:229-33. [PMID: 12603995 DOI: 10.3201/eid0902.010488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate risk factors for sporadic infection with Giardia lamblia acquired in the United Kingdom, we conducted a matched case-control study in southwest England in 1998 and 1999. Response rates to a postal questionnaire were 84% (232/276) for cases and 69% (574/828) for controls. In multivariable analysis, swallowing water while swimming (p<0.0001, odds ratio [OR] 6.2, 95% confidence intervals [CI] 2.3 to 16.6), recreational fresh water contact (p=0.001, OR 5.5, 95% CI 1.9 to 15.9), drinking treated tap water (p<0.0001, OR 1.3, 95% CI 1.1 to 1.5 for each additional glass per day), and eating lettuce (pç=0.01, OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.2 to 4.3) had positive and independent associations with infection. Although case-control studies are prone to bias and the risk of Giardia infection is minimized by water treatment processes, the possibility that treated tap water is a source of sporadic giardiasis warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Stuart
- PHLS Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre (Southwest), Gloucester, UK.
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Theron J, Cloete TE. Emerging waterborne infections: contributing factors, agents, and detection tools. Crit Rev Microbiol 2002; 28:1-26. [PMID: 12003038 DOI: 10.1080/1040-840291046669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Because microorganisms are easily dispersed, display physiological diversity, and tolerate extreme conditions, they are ubiquitous and may contaminate and grow in water. The presence of waterborne enteric pathogens (bacteria, viruses, and protozoa) in domestic water supplies represents a potentially significant human health risk. Even though major outbreaks of waterborne disease are comparatively rare, there is substantial evidence that human enteric pathogens that are frequently present in domestic water supplies are responsible for low-level incidence of waterborne microbial disease. Although these diseases are rarely debilitating to healthy adults for more than a few hours to a few days, enteric pathogens can cause severe illness, even death, for young children, the elderly, or those with compromised immune systems. As the epidemiology of waterborne diseases is changing, there is a growing global public health concern about new and reemerging infectious diseases that are occurring through a complex interaction of social, economic, evolutionary, and ecological factors. New microbial pathogens have emerged, and some have spread worldwide. Alternative testing strategies for waterborne diseases should significantly improve the ability to detect and control the causative pathogenic agents. In this article, we provide an overview of the current state of knowledge of waterborne microbial pathogens, their detection, and the future of new methods in controlling these infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Theron
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of Pretoria, South Africa
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Fournier S, Dubrou S, Liguory O, Gaussin F, Santillana-Hayat M, Sarfati C, Molina JM, Derouin F. Detection of Microsporidia, cryptosporidia and Giardia in swimming pools: a one-year prospective study. FEMS IMMUNOLOGY AND MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY 2002; 33:209-13. [PMID: 12110483 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2002.tb00592.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In order to estimate the rate of microsporidia, cryptosporidia and giardia contamination of swimming pools, sequential samples of water were collected during a one-year period in six different swimming pools in Paris, France. Fourty-eight samples were submitted to filtrations. Eluates were examined for microsporidia using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and for cryptosporidia and giardia using immunofluorescence staining. One of 48 specimens was positive for microsporidia. Using DNA sequence analysis, unknown microsporidia species were identified, which were close to an insect microsporidia Endoreticulatus schubergi. One sample was positive for cryptosporidia and none were positive for giardia. This study shows a low level of swimming pool water contamination by microsporidia, cryptosporidia or giardia, demonstrating the efficacy of cleaning filtration and disinfection procedures used in French swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Fournier
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Saint Louis Hospital, 1 avenue Claude Vellefaux, 75010, Paris, France.
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Egorov A, Paulauskis J, Petrova L, Tereschenko A, Drizhd N, Ford T. Contamination of water supplies with Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia and diarrheal illness in selected Russian cities. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2002; 205:281-9. [PMID: 12068747 DOI: 10.1078/1438-4639-00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia are important agents of waterborne diarrheal illness worldwide. While giardiasis is routinely diagnosed in Russia with a chemical staining technique, data on the prevalence of cryptosporidiosis are scarce. Monitoring of the respective parasites in water supplies in Russia is very limited. A health survey conducted in the city of Cherepovets and three other cities in the European part of Russia using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) demonstrated that 6.9% of diarrheal patients tested had C. parvum antigens in their fecal samples; 9.4% had G. lamblia antigens. A survey of occurrence of these parasites in water supplies in Cherepovets and seven other cities demonstrated that source and finished water samples from several of these cities were contaminated with either C. parvum oocysts or G. lamblia cysts. The surveys were not designed to assess associations between presence or concentrations of C. parvum and G. lamblia in water and related gastrointestinal diseases in exposed populations. Rather, the goals were to demonstrate the presence of disinfection-resistant protozoan parasites in untreated and treated waters, and the importance of these pathogens as causative agents of diarrheal illnesses in a number of Russian cities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey Egorov
- Tufts School of Medicine, Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, 136 Harrison Avenue, M&V 1, Room 119, Boston, MA 02111, USA.
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Backer H. Water disinfection for international and wilderness travelers. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34:355-64. [PMID: 11774083 DOI: 10.1086/324747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2001] [Revised: 09/20/2001] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Acquisition of waterborne disease is a substantial risk for international travelers to countries with inadequate sanitation facilities. It also poses smaller but still significant risks for wilderness travelers who rely on surface water in developed countries with low rates of diarrheal illness, such as the United States. This article reviews the etiology and risks associated with waterborne disease that might be encountered by both types of travelers. It also summarizes--and makes recommendations for--the various water-treatment methods available to travelers for reducing their risk of contracting waterborne disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howard Backer
- Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Health Services, Berkeley, CA 94704, USA.
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Abstract
To determine how binuclear giardia swim, we used video microscopy to observe trophozoites of Giardia intestinalis, which were labeled with an amino-specific Alexa Fluor dye that highlighted the flagella and adherence disc. Giardia swam forward by means of the synchronous beating of anterior, posterolateral, and ventral flagella in the plane of the ventral disc, while caudal flagella swam in a plane perpendicular to the disc. Giardia turned in the plane of the disc by means of a rudder-like motion of its tail, which was constant rather than beating. To determine how giardia divide, we used three-dimensional confocal microscopy, the same surface label, nuclear stains, and antitubulin antibodies. Giardia divided with mirror-image symmetry in the plane of the adherence disc, so that the right nucleus of the mother became the left nucleus of the daughter. Pairs of nuclei were tethered together by microtubules which surrounded nuclei and prevented mother or daughter giardia from receiving two copies of the same nucleus. New adherence discs formed upon a spiral backbone of microtubules, which had a clockwise rotation when viewed from the ventral surface. These dynamic observations of the parasite begin to reveal how giardia swim and divide.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ghosh
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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Dalton C, Goater A, Drysdale J, Pethig R. Parasite viability by electrorotation. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0927-7757(01)00850-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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46
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Abstract
Advances in public health have reduced the risk of contracting certain enteric diseases, but many remain, and new pathogens have emerged and/or recently have been discovered. The pathogenic agents are varied and consist of a variety of bacteria and select viruses and parasites. Selected use of microbiologic assays to detect these pathogens is encouraged. When tests are ordered non-judiciously, costs rapidly accrue. The age of the patient, time of year, travel history, and clinical presentation all provide clues to the etiologic agent. Microbiologic assays should be used judiciously to confirm or exclude the likely infectious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- G W Procop
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
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Katanik MT, Schneider SK, Rosenblatt JE, Hall GS, Procop GW. Evaluation of ColorPAC Giardia/Cryptosporidium rapid assay and ProSpecT Giardia/Cryptosporidium microplate assay for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in fecal specimens. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39:4523-5. [PMID: 11724874 PMCID: PMC88578 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.39.12.4523-4525.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2001] [Accepted: 09/17/2001] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in clinical stool specimens using the ColorPAC and ProSpecT enzyme immunoassays revealed 98.7% agreement for Giardia detection and 98.1% agreement for Cryptosporidium detection. Sensitivities were uniformly 100%. The specificities of the ColorPAC immunoassay for Giardia and Cryptosporidium detection were 100 and 99.5%, respectively, and those for the ProSpecT assay were 98.4 and 98.6%, respectively. The false-positive reactions with the ProSpecT assay occurred with specimens that were grossly bloody.
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Affiliation(s)
- M T Katanik
- Section of Clinical Microbiology, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA
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48
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Abstract
Children's behavior and physiology place them at unique risk from waterborne microbial and chemical contaminants. This article reveals children's susceptibility factors and the microbial and chemical contaminants of greatest importance to this age group. It also provides a primer on water treatment and alternatives to tap water. This article concludes with recommendations and resources to aid the practicing pediatrician in addressing patient concerns about drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Balbus
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health and Health Services, George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
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49
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Abstract
Human amebiasis is caused by the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Invasion of the colonic mucosa by the trophozoite form of this parasite generally results in the clinical syndrome of amebic dysentery, although there is a wide range of clinical presentations. Some patients will progress to disseminated disease, with resulting amebic liver abscesses. Although it is estimated that 10% of the world's population is infected with E. histolytica, only 1% of these patients will manifest disease. The diagnosis is usually made by microscopically identifying the microorganism in a stool specimen. The antibiotic of choice for treatment of amebiasis is metronidazole, 750 mg, three times daily for 10 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L. Zlobl
- University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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50
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Simmons OD, Sobsey MD, Heaney CD, Schaefer FW, Francy DS. Concentration and detection of cryptosporidium oocysts in surface water samples by method 1622 using ultrafiltration and capsule filtration. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001; 67:1123-7. [PMID: 11229901 PMCID: PMC92704 DOI: 10.1128/aem.67.3.1123-1127.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum is known to occur widely in both source and drinking water and has caused waterborne outbreaks of gastroenteritis. To improve monitoring, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency developed method 1622 for isolation and detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water. Method 1622 is performance based and involves filtration, concentration, immunomagnetic separation, fluorescent-antibody staining and 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) counterstaining, and microscopic evaluation. The capsule filter system currently recommended for method 1622 was compared to a hollow-fiber ultrafilter system for primary concentration of C. parvum oocysts in seeded reagent water and untreated surface waters. Samples were otherwise processed according to method 1622. Rates of C. parvum oocyst recovery from seeded 10-liter volumes of reagent water in precision and recovery experiments with filter pairs were 42% (standard deviation [SD], 24%) and 46% (SD, 18%) for hollow-fiber ultrafilters and capsule filters, respectively. Mean oocyst recovery rates in experiments testing both filters on seeded surface water samples were 42% (SD, 27%) and 15% (SD, 12%) for hollow-fiber ultrafilters and capsule filters, respectively. Although C. parvum oocysts were recovered from surface waters by using the approved filter of method 1622, the recovery rates were significantly lower and more variable than those from reagent grade water. In contrast, the disposable hollow-fiber ultrafilter system was compatible with subsequent method 1622 processing steps, and it recovered C. parvum oocysts from seeded surface waters with significantly greater efficiency and reliability than the filter suggested for use in the version of method 1622 tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- O D Simmons
- School of Public Health, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7400, USA.
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