WITHHOLDING AND EXCHANGING IRON: Interactions Between Erwinia spp. and Their Plant Hosts

The conceptual foundations of innate immunity: Taking stock 30 years later

While largely neglected over decades during which adaptive immunity captured most of the attention, innate immune mechanisms have now become central to our understanding of immunology. Innate immunity provides the first barrier to infection in vertebrates, and it is the sole mechanism of host defense in invertebrates and plants. Innate immunity also plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis, shaping the microbiota, and in disease contexts such as cancer, neurodegeneration, metabolic syndromes, and aging. The emergence of the field of innate immunity has led to an expanded view of the immune system, which is no longer restricted to vertebrates and instead concerns all metazoans, plants, and even prokaryotes. The study of innate immunity has given rise to new concepts and language. Here, we review the history and definition of the core concepts of innate immunity, discussing their value and fruitfulness in the long run.

Genome-resolved metatranscriptomics reveals conserved root colonization determinants in a synthetic microbiota

The identification of processes activated by specific microbes during microbiota colonization of plant roots has been hampered by technical constraints in metatranscriptomics. These include lack of reference genomes, high representation of host or microbial rRNA sequences in datasets, or difficulty to experimentally validate gene functions. Here, we recolonized germ-free Arabidopsis thaliana with a synthetic, yet representative root microbiota comprising 106 genome-sequenced bacterial and fungal isolates. We used multi-kingdom rRNA depletion, deep RNA-sequencing and read mapping against reference microbial genomes to analyse the in planta metatranscriptome of abundant colonizers. We identified over 3,000 microbial genes that were differentially regulated at the soil-root interface. Translation and energy production processes were consistently activated in planta, and their induction correlated with bacterial strains' abundance in roots. Finally, we used targeted mutagenesis to show that several genes consistently induced by multiple bacteria are required for root colonization in one of the abundant bacterial strains (a genetically tractable Rhodanobacter). Our results indicate that microbiota members activate strain-specific processes but also common gene sets to colonize plant roots.

Harnessing fungal endophytes for natural management: a biocontrol perspective

In the ever-evolving realm of agriculture, the convoluted interaction between plants and microorganisms have assumed paramount significance. Fungal endophytes, once perceived as mere bystanders within plant tissues, have now emerged as dynamic defenders of plant health. This comprehensive review delves into the captivating world of fungal endophytes and their multifaceted biocontrol mechanisms. Exploring their unique ability to coexist with their plant hosts, fungal endophytes have unlocked a treasure trove of biological weaponry to fend off pathogens and enhance plant resilience. From the synthesis of bioactive secondary metabolites to intricate signaling pathways these silent allies are masters of biological warfare. The world of fungal endophytes is quite fascinating as they engage in a delicate dance with the plant immune system, orchestrating a symphony of defense that challenges traditional notions of plant-pathogen interactions. The journey through the various mechanisms employed by these enigmatic endophytes to combat diseases, will lead to revelational understanding of sustainable agriculture. The review delves into cutting-edge research and promising prospects, shedding light on how fungal endophytes hold the key to biocontrol and the reduction of chemical inputs in agriculture. Their ecological significance, potential for bioprospecting and avenues for future research are also explored. This exploration of the biocontrol mechanisms of fungal endophytes promise not only to enrich our comprehension of plant-microbe relationships but also, to shape the future of sustainable and ecofriendly agricultural practices. In this intricate web of life, fungal endophytes are indeed the unsung heroes, silently guarding our crops and illuminating a path towards a greener, healthier tomorrow.

High-affinity iron uptake is required for optimal Epichloë festucae colonization of Lolium perenne and seed transmission

Epichloë festucae uses a siderophore-mediated system to acquire iron, which is important to maintain endophyte-grass symbioses. Here we investigate the roles of the alternative iron acquisition system, reductive iron assimilation (RIA), via disruption of the fetC gene, which encodes a multicopper ferroxidase, either alone (i.e., ΔfetC) or in combination with disruption of the gene sidA, which encodes a siderophore biosynthesis enzyme (i.e., ΔfetC/ΔsidA). The phenotypic characteristics of these mutants were compared to ΔsidA and wild-type (WT) strains during growth under axenic culture conditions (in culture) and in symbiosis with the host grass, perennial ryegrass (in planta). Under iron deficiency, the colony growth rate of ΔfetC was slightly slower than that of WT, while the growth of ΔsidA and ΔfetC/ΔsidA mutants was severely suppressed. Siderophore analyses indicated that ΔfetC mutants hyperaccumulate ferriepichloënin A (FEA) at low iron concentrations and ferricrocin and FEA at higher iron concentrations. When compared to WT, all mutant strains displayed hyperbranching hyphal structures and a reduced ratio of Epichloë DNA to total DNA in planta. Furthermore, host colonization and vertical transmission through infection of the host seed were significantly reduced in the ΔfetC/ΔsidA mutants, confirming that high-affinity iron uptake is a critical process for Epichloë transmission. Thus, RIA and siderophore iron uptake are complementary systems required for the maintenance of iron metabolism, fungal growth, and symbiosis between E. festucae and perennial ryegrass.

The GacA-GacS Type Two-Component System Modulates the Pathogenicity of Dickeya oryzae EC1 Mainly by Regulating the Production of Zeamines

The GacS-GacA type two-component system (TCS) positively regulates pathogenicity-related phenotypes in many plant pathogens. In addition, Dickeya oryzae EC1, the causative agent of soft rot disease, produces antibiotic-like toxins called zeamines as one of the major virulence factors that inhibit the germination of rice seeds. The present study identified a GacS-GacA type TCS, named TzpS-TzpA, that positively controls the virulence of EC1, mainly by regulating production of the toxin zeamines. RNA-seq analysis of strain EC1 and its tzpA mutant showed that the TCS regulated a wide range of virulence genes, especially those encoding zeamines. Protein-protein interaction was detected between TzpS and TzpA through the bacterial two-hybrid system and pull-down assay. In trans expression of tzpA failed to rescue the defective phenotypes in both the ΔtzpS and ΔtzpSΔtzpA mutants. Furthermore, TzpA controls target gene expression by direct binding to DNA promoters that contain a Gac-box motif, including a regulatory RNA rsmB and the vfm quorum-sensing system regulator vfmE. These findings therefore suggested that the EC1 TzpS-TzpA TCS system mediates the pathogenicity of Dickeya oryzae EC1 mainly by regulating the production of zeamines.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Dickeya Manipulates Multiple Quorum Sensing Systems to Control Virulence and Collective Behaviors

Soft rot Pectobacteriaceae (SRP), typical of Pectobacterium and Dickeya, are a class of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens that cause devastating diseases on a wide range of crops and ornamental plants worldwide. Quorum sensing (QS) is a cell-cell communication mechanism regulating the expression of specific genes by releasing QS signal molecules associated with cell density, in most cases, involving in the vital process of virulence and infection. In recent years, several types of QS systems have been uncovered in Dickeya pathogens to control diverse biological behaviors, especially bacterial pathogenicity and transkingdom interactions. This review depicts an integral QS regulation network of Dickeya, elaborates in detail the regulation of specific QS system on different biological functions of the pathogens and hosts, aiming at providing a systematic overview of Dickeya pathogenicity and interactions with hosts, and, finally, expects the future prospective of effectively controlling the bacterial soft rot disease caused by Dickeya by quenching the key QS signal.

Exploration of the Quorum-Quenching Mechanism in Pseudomonas nitroreducens W-7 and Its Potential to Attenuate the Virulence of Dickeya zeae EC1

Quorum quenching (QQ) is a novel, promising strategy that opens up a new perspective for controlling quorum-sensing (QS)-mediated bacterial pathogens. QQ is performed by interfering with population-sensing systems, such as by the inhibition of signal synthesis, catalysis of degrading enzymes, and modification of signals. In many Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria, a class of chemically conserved signaling molecules named N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) have been widely studied. AHLs are involved in the modulation of virulence factors in various bacterial pathogens including Dickeya zeae. Dickeya zeae is the causal agent of plant-rot disease of bananas, rice, maize, potatoes, etc., causing enormous economic losses of crops. In this study, a highly efficient AHL-degrading bacterial strain W-7 was isolated from activated-sludge samples and identified as Pseudomonas nitroreducens. Strain W-7 revealed a superior ability to degrade N-(3-oxododecanoyl)-l-homoserine lactone (OdDHL) and completely degraded 0.2 mmol/L of OdDHL within 48 h. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) identified N-cyclohexyl-propanamide as the main intermediate metabolite during AHL biodegradation. A metabolic pathway for AHL in strain W-7 was proposed based on the chemical structure of AHL and intermediate products. In addition to the degradation of OdDHL, this strain was also found to be capable of degrading a wide range of AHLs including N-(3-oxohexanoyl)-l-homoserine lactone (OHHL), N-(3-oxooctanoyl)-l-homoserine lactone (OOHL), and N-hexanoyl-l-homoserine lactone (HHL). Moreover, the application of strain W-7 as a biocontrol agent could substantially attenuate the soft rot caused by D. zeae EC1 to suppress tissue maceration in various host plants. Similarly, the application of crude enzymes of strain W-7 significantly reduced the disease incidence and severity in host plants. These original findings unveil the biochemical aspects of a highly efficient AHL-degrading bacterial isolate and provide useful agents that exhibit great potential for the control of infectious diseases caused by AHL-dependent bacterial pathogens.

Interplay between Coumarin Accumulation, Iron Deficiency and Plant Resistance to Dickeya spp

Coumarins belong to a group of secondary metabolites well known for their high biological activities including antibacterial and antifungal properties. Recently, an important role of coumarins in plant resistance to pathogens and their release into the rhizosphere upon pathogen infection was discovered. It is also well documented that coumarins play a crucial role in the Arabidopsis thaliana growth under Fe-limited conditions. However, the mechanisms underlying interplay between plant resistance, accumulation of coumarins and Fe status, remain largely unknown. In this work, we investigated the effect of both mentioned factors on the disease severity using the model system of Arabidopsis/Dickeya spp. molecular interactions. We evaluated the disease symptoms in Arabidopsis plants, wild-type Col-0 and its mutants defective in coumarin accumulation, grown in hydroponic cultures with contrasting Fe regimes and in soil mixes. Under all tested conditions, Arabidopsis plants inoculated with Dickeya solani IFB0099 strain developed more severe disease symptoms compared to lines inoculated with Dickeya dadantii 3937. We also showed that the expression of genes encoding plant stress markers were strongly affected by D. solani IFB0099 infection. Interestingly, the response of plants to D. dadantii 3937 infection was genotype-dependent in Fe-deficient hydroponic solution.

The First Polish Isolate of a Novel Species Pectobacterium aquaticum Originates from a Pomeranian Lake

Pectinolytic bacteria from the genus Pectobacterium cause high economic losses in various crops, vegetables, and ornamentals including potato. Thus far, these strains have been isolated from distinct environments such as rotten or asymptomatic plants, soil, and waterways. The prevalence of soft rot Pectobacteriaceae in different depths of Pomeranian lakes was performed by a qualified scuba diver over 2 years of monitoring. It allowed for the isolation and broad characterization of a strain from the newly established species Pectobacterium aquaticum. Phylogenetic analysis on the sequences of dnaX and recA genes revealed the highest similarity of this strain to P. aquaticum CFBP 8637^T. In addition to the determination of analytical profile index (API 20E), we discovered that this strain possesses a smooth form of a lipopolysaccharide with O-polysaccharide consisting of mannose, glucose, and abequose. Moreover, the characterized strain, described as P. aquaticum IFB5637, produced plant-cell–wall-degrading enzymes, such as pectinases, cellulases, proteases, and was capable of macerating potato and chicory tissues under laboratory conditions. In view of more frequent irrigation of seed potato fields resulting from the ongoing climate warming, it is important to monitor the occurrence of potential disease-causing agents in natural waterways.

The Role of Zinc in Copper Homeostasis of Aspergillus fumigatus

Copper is an essential metal ion that performs many physiological functions in living organisms. Deletion of Afmac1, which is a copper-responsive transcriptional activator in A. fumigatus, results in a growth defect on aspergillus minimal medium (AMM). Interestingly, we found that zinc starvation suppressed the growth defect of the Δafmac1 strain on AMM. In addition, the growth defect of the Δafmac1 strain was recovered by copper supplementation or introduction of the CtrC gene into the Δafmac1 strain. However, chelation of copper by addition of BCS to AMM failed to recover the growth defect of the Δafmac1 strain. Through Northern blot analysis, we found that zinc starvation upregulated CtrC and CtrA2, which encode membrane copper transporters. Interestingly, we found that the conserved ZafA binding motif 5'-CAA(G)GGT-3' was present in the upstream region of CtrC and CtrA2 and that mutation of the binding motif led to failure of ZafA binding to the upstream region of CtrC and upregulation of CtrC expression under zinc starvation. Furthermore, the binding activity of ZafA to the upstream region of CtrC was inversely proportional to the zinc concentration, and copper inhibited the binding of ZafA to the upstream region of CtrC under a low zinc concentration. Taken together, these results suggest that ZafA upregulates copper metabolism by binding to the ZafA binding motif in the CtrC promoter region under low zinc concentration, thus regulating copper homeostasis. Furthermore, we found that copper and zinc interact in cells to maintain metal homeostasis.

Iron homeostasis and plant immune responses: Recent insights and translational implications

Iron metabolism and the plant immune system are both critical for plant vigor in natural ecosystems and for reliable agricultural productivity. Mechanistic studies of plant iron home-ostasis and plant immunity have traditionally been carried out in isolation from each other; however, our growing understanding of both processes has uncovered significant connections. For example, iron plays a critical role in the generation of reactive oxygen intermediates during immunity and has been recently implicated as a critical factor for immune-initiated cell death via ferroptosis. Moreover, plant iron stress triggers immune activation, suggesting that sensing of iron depletion is a mechanism by which plants recognize a pathogen threat. The iron deficiency response engages hormone signaling sectors that are also utilized for plant immune signaling, providing a probable explanation for iron-immunity cross-talk. Finally, interference with iron acquisition by pathogens might be a critical component of the immune response. Efforts to address the global burden of iron deficiency-related anemia have focused on classical breeding and transgenic approaches to develop crops biofortified for iron content. However, our improved mechanistic understanding of plant iron metabolism suggests that such alterations could promote or impede plant immunity, depending on the nature of the alteration and the virulence strategy of the pathogen. Effects of iron biofortification on disease resistance should be evaluated while developing plants for iron biofortification.

The key iron assimilation genes ClFTR1, ClNPS6 were crucial for virulence of Curvularia lunata via initiating its appressorium formation and virulence factors

Iron is virtually an essential nutrient for all organisms, to understand how iron contributes to virulence of plant pathogenic fungi, we identified ClFTR1 and ClNPS6 in maize pathogen Curvularia lunata (Cochliobolus lunatus) in this study. Disruption of ClNPS6 significantly impaired siderophore biosynthesis. ClFTR1 and ClNPS6 did mediate oxidative stress but had no significant impact on vegetative growth, conidiation, cell wall integrity and sexual reproduction. Conidial germination delayed and appressoria formation reduced in ΔClftr1 comparing with wild type (WT) CX-3. Genes responsible for conidial germination, appressoria formation, non-host selective toxin biosynthesis and cell wall degrading enzymes were also downregulated in the transcriptome of ΔClftr1 and ΔClnps6 compared with WT. The conidial development, toxin biosynthesis and polygalacturonase activity were impaired in the mutant strains with ClFTR1 and ClNPS6 deletion during their infection to maize. ClFTR1 and ClNPS6 were upregulated expression at 12-24 and 48-120 hpi in WT respectively. ClFTR1 positively regulated conidial germination, appressoria formation in the biotrophy-specific phase. ClNPS6 positively regulates non-host selective toxin biosynthesis and cell wall degrading enzyme activity in the necrotrophy-specific phase. Our results indicated that ClFTR1 and ClNPS6 were key genes of pathogen known to conidia development and virulence factors.

Beneficial effects of Trichoderma secondary metabolites on crops

Selected microbial strains used as active ingredients of biopesticides for agricultural management practices (e.g., IPM, Integrated Pest Management) are known for their ability to control phytopathogens, promote plant growth, and/or induce disease resistance. Microbes belonging to the Trichoderma genus are considered as an appropriate example of beneficial microbes and are model organisms to study plant-microbe interactions. Several Trichoderma strains are marketed as biocontrol agents and are known to increase plant growth, stress tolerance, and nutrient availability. These effects have sometimes been related to the production of effector metabolites that beneficial microbes produce during the interaction with plant and other microbes. Secondary metabolites (SMs) comprise different classes of natural compounds with low molecular weight and having numerous biological roles, especially in the interactions among organisms. Metabolomic analysis of the interactions between plants, phytopathogens, and beneficial fungi aided in the identification of several bioactive fungal SMs that positively affect plant metabolism. Some of these compounds showed direct activity against phytopathogens, but also increased disease resistance by triggering the plant defence system, and/or enhanced vegetative growth. A new generation of bioformulations based on microbial metabolites and living consortia responsible for the desired beneficial effects on crops may overcome the difficulties associated with the use of a single living microbial strain.

Bioactivity of Selected Phenolic Acids and Hexane Extracts from Bougainvilla spectabilis and Citharexylum spinosum on the Growth of Pectobacterium carotovorum and Dickeya solani Bacteria: An Opportunity to Save the Environment

Phenolic acids and natural extracts, as ecofriendly environmental agents, can be used as bio bactericides against the growth of plant pathogenic bacteria. In this study, isolation trails from infected potato tubers and stems that showed soft rot symptoms in fields revealed two soft rot bacterial isolates and were initially identified through morphological, physiological, and pathogenicity tests. The molecular characterization of these isolates via PCR, based on the 16S rRNA region, was carried out by an analysis of the DNA sequence via BLAST and Genbank, and showed that the soft rot bacterial isolates belong to Pectobacterium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum (PCC1) and Dickeya solani (Ds1). The in vitro results of the tested phenolic acids against the cultured bacterial isolates proved that concentrations of 800, 1600, and 3200 μg/mL were the most effective. Ferulic acid was the potent suppressive phenolic acid tested against the Ds1 isolate, with an inhibition zone ranging from 6.00 to 25.75 mm at different concentrations (25–3200 μg/mL), but had no effect until reaching a concentration of 100 μg/mL in the PCC1 isolate, followed by tannic acid, which ranged from 7.00 to 25.50 mm. On the other hand, tannic acid resulted in a significant decrease in the growth rate of the PCC1 isolate with a mean of 9.11 mm. Chlorogenic acid was not as effective as the rest of the phenolic acids compared with the control. The n-hexane oily extract (HeOE) from Bougainvillea spectabilis bark showed the highest activity against PCC1 and Ds1, with inhibition zone values of 12 and 12.33 mm, respectively, at a concentration of 4000 μg/mL; while the HeOE from Citharexylum spinosum wood showed less activity. In the GC/MS analysis, nonanal, an oily liquid compound, was found ata percentage of 38.28%, followed by cis-2-nonenal (9.75%), which are the main compounds in B. spectabilis bark HeOE, and 2-undecenal (22.39%), trans-2-decenal (18.74%), and oleic acid (10.85%) were found, which are the main compounds in C. spinosum wood HeOE. In conclusion, the phenolic acids and plant HeOEs seem to raise the resistance of potato plants, improving their defense mechanisms against soft rot bacterial pathogens.

Colonisation of Oncidium orchid roots by the endophyte Piriformospora indica restricts Erwinia chrysanthemi infection, stimulates accumulation of NBS-LRR resistance gene transcripts and represses their targeting micro-RNAs in leaves

BACKGROUND

Erwinia chrysanthemi (Ec) is a destructive pathogen which causes soft-rot diseases in diverse plant species including orchids. We investigated whether colonization of Oncidium roots by the endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica (Pi) restricts Ec-induced disease development in leaves, and whether this might be related to the regulation of nucleotide binding site-leucine rich repeat (NBS-LRR) Resistance (R) genes.

RESULTS

Root colonization of Oncidium stackings by Pi restricts progression of Ec-induced disease development in the leaves. Since Pi does not inhibit Ec growth on agar plates, we tested whether NBS-LRR R gene transcripts and the levels of their potential target miRNAs in Oncidium leaves might be regulated by Pi. Using bioinformatic tools, we first identified NBS-LRR R gene sequences from Oncidium, which are predicted to be targets of miRNAs. Among them, the expression of two R genes was repressed and the accumulation of several regulatory miRNA stimulated by Ec in the leaves of Oncidium plants. This correlated with the progression of disease development, jasmonic and salicylic acid accumulation, ethylene synthesis and H₂O₂ production after Ec infection of Oncidium leaves. Interestingly, root colonization by Pi restricted disease development in the leaves, and this was accompanied by higher expression levels of several defense-related R genes and lower expression level of their target miRNA.

CONCLUSION

Based on these data we propose that Pi controls the levels of NBS-LRR R mRNAs and their target miRNAs in leaves. This regulatory circuit correlates with the protection of Oncidium plants against Ec infection, and molecular and biochemical investigations will demonstrate in the future whether, and if so, to what extent these two observations are related to each other.

Virulence Factor Identification in the Banana Pathogen Dickeya zeae MS2

The phytopathogen Dickeya zeae MS2 is a particularly virulent agent of banana soft rot disease. To begin to understand this banana disease and to understand the role of quorum sensing and quorum-sensing-related regulatory elements in D. zeae MS2, we sequenced its genome and queried the sequence for genes encoding LuxR homologs. We identified a canonical LuxR-LuxI homolog pair similar to those in other members of the genus Dickeya The quorum-sensing signal for this pair was N-3-oxo-hexanoyl-homoserine lactone, and the circuit affected motility, cell clumping, and production of the pigment indigoidine, but it did not affect infections of banana seedlings in our experiments. We also identified a luxR homolog linked to a gene annotated as encoding a proline iminopeptidase. Similar linked pairs have been associated with virulence in other plant pathogens. We show that mutants with deletions in the proline iminopeptidase gene are attenuated for virulence. Surprisingly, a mutant with a deletion in the gene encoding the LuxR homolog shows normal virulence.IMPORTANCEDickeya zeae is an emerging banana soft rot pathogen in China. We used genome sequencing and annotation to create an inventory of potential virulence factors and virulence gene regulators encoded in Dickeya zeae MS2, a particularly virulent strain. We created mutations in several genes and tested these mutants in a banana seedling infection model. A strain with a mutated proline iminopeptidase gene, homologs of which are important for disease in the Xanthomonas species phytopathogens, was attenuated for soft rot symptoms in our model. Understanding how the proline iminopeptidase functions as a virulence factor may lead to insights about how to control the disease, and it is of general importance as homologs of the proline iminopeptidase occur in dozens of plant-associated bacteria.

A secreted metal-binding protein protects necrotrophic phytopathogens from reactive oxygen species

Few secreted proteins involved in plant infection common to necrotrophic bacteria, fungi and oomycetes have been identified except for plant cell wall-degrading enzymes. Here we study a family of iron-binding proteins that is present in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, fungi, oomycetes and some animals. Homolog proteins in the phytopathogenic bacterium Dickeya dadantii (IbpS) and the fungal necrotroph Botrytis cinerea (BcIbp) are involved in plant infection. IbpS is secreted, can bind iron and copper, and protects the bacteria against H₂O₂-induced death. Its 1.7 Å crystal structure reveals a classical Venus Fly trap fold that forms dimers in solution and in the crystal. We propose that secreted Ibp proteins binds exogenous metals and thus limit intracellular metal accumulation and ROS formation in the microorganisms.

The authors identify a family of iron-binding proteins that is present in phytopathogenic bacteria, fungi and oomycetes. Some of these proteins are secreted, bind metals, protect the pathogen from H₂O₂-induced death, and are involved in plant infection.

A two-component regulatory system VfmIH modulates multiple virulence traits in Dickeya zeae

Bacterial pathogen Dickeya zeae strain EC1 produces antibiotics-like phytotoxins called zeamines, which are major virulence determinants encoded by the zms gene cluster. In this study, we identified a zeamine-deficient mutant with a Tn5 insertion in a gene designated as vfmI encoding a two-component system (TCS) sensor histidine kinase (HK), which is accompanied by vfmH encoding a response regulator (RR) at the same genetic locus. Domain analysis shows this TCS is analogous to the VfmIH of D. dadantii, with typical characteristics of sensor HK and RR, respectively, and sharing the same operon. Deletion of either vfmI or vfmH resulted in decreased production of zeamines and cell wall degrading enzymes (CWDEs), and alleviated virulence on rice seeds and potato tubers. In D. dadantii 3937, VfmH was shown to bind to the promoters of vfmA and vfmE, while in D. zeae EC1, VfmH could bind to the promoters of vfmA, vfmE and vfmF. RNA-seq analysis of strain EC1 and its vfmH mutant also showed that the TCS positively regulated a range of virulence genes, including zms, T1SS, T2SS, T3SS, T6SS, flagellar and CWDE genes.

Transcriptome Profiling Reveals the EanI/R Quorum Sensing Regulon in Pantoea Ananatis LMG 2665T

Pantoea ananatis LMG 2665T synthesizes and utilizes acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) for signalling. The complete set of genes regulated by the EanI/R quorum sensing (QS) system in this strain is still not fully known. In this study, RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) was used to identify the EanI/R regulon in LMG 2665T. Pairwise comparisons of LMG 2665T in the absence of AHLs (Optical density (OD)600 = 0.2) and in the presence of AHLs (OD600 = 0.5) were performed. Additionally, pairwise comparisons of LMG 2665T and its QS mutant at OD600 = 0.5 were undertaken. In total, 608 genes were differentially expressed between LMG 2665T at OD600 = 0.5 versus the same strain at OD600 = 0.2 and 701 genes were differentially expressed between LMG 2665T versus its QS mutant at OD600 = 0.5. A total of 196 genes were commonly differentially expressed between the two approaches. These constituted approximately 4.5% of the whole transcriptome under the experimental conditions used in this study. The RNA-seq data was validated by reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Genes found to be regulated by EanI/R QS were those coding for redox sensing, metabolism, flagella formation, flagella dependent motility, cell adhesion, biofilm formation, regulators, transport, chemotaxis, methyl accepting proteins, membrane proteins, cell wall synthesis, stress response and a large number of hypothetical proteins. The results of this study give insight into the genes that are regulated by the EanI/R system in LMG 2665T. Functional characterization of the QS regulated genes in LMG 2665T could assist in the formulation of control strategies for this plant pathogen.

Molecular methods as tools to control plant diseases caused by Dickeya and Pectobacterium spp: A minireview

Dickeya spp. and Pectobacterium spp. are etiological agents of soft rot on crops, vegetables, and ornamentals. They also cause blackleg on potato. These pectinolytic phytopathogens are responsible for significant economic losses, mostly within the potato production sector. Importantly, there are no methods to eradicate these microorganisms once they have infected plant material. Solely preventive measures remain, including early detection and identification of the pathogens, monitoring of their spread in addition to planting certified seed material tested for latent infections. As proper identification of the causative agent allows for efficient limitation of disease spread, numerous detection and differentiation methods have been developed. Most commonly followed procedures involve: isolation of viable bacterial cells (alternatively post-enrichment) on semi-selective media, identification to species level by PCR (single, multiplex, Real time), serology or fatty acids profiling. Differentiation of the isolates is often accomplished by sequencing the housekeeping genes or molecular fingerprinting. In view of lowering total costs of next-generation sequencing (NGS), a huge amount of generated data reveals subtle differences between strains that have proven to be potentially useful for the establishment of specific novel detection pipelines. Successful implementation of molecular diagnostic methods is exemplified by 20-year studies on the populations of pectinolytic bacteria on potatoes in Poland. The presented work aims to gather the characteristics of Dickeya spp. and Pectobacterium spp. important for the identification process in addition to providing an overview of modern and newly developed specific, rapid, high-throughput and cost-effective screening methods for the detection and identification of these phytopathogens.

Genetic Modulation of c-di-GMP Turnover Affects Multiple Virulence Traits and Bacterial Virulence in Rice Pathogen Dickeya zeae

The frequent outbreaks of rice foot rot disease caused by Dickeya zeae have become a significant concern in rice planting regions and countries, but the regulatory mechanisms that govern the virulence of this important pathogen remain vague. Given that the second messenger cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP) is associated with modulation of various virulence-related traits in various microorganisms, here we set to investigate the role of the genes encoding c-di-GMP metabolism in the regulation of the bacterial physiology and virulence by construction all in-frame deletion mutants targeting the annotated c-di-GMP turnover genes in D. zeae strain EC1. Phenotype analyses identified individual mutants showing altered production of exoenzymes and phytotoxins, biofilm formation and bacterial motilities. The results provide useful clues and a valuable toolkit for further characterization and dissection of the regulatory complex that modulates the pathogenesis and persistence of this important bacterial pathogen.

In planta comparative transcriptomics of host-adapted strains of Ralstonia solanacearum

Background. Ralstonia solanacearum is an economically important plant pathogen with an unusually large host range. The Moko (banana) and NPB (not pathogenic to banana) strain groups are closely related but are adapted to distinct hosts. Previous comparative genomics studies uncovered very few differences that could account for the host range difference between these pathotypes. To better understand the basis of this host specificity, we used RNAseq to profile the transcriptomes of an R. solanacearum Moko strain and an NPB strain under in vitro and in planta conditions.

Results. RNAs were sequenced from bacteria grown in rich and minimal media, and from bacteria extracted from mid-stage infected tomato, banana and melon plants. We computed differential expression between each pair of conditions to identify constitutive and host-specific gene expression differences between Moko and NPB. We found that type III secreted effectors were globally up-regulated upon plant cell contact in the NPB strain compared with the Moko strain. Genes encoding siderophore biosynthesis and nitrogen assimilation genes were highly up-regulated in the NPB strain during melon pathogenesis, while denitrification genes were up-regulated in the Moko strain during banana pathogenesis. The relatively lower expression of oxidases and the denitrification pathway during banana pathogenesis suggests that R. solanacearum experiences higher oxygen levels in banana pseudostems than in tomato or melon xylem.

Conclusions. This study provides the first report of differential gene expression associated with host range variation. Despite minimal genomic divergence, the pathogenesis of Moko and NPB strains is characterized by striking differences in expression of virulence- and metabolism-related genes.

New insights into the role of siderophores as triggers of plant immunity: what can we learn from animals?

Microorganisms use siderophores to obtain iron from the environment. In pathogenic interactions, siderophores are involved in iron acquisition from the host and are sometimes necessary for the expression of full virulence. This review summarizes the main data describing the role of these iron scavengers in animal and plant defence systems. To protect themselves against iron theft, mammalian hosts have developed a hypoferremia strategy that includes siderophore-binding molecules called siderocalins. In addition to microbial ferri-siderophore sequestration, siderocalins are involved in triggering immunity. In plants, no similar mechanisms have been described and many fewer data are available, although recent advances have shed light on the role of siderophores in plant-pathogen interactions. Siderophores can trigger immunity in plants in several contexts. The most frequently described situation involving siderophores is induced systemic resistance (ISR) triggered by plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Although ISR responses have been observed after treating roots with certain siderophores, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Immunity can also be triggered by siderophores in leaves. Siderophore perception in plants appears to be different from the well-known perception mechanisms of other microbial compounds, known as microbe-associated molecular patterns. Scavenging iron per se appears to be a novel mechanism of immunity activation, involving complex disturbance of metal homeostasis. Receptor-specific recognition of siderophores has been described in animals, but not in plants. The review closes with an overview of the possible mechanisms of defence activation, via iron scavenging by siderophores or specific siderophore recognition by the plant host.

SlyA regulates motA and motB, virulence and stress-related genes under conditions induced by the PhoP-PhoQ system in Dickeya dadantii 3937

We previously showed that SlyA of Dickeya dadantii 3937 plays an important role in virulence toward plants, and that the ΔslyA mutant is hypermotile, whereas flagellum synthesis and flagellin production are indistinguishable from the wild type. Here we show that motility factors, including the distance of continuous directed movement, time for that movement and speed, were significantly higher in the ΔslyA mutant than in the wild type. Remarkably, transcription levels of motA and motB, that are involved in flagellar rotation, were elevated in the ΔslyA mutant, suggesting that the mutant's hypermotility was due to an increase in flagellar rotation. In low (10 μM) magnesium medium that activates the PhoP-PhoQ system, growth and virulence of the ΔslyA mutant were much lower than for the wild type; expression of motA, motB, mgtA, pelA, pelB, pelC, pelD, pelE, pelI, indA, tolC, sodC, acsA and hrpN were also reduced in the mutant. Interestingly, motA, motB, pelD, pelE, pelI, sodC and indA were also reduced in phoP and phoQ mutants. Because the SlyA protein directly binds to the promoter region of PhoP, SlyA regulates virulence by controlling multiple pathogenicity-related genes directly and/or at least by controlling PhoP in D. dadantii 3937 when magnesium is low.

Comparative genomic analysis of Ralstonia solanacearum reveals candidate genes for host specificity

Background

Ralstonia solanacearum is a vascular soil-borne plant pathogen with an unusually broad host range. This economically destructive and globally distributed bacterium has thousands of distinct lineages within a heterogeneous and taxonomically disputed species complex. Some lineages include highly host-adapted strains (ecotypes), such as the banana Moko disease-causing strains, the cold-tolerant potato brown rot strains (also known as R3bv2) and the recently emerged Not Pathogenic to Banana (NPB) strains.

Results

These distinct ecotypes offer a robust model to study host adaptation and the emergence of ecotypes because the polyphyletic Moko strains include lineages that are phylogenetically close to the monophyletic brown rot and NPB strains. Draft genomes of eight new strains belonging to these three model ecotypes were produced to complement the eleven publicly available R. solanacearum genomes. Using a suite of bioinformatics methods, we searched for genetic and evolutionary features that distinguish ecotypes and propose specific hypotheses concerning mechanisms of host adaptation in the R. solanacearum species complex. Genome-wide, few differences were identified, but gene loss events, non-synonymous polymorphisms, and horizontal gene transfer were identified among type III effectors and were associated with host range differences.

Conclusions

This extensive comparative genomics analysis uncovered relatively few divergent features among closely related strains with contrasting biological characteristics; however, several virulence factors were associated with the emergence of Moko, NPB and brown rot and could explain host adaptation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1474-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Comparative genomic analysis of Ralstonia solanacearum reveals candidate genes for host specificity

BACKGROUND

Ralstonia solanacearum is a vascular soil-borne plant pathogen with an unusually broad host range. This economically destructive and globally distributed bacterium has thousands of distinct lineages within a heterogeneous and taxonomically disputed species complex. Some lineages include highly host-adapted strains (ecotypes), such as the banana Moko disease-causing strains, the cold-tolerant potato brown rot strains (also known as R3bv2) and the recently emerged Not Pathogenic to Banana (NPB) strains.

RESULTS

These distinct ecotypes offer a robust model to study host adaptation and the emergence of ecotypes because the polyphyletic Moko strains include lineages that are phylogenetically close to the monophyletic brown rot and NPB strains. Draft genomes of eight new strains belonging to these three model ecotypes were produced to complement the eleven publicly available R. solanacearum genomes. Using a suite of bioinformatics methods, we searched for genetic and evolutionary features that distinguish ecotypes and propose specific hypotheses concerning mechanisms of host adaptation in the R. solanacearum species complex. Genome-wide, few differences were identified, but gene loss events, non-synonymous polymorphisms, and horizontal gene transfer were identified among type III effectors and were associated with host range differences.

CONCLUSIONS

This extensive comparative genomics analysis uncovered relatively few divergent features among closely related strains with contrasting biological characteristics; however, several virulence factors were associated with the emergence of Moko, NPB and brown rot and could explain host adaptation.

A straightforward and reliable method for bacterial in planta transcriptomics: application to the Dickeya dadantii/Arabidopsis thaliana pathosystem

Transcriptome analysis of bacterial pathogens is a powerful approach to identify and study the expression patterns of genes during host infection. However, analysis of the early stages of bacterial virulence at the genome scale is lacking with respect to understanding of plant-pathogen interactions and diseases, especially during foliar infection. This is mainly due to both the low ratio of bacterial cells to plant material at the beginning of infection, and the high contamination by chloroplastic material. Here we describe a reliable and straightforward method for bacterial cell purification from infected leaf tissues, effective even if only a small amount of bacteria is present relative to plant material. The efficiency of this method for transcriptomic analysis was validated by analysing the expression profiles of the phytopathogenic enterobacterium Dickeya dadantii, a soft rot disease-causing agent, during the first hours of infection of the model host plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Transcriptome profiles of epiphytic bacteria and bacteria colonizing host tissues were compared, allowing identification of approximately 100 differentially expressed genes. Requiring no specific equipment, cost-friendly and easily transferable to other pathosystems, this method should be of great interest for many other plant-bacteria interaction studies.

Individual and combined roles of malonichrome, ferricrocin, and TAFC siderophores in Fusarium graminearum pathogenic and sexual development

Intra- and extracellular iron-chelating siderophores produced by fungal non-ribosomal peptide synthetases have been shown to be involved in reproductive and pathogenic developmental processes and in iron and oxidative stress management. Here we report individual and combined contributions of three of these metabolites to developmental success of the destructive cereal pathogen Fusarium graminearum. In previous work, we determined that deletion of the NPS2 gene, responsible for intracellular siderophore biosynthesis, results in inability to produce sexual spores when mutants of this homothallic ascomycete are selfed. Deletion of the NPS6 gene, required for extracellular siderophore biosynthesis, does not affect sexual reproduction but results in sensitivity to iron starvation and oxidative stress and leads to reduced virulence to the host. Building on this, we report that double mutants lacking both NPS2 and NPS6 are augmented in all collective phenotypes of single deletion strains (i.e., abnormal sexual and pathogenic development, hypersensitivity to oxidative and iron-depletion stress), which suggests overlap of function. Using comparative biochemical analysis of wild-type and mutant strains, we show that NPS1, a third gene associated with siderophore biosynthesis, is responsible for biosynthesis of a second extracellular siderophore, malonichrome. nps1 mutants fail to produce this metabolite. Phenotypic characterization reveals that, although single nps1 mutants are like wild-type with respect to sexual development, hypersensitivity to ROS and iron-depletion stress, and virulence to the host, triple nps1nps2nps6 deletion strains, lacking all three siderophores, are even more impaired in these attributes than double nps2nps6 strains. Thus, combinatorial mutants lacking key iron-associated genes uncovered malonichrome function. The intimate connection between presence/absence of siderophores and resistance/sensitivity to ROS is central to sexual and pathogenic development.

β-Aminobutyric acid (BABA)-induced resistance in Arabidopsis thaliana: link with iron homeostasis

β-Aminobutyric acid (BABA) is a nonprotein amino acid inducing resistance in many different plant species against a wide range of abiotic and biotic stresses. Nevertheless, how BABA primes plant natural defense reactions remains poorly understood. Based on its structure, we hypothesized and confirmed that BABA is able to chelate iron (Fe) in vitro. In vivo, we showed that it led to a transient Fe deficiency response in Arabidopsis thaliana plants exemplified by a reduction of ferritin accumulation and disturbances in the expression of genes related to Fe homeostasis. This response was not correlated to changes in Fe concentrations, suggesting that BABA affects the availability or the distribution of Fe rather than its assimilation. The phenotype of BABA-treated plants was similar to those of plants cultivated in Fe-deficient conditions. A metabolomic analysis indicated that both BABA and Fe deficiency induced the accumulation of common metabolites, including p-coumaroylagmatine, a metabolite previously shown to be synthesized in several plant species facing pathogen attack. Finally, we showed that the protective effect induced by BABA against Botrytis cinerea was mimicked by Fe deficiency. In conclusion, the Fe deficiency response caused by BABA could bring the plant to a defense-ready state, participating in the plant resistance against the pathogens.

An adequate Fe nutritional status of maize suppresses infection and biotrophic growth of Colletotrichum graminicola

Iron (Fe) is an essential element for plant pathogens as well as for their host plants. As Fe plays a central role in pathogen virulence, most plants have evolved Fe-withholding strategies to reduce Fe availability to pathogens. On the other hand, plants need Fe for an oxidative burst in their basal defense response against pathogens. To investigate how the plant Fe nutritional status affects plant tolerance to a hemibiotrophic fungal pathogen, we employed the maize-Colletotrichum graminicola pathosystem. Fungal infection progressed rapidly via biotrophic to necrotrophic growth in Fe-deficient leaves, while an adequate Fe nutritional status suppressed the formation of infection structures of C. graminicola already during the early biotrophic growth phase. As indicated by Prussian blue and 3,3'-diaminobenzidine (DAB) staining, the retarding effect of an adequate Fe nutritional status on fungal development coincided temporally and spatially with the recruitment of Fe to infection sites and a local production of H2 O2 . A similar coincidence between local Fe and H2 O2 accumulation was found in a parallel approach employing C. graminicola mutants affected in Fe acquisition and differing in virulence. These results indicate that an adequate Fe nutritional status delays and partially suppresses the fungal infection process and the biotrophic growth phase of C. graminicola, most likely via the recruitment of free Fe to the fungal infection site for a timely oxidative burst.

Biotrophy-specific downregulation of siderophore biosynthesis in Colletotrichum graminicola is required for modulation of immune responses of maize

The hemibiotrophic maize pathogen Colletotrichum graminicola synthesizes one intracellular and three secreted siderophores. eGFP fusions with the key siderophore biosynthesis gene, SID1, encoding l-ornithine-N(5) -monooxygenase, suggested that siderophore biosynthesis is rigorously downregulated specifically during biotrophic development. In order to investigate the role of siderophores during vegetative development and pathogenesis, SID1, which is required for synthesis of all siderophores, and the non-ribosomal peptide synthetase gene NPS6, synthesizing secreted siderophores, were deleted. Mutant analyses revealed that siderophores are required for vegetative growth under iron-limiting conditions, conidiation, ROS tolerance, and cell wall integrity. Δsid1 and Δnps6 mutants were hampered in formation of melanized appressoria and impaired in virulence. In agreement with biotrophy-specific downregulation of siderophore biosynthesis, Δsid1 and Δnps6 strains were not affected in biotrophic development, but spread of necrotrophic hyphae was reduced. To address the question why siderophore biosynthesis is specifically downregulated in biotrophic hyphae, maize leaves were infiltrated with siderophores. Siderophore infiltration alone did not induce defence responses, but formation of biotrophic hyphae in siderophore-infiltrated leaves caused dramatically increased ROS formation and transcriptional activation of genes encoding defence-related peroxidases and PR proteins. These data suggest that fungal siderophores modulate the plant immune system.

Scavenging iron: a novel mechanism of plant immunity activation by microbial siderophores

Siderophores are specific ferric iron chelators synthesized by virtually all microorganisms in response to iron deficiency. We have previously shown that they promote infection by the phytopathogenic enterobacteria Dickeya dadantii and Erwinia amylovora. Siderophores also have the ability to activate plant immunity. We have used complete Arabidopsis transcriptome microarrays to investigate the global transcriptional modifications in roots and leaves of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants after leaf treatment with the siderophore deferrioxamine (DFO). Physiological relevance of these transcriptional modifications was validated experimentally. Immunity and heavy-metal homeostasis were the major processes affected by DFO. These two physiological responses could be activated by a synthetic iron chelator ethylenediamine-di(o-hydroxyphenylacetic) acid, indicating that siderophores eliciting activities rely on their strong iron-chelating capacity. DFO was able to protect Arabidopsis against the pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000. Siderophore treatment caused local modifications of iron distribution in leaf cells visible by ferrocyanide and diaminobenzidine-H₂O₂ staining. Metal quantifications showed that DFO causes a transient iron and zinc uptake at the root level, which is presumably mediated by the metal transporter iron regulated transporter1 (IRT1). Defense gene expression and callose deposition in response to DFO were compromised in an irt1 mutant. Consistently, plant susceptibility to D. dadantii was increased in the irt1 mutant. Our work shows that iron scavenging is a unique mechanism of immunity activation in plants. It highlights the strong relationship between heavy-metal homeostasis and immunity.

Iron distribution through the developmental stages of Medicago truncatula nodules

Paramount to symbiotic nitrogen fixation (SNF) is the synthesis of a number of metalloenzymes that use iron as a critical component of their catalytical core. Since this process is carried out by endosymbiotic rhizobia living in legume root nodules, the mechanisms involved in iron delivery to the rhizobia-containing cells are critical for SNF. In order to gain insight into iron transport to the nodule, we have used synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence to determine the spatio-temporal distribution of this metal in nodules of the legume Medicago truncatula with hitherto unattained sensitivity and resolution. The data support a model in which iron is released from the vasculature into the apoplast of the infection/differentiation zone of the nodule (zone II). The infected cell subsequently takes up this apoplastic iron and delivers it to the symbiosome and the secretory system to synthesize ferroproteins. Upon senescence, iron is relocated to the vasculature to be reused by the shoot. These observations highlight the important role of yet to be discovered metal transporters in iron compartmentalization in the nodule and in the recovery of an essential and scarce nutrient for flowering and seed production.

Infection structure-specific reductive iron assimilation is required for cell wall integrity and full virulence of the maize pathogen Colletotrichum graminicola

Ferroxidases are essential components of the high-affinity reductive iron assimilation pathway in fungi. Two ferroxidase genes, FET3-1 and FET3-2, have been identified in the genome of the maize anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum graminicola. Complementation of growth defects of the ferroxidase-deficient Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain Δfet3fet4 showed that both Fet3-1 and Fet3-2 of C. graminicola represent functional ferroxidases. Expression of enhanced green fluorescent protein fusions in yeast and C. graminicola indicated that both ferroxidase proteins localize to the plasma membrane. Transcript abundance of FET3-1 increased dramatically under iron-limiting conditions but those of FET3-2 were hardly detectable. Δfet3-1 and Δfet3-2 single as well as Δfet3-1/2 double-deletion strains were generated. Under iron-sufficient or deficient conditions, vegetative growth rates of these strains did not significantly differ from that of the wild type but Δfet3-1 and Δfet3-1/2 strains showed increased sensitivity to reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, under iron-limiting conditions, appressoria of Δfet3-1 and Δfet3-1/2 strains showed significantly reduced transcript abundance of a class V chitin synthase and exhibited severe cell wall defects. Infection assays on intact and wounded maize leaves, quantitative data of infection structure differentiation, and infection stage-specific expression of FET3-1 showed that reductive iron assimilation is required for appressorial penetration, biotrophic development, and full virulence.

An extracellular siderophore is required to maintain the mutualistic interaction of Epichloë festucae with Lolium perenne

We have identified from the mutualistic grass endophyte Epichloë festucae a non-ribosomal peptide synthetase gene (sidN) encoding a siderophore synthetase. The enzymatic product of SidN is shown to be a novel extracellular siderophore designated as epichloënin A, related to ferrirubin from the ferrichrome family. Targeted gene disruption of sidN eliminated biosynthesis of epichloënin A in vitro and in planta. During iron-depleted axenic growth, ΔsidN mutants accumulated the pathway intermediate N(5)-trans-anhydromevalonyl-N(5)-hydroxyornithine (trans-AMHO), displayed sensitivity to oxidative stress and showed deficiencies in both polarized hyphal growth and sporulation. Infection of Lolium perenne (perennial ryegrass) with ΔsidN mutants resulted in perturbations of the endophyte-grass symbioses. Deviations from the characteristic tightly regulated synchronous growth of the fungus with its plant partner were observed and infected plants were stunted. Analysis of these plants by light and transmission electron microscopy revealed abnormalities in the distribution and localization of ΔsidN mutant hyphae as well as deformities in hyphal ultrastructure. We hypothesize that lack of epichloënin A alters iron homeostasis of the symbiotum, changing it from mutually beneficial to antagonistic. Iron itself or epichloënin A may serve as an important molecular/cellular signal for controlling fungal growth and hence the symbiotic interaction.

Role of iron homeostasis in the virulence of phytopathogenic bacteria: an 'à la carte' menu

The interaction between pathogenic microbes and their hosts is determined by survival strategies on both sides. As a result of its redox properties, iron is vital for the growth and proliferation of nearly all organisms, including pathogenic bacteria. In bacteria-vertebrate interactions, competition for this essential metal is critical for the outcome of the infection. The role of iron in the virulence of plant pathogenic bacteria has only been explored in a few pathosystems in the past. However, in the last 5 years, intensive research has provided new insights into the mechanisms of iron homeostasis in phytopathogenic bacteria that are involved in virulence. This review, which includes important plant pathosystems, discusses the recent advances in the understanding of iron transport and homeostasis during plant pathogenesis. By summarizing the recent progress, we wish to provide an updated view clarifying the various roles played by this metal in the virulence of bacterial phytopathogens as a nutritional and regulatory element. The complex intertwining of iron metabolism and oxidative stress during infection is emphasized.

The large universal Pantoea plasmid LPP-1 plays a major role in biological and ecological diversification

Background

Pantoea spp. are frequently isolated from a wide range of ecological niches and have various biological roles, as plant epi- or endophytes, biocontrol agents, plant-growth promoters or as pathogens of both plant and animal hosts. This suggests that members of this genus have undergone extensive genotypic diversification. One means by which this occurs among bacteria is through the acquisition and maintenance of plasmids. Here, we have analyzed and compared the sequences of a large plasmid common to all sequenced Pantoea spp.

Results and discussion

The Large PantoeaPlasmids (LPP-1) of twenty strains encompassing seven different Pantoea species, including pathogens and endo-/epiphytes of a wide range of plant hosts as well as insect-associated strains, were compared. The LPP-1 plasmid sequences range in size from ~281 to 794 kb and carry between 238 and 750 protein coding sequences (CDS). A core set of 46 proteins, encompassing 2.2% of the total pan-plasmid (2,095 CDS), conserved among all LPP-1 plasmid sequences, includes those required for thiamine and pigment biosynthesis. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that these plasmids have arisen from an ancestral plasmid, which has undergone extensive diversification. Analysis of the proteins encoded on LPP-1 also showed that these plasmids contribute to a wide range of Pantoea phenotypes, including the transport and catabolism of various substrates, inorganic ion assimilation, resistance to antibiotics and heavy metals, colonization and persistence in the host and environment, pathogenesis and antibiosis.

Conclusions

LPP-1 is universal to all Pantoea spp. whose genomes have been sequenced to date and is derived from an ancestral plasmid. LPP-1 encodes a large array of proteins that have played a major role in the adaptation of the different Pantoea spp. to their various ecological niches and their specialization as pathogens, biocontrol agents or benign saprophytes found in many diverse environments.

Trichoderma Secondary Metabolites that Affect Plant Metabolism

Recently, there have been many exciting new developments relating to the use of Trichoderma spp. as agents for biocontrol of pathogens and as plant growth promoters. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the positive effects of these microorganisms on the plant host. One factor that contributes to their beneficial biological activities is related to the wide variety of metabolites that they produce. These metabolites have been found not only to directly inhibit the growth and pathogenic activities of the parasites, but also to increase disease resistance by triggering the system of defence in the plant host. In addition, these metabolites are also capable of enhancing plant growth, which enables the plant to counteract the disease with compensatory vegetative growth by the augmented production of root and shoot systems. This review takes into account the Trichoderma secondary metabolites that affect plant metabolism and that may play an important role in the complex interactions of this biocontrol agent with the plant and pathogens.

Beware of proteins bearing gifts: protein antibiotics that use iron as a Trojan horse

Multicellular organisms limit the availability of free iron to prevent the utilization of this essential nutrient by microbial pathogens. As such, bacterial pathogens possess a variety of mechanisms for obtaining iron from their hosts, including a number of examples of vertebrate pathogens that obtain iron directly from host proteins. Recently, two novel members of the colicin M bacteriocin family were discovered in Pectobacterium that suggest that this phytopathogen possesses such a system. These bacteriocins (pectocin M1 and M2) consist of a cytotoxic domain homologous to that of colicin M fused to a horizontally acquired plant-like ferredoxin. This ferredoxin domain substitutes the portion of colicin M required for receptor binding and translocation, presumably fulfilling this role by parasitizing an existing ferredoxin-based iron acquisition pathway. The ability of susceptible strains of Pectobacterium to utilize plant ferredoxin as an iron source was also demonstrated, providing additional evidence for the existence of such a system. If this hypothesis is correct, it represents the first example of iron piracy directly from a host protein by a phytopathogen and serves as a testament of the flexibility of evolution in creating new bacteriocin specificities.

Iron deficiency affects plant defence responses and confers resistance to Dickeya dadantii and Botrytis cinerea

Iron is an essential element for most living organisms, and pathogens are likely to compete with their hosts for the acquisition of this element. The bacterial plant pathogen Dickeya dadantii has been shown to require its siderophore-mediated iron uptake system for systemic disease progression on several host plants, including Arabidopsis thaliana. In this study, we investigated the effect of the iron status of Arabidopsis on the severity of disease caused by D. dadantii. We showed that symptom severity, bacterial fitness and the expression of bacterial pectate lyase-encoding genes were reduced in iron-deficient plants. Reduced symptoms correlated with enhanced expression of the salicylic acid defence plant marker gene PR1. However, levels of the ferritin coding transcript AtFER1, callose deposition and production of reactive oxygen species were reduced in iron-deficient infected plants, ruling out the involvement of these defences in the limitation of disease caused by D. dadantii. Disease reduction in iron-starved plants was also observed with the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea. Our data demonstrate that the plant nutritional iron status can control the outcome of an infection by acting on both the pathogen's virulence and the host's defence. In addition, iron nutrition strongly affects the disease caused by two soft rot-causing plant pathogens with a large host range. Thus, it may be of interest to take into account the plant iron status when there is a need to control disease without compromising crop quality and yield in economically important plant species.

HapX-mediated iron homeostasis is essential for rhizosphere competence and virulence of the soilborne pathogen Fusarium oxysporum

Soilborne fungal pathogens cause devastating yield losses and are highly persistent and difficult to control. During the infection process, these organisms must cope with limited availability of iron. Here we show that the bZIP protein HapX functions as a key regulator of iron homeostasis and virulence in the vascular wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum. Deletion of hapX does not affect iron uptake but causes derepression of genes involved in iron-consuming pathways, leading to impaired growth under iron-depleted conditions. F. oxysporum strains lacking HapX are reduced in their capacity to invade and kill tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants and immunodepressed mice. The virulence defect of ΔhapX on tomato plants is exacerbated by coinoculation of roots with a biocontrol strain of Pseudomonas putida, but not with a siderophore-deficient mutant, indicating that HapX contributes to iron competition of F. oxysporum in the tomato rhizosphere. These results establish a conserved role for HapX-mediated iron homeostasis in fungal infection of plants and mammals.

Nutritional immunity: transition metals at the pathogen-host interface

Transition metals occupy an essential niche in biological systems. Their electrostatic properties stabilize substrates or reaction intermediates in the active sites of enzymes, and their heightened reactivity is harnessed for catalysis. However, this heightened activity also renders transition metals toxic at high concentrations. Bacteria, like all living organisms, must regulate their intracellular levels of these elements to satisfy their physiological needs while avoiding harm. It is therefore not surprising that the host capitalizes on both the essentiality and toxicity of transition metals to defend against bacterial invaders. This Review discusses established and emerging paradigms in nutrient metal homeostasis at the pathogen-host interface.