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Aspesi D, Bass N, Kavaliers M, Choleris E. The role of androgens and estrogens in social interactions and social cognition. Neuroscience 2023:S0306-4522(23)00151-3. [PMID: 37080448 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2023.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
Gonadal hormones are becoming increasingly recognized for their effects on cognition. Estrogens, in particular, have received attention for their effects on learning and memory that rely upon the functioning of various brain regions. However, the impacts of androgens on cognition are relatively under investigated. Testosterone, as well as estrogens, have been shown to play a role in the modulation of different aspects of social cognition. This review explores the impact of testosterone and other androgens on various facets of social cognition including social recognition, social learning, social approach/avoidance, and aggression. We highlight the relevance of considering not only the actions of the most commonly studied steroids (i.e., testosterone, 17β-estradiol, and dihydrotestosterone), but also that of their metabolites and precursors, which interact with a plethora of different receptors and signalling molecules, ultimately modulating behaviour. We point out that it is also essential to investigate the effects of androgens, their precursors and metabolites in females, as prior studies have mostly focused on males. Overall, a comprehensive analysis of the impact of steroids such as androgens on behaviour is fundamental for a full understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying social cognition, including that of humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Aspesi
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph
| | - Noah Bass
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph
| | - Martin Kavaliers
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph; Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
| | - Elena Choleris
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph.
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2
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Heck AL, Handa RJ. Androgens Drive Sex Biases in Hypothalamic Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Gene Expression After Adrenalectomy of Mice. Endocrinology 2019; 160:1757-1770. [PMID: 31074799 PMCID: PMC6594463 DOI: 10.1210/en.2019-00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Although prominent sex differences exist in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis's response to stressors, few studies of its regulation in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) have compared both male and female subjects. In this study, we sought to explore sex differences in the acute regulation of PVN neuropeptide expression following glucocorticoid (GC) removal and the underlying role of gonadal hormones. We first examined the effects of short-term adrenalectomy (ADX) on PVN Crh and arginine vasopressin (Avp) expression in mice using in situ hybridization. ADX increased PVN AVP mRNA levels in both sexes. In contrast, PVN CRH mRNA was increased by 2 days after ADX in males only. Both sexes showed increases in CRH mRNA after 4 days. To determine if gonadal hormones contributed to this sex bias, we examined adrenalectomized (ADX'd) and gonadectomized (GDX'd) mice with or without gonadal hormone replacement. Unlike the pattern in intact animals, 2 days following ADX/gonadectomy, CRH mRNA levels did not increase in either sex. When males were given DHT propionate, CRH mRNA levels increased in ADX'd/GDX'd males similar to those observed following ADX alone. To determine a potential mechanism, we examined the coexpression of androgen receptor (AR) immunoreactivity and CRH neurons. Abundant colocalization was found in the anteroventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis but not the PVN. Thus, our findings reveal a sex difference in PVN Crh expression following the removal of GC-negative feedback that may depend on indirect AR actions in males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley L Heck
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Robert J Handa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
- Correspondence: Robert J. Handa, PhD, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, 1617 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523. E-mail:
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Green MR, Zeidan M, Hodges TE, McCormick CM. Age-dependent regulation by androgens of gene expression in the anterior hypothalamus and stress-induced release of adrenal hormones in adolescent and adult male rats. J Neuroendocrinol 2019; 31:e12714. [PMID: 30912177 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Adolescents show greater and/or more prolonged activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in response to stressors than adults, although the basis for such an age difference is not understood. We investigated developmental shifts in the regulation of HPA function by testosterone using androgen replacement in orchiectomised (OCX) pre-pubertal and post-pubertal adolescent rats and in adults, as well as using inhibitors of testosterone synthesis in non-operated rats. The expected dampening effect of testosterone in adult OCX rats did not meet statistical significance in all of the three experiments. Nevertheless, in each, adolescents had higher post-stress concentrations of corticosterone compared to adults despite similar concentrations of testosterone. The effect of testosterone was in the opposite direction in post-pubertal adolescents compared to that in adults, with testosterone replacement leading to increased rather than lower corticosterone concentration. Testosterone replacement decreased arginine vasopressin and corticotrophin-releasing hormone immune-reactive cell counts in the paraventricular nucleus at all ages. In a fourth experiment, we provide evidence that the basis of the age difference in corticosterone release is because of a greater conversion of testosterone to oestradiol in adolescents and a greater conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone in adults: aromatase inhibition had little effect in adults and attenuated the age difference by decreasing stress-induced corticosterone release in adolescents. By contrast, 5α-reductase inhibition or an androgen receptor antagonist had little effect in adolescents and attenuated the age difference by increasing stress-induced corticosterone release in adults. In the adrenal gland, adolescents had reduced 5α-reductase and androgen receptor gene expression. There also were age differences in the regulation of hypothalamic mRNA expression of androgen receptors, oestrogen receptors and aromatase by testosterone. In sum, the results suggest that developmental shifts in the synthesis of testosterone and the regulation of gene expression are factors with respect to age differences in corticosterone release in response to stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Green
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mostafa Zeidan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Travis E Hodges
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cheryl M McCormick
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario, Canada
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Comparing vasopressin and oxytocin fiber and receptor density patterns in the social behavior neural network: Implications for cross-system signaling. Front Neuroendocrinol 2019; 53:100737. [PMID: 30753840 PMCID: PMC7469073 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2019.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin (OXT) regulate social behavior by binding to their canonical receptors, the vasopressin V1a receptor (V1aR) and oxytocin receptor (OTR), respectively. Recent studies suggest that these neuropeptides may also signal via each other's receptors. The extent to which such cross-system signaling occurs likely depends on anatomical overlap between AVP/OXT fibers and V1aR/OTR expression. By comparing AVP/OXT fiber densities with V1aR/OTR binding densities throughout the rat social behavior neural network (SBNN), we propose the potential for cross-system signaling in four regions: the medial amygdala (MeA), bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNSTp), medial preoptic area, and periaqueductal grey. We also discuss possible implications of corresponding sex (higher in males versus females) and age (higher in adults versus juveniles) differences in AVP fiber and OTR binding densities in the MeA and BNSTp. Overall, this review reveals the need to unravel the consequences of potential cross-system signaling between AVP and OXT systems in the SBNN for the regulation of social behavior.
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Heck AL, Handa RJ. Sex differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis' response to stress: an important role for gonadal hormones. Neuropsychopharmacology 2019; 44:45-58. [PMID: 30111811 PMCID: PMC6235871 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-018-0167-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a neuroendocrine network that controls hormonal responses to internal and external challenges in an organism's environment, exhibits strikingly sex-biased activity. In adult female rodents, acute HPA function following a stressor is markedly greater than it is in males, and this difference has largely been attributed to modulation by the gonadal hormones testosterone and estradiol. These gonadal hormones are produced by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and have been shown to determine sex differences in adult HPA function after acute stress via their activational and organizational effects. Although these actions of gonadal hormones are well supported, the possibility that sex chromosomes similarly influence HPA activity is unexplored. Moreover, questions remain regarding sex differences in the activity of the HPA axis following chronic stress and the underlying contributions of gonadal hormones and sex chromosomes. The present review examines what is currently known about sex differences in the neuroendocrine response to stress, as well as outstanding questions regarding this sex bias. Although it primarily focuses on the rodent literature, a brief discussion of sex differences in the human HPA axis is also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley L. Heck
- 0000 0004 1936 8083grid.47894.36Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
| | - Robert J. Handa
- 0000 0004 1936 8083grid.47894.36Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA
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Harper KM, Knapp DJ, Criswell HE, Breese GR. Vasopressin and alcohol: a multifaceted relationship. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235:3363-3379. [PMID: 30392132 PMCID: PMC6286152 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5099-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Arginine vasopressin (VP) has been implicated in a number of neuropsychiatric disorders with an emphasis on situations where stress increased the severity of the disorder. Based on this hypothesized role for VP in neuropsychiatric disorders, much research is currently being undertaken in humans and animals to test VP as a target for treatment of a number of these disorders including alcohol abuse. OBJECTIVES To provide a summary of the literature regarding the role of VP in alcohol- and stress-related behaviors including the use of drugs that target VP in clinical trials. RESULTS Changes in various components of the VP system occur with alcohol and stress. Manipulating VP or its receptors can alter alcohol- and stress-related behaviors including tolerance to alcohol, alcohol drinking, and anxiety-like behavior. Finally, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to alcohol is also altered by manipulating the VP system. However, clinical trials of VP antagonists have had mixed results. CONCLUSIONS A review of VP's involvement in alcohol's actions demonstrates that there is much to be learned about brain regions involved in VP-mediated effects on behavior. Thus, future work should focus on elucidating relevant brain regions. By using previous knowledge of the actions of VP and determining the brain regions and/or systems involved in its different behavioral effects, it may be possible to identify a specific receptor subtype target, drug treatment combination, or specific clinical contexts that may point toward a more successful treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M Harper
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB #7178, Thurston Bowles Building, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA.
| | - Darin J Knapp
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB #7178, Thurston Bowles Building, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA
| | - Hugh E Criswell
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB #7178, Thurston Bowles Building, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA
| | - George R Breese
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB #7178, Thurston Bowles Building, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA
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Oxytocin and vasopressin modulation of social anxiety following adolescent intermittent ethanol exposure. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235:3065-3077. [PMID: 30141056 PMCID: PMC6456069 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5003-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Adolescent intermittent ethanol exposure (AIE) produces lasting, sex-specific social anxiety-like alterations in male, but not female rats. Oxytocin (OXT) and vasopressin (AVP) brain systems play opposite roles in regulating social preference/avoidance, with OXT increasing approach to, and AVP increasing avoidance of social stimuli. OBJECTIVES To test the hypothesis that social anxiety-like alterations seen in adult males after AIE are associated with a shift in the balance between OXT and AVP toward AVP, effectiveness of pharmacological activation of the OXT system and blockade of endogenous activity at AVP receptors for reversing AIE-induced social anxiety-like alterations was assessed, along with examination of the effects of AIE on OXT, vasopressin V1a, and V1b receptor (OXT-R, V1a-R, and V1b-R) surface expression in the hypothalamus. METHODS Sprague-Dawley male and female rats were given 4 g/kg ethanol (AIE) or water intragastrically every 48 h for a total of 11 exposures during postnatal days (P) 25-45. On P70-72, animals were given a social interaction test following administration of a selective OXT-R agonist WAY-267464, selective V1a-R antagonist SR-49059, or V1b-R antagonist SSR-149415, and hypothalamic tissue was collected. RESULTS Social anxiety-like behavior was induced by AIE in males but not females, and was selectively reversed by the selective OXT-R agonist and V1b-R antagonist, but not V1a-R antagonist. AIE was also found to decrease OXT-R, but increase V1b-R neuronal surface expression relative to water-exposed controls in the hypothalamus of males, but not females. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate that AIE induces changes in OXT-R and AVP-R surface expression in the hypothalamus along with social anxiety-like alterations in male rats. These social anxiety-like alterations can be reversed either by activation of the OXT system or by suppression of the AVP system, data that support the hypothesis that social anxiety-like alterations induced by adolescent alcohol exposure in male rats are associated at least in part with an OXT/AVP imbalance.
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Oyola MG, Handa RJ. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axes: sex differences in regulation of stress responsivity. Stress 2017; 20:476-494. [PMID: 28859530 PMCID: PMC5815295 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2017.1369523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 373] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Gonadal hormones play a key role in the establishment, activation, and regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. By influencing the response and sensitivity to releasing factors, neurotransmitters, and hormones, gonadal steroids help orchestrate the gain of the HPA axis to fine-tune the levels of stress hormones in the general circulation. From early life to adulthood, gonadal steroids can differentially affect the HPA axis, resulting in sex differences in the responsivity of this axis. The HPA axis influences many physiological functions making an organism's response to changes in the environment appropriate for its reproductive status. Although the acute HPA response to stressors is a beneficial response, constant activation of this circuitry by chronic or traumatic stressful episodes may lead to a dysregulation of the HPA axis and cause pathology. Compared to males, female mice and rats show a more robust HPA axis response, as a result of circulating estradiol levels which elevate stress hormone levels during non-threatening situations, and during and after stressors. Fluctuating levels of gonadal steroids in females across the estrous cycle are a major factor contributing to sex differences in the robustness of HPA activity in females compared to males. Moreover, gonadal steroids may also contribute to epigenetic and organizational influences on the HPA axis even before puberty. Correspondingly, crosstalk between the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) and HPA axes could lead to abnormalities of stress responses. In humans, a dysregulated stress response is one of the most common symptoms seen across many neuropsychiatric disorders, and as a result, such interactions may exacerbate peripheral pathologies. In this review, we discuss the HPA and HPG axes and review how gonadal steroids interact with the HPA axis to regulate the stress circuitry during all stages in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario G Oyola
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , CO , USA
| | - Robert J Handa
- a Department of Biomedical Sciences , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , CO , USA
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9
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DiBenedictis BT, Nussbaum ER, Cheung HK, Veenema AH. Quantitative mapping reveals age and sex differences in vasopressin, but not oxytocin, immunoreactivity in the rat social behavior neural network. J Comp Neurol 2017; 525:2549-2570. [PMID: 28340511 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The neuropeptides vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin (OT) have been implicated in the regulation of numerous social behaviors in adult and juvenile animals. AVP and OT signaling predominantly occur within a circuit of interconnected brain regions known collectively as the "social behavior neural network" (SBNN). Importantly, AVP and OT signaling within the SBNN has been shown to differentially regulate diverse social behaviors, depending on the age and/or sex of the animal. We hypothesized that variation in the display of these behaviors is due in part to age and sex differences in AVP and OT synthesis within the SBNN. However, a thorough characterization of AVP and OT-immunoreactive (ir) fibers and cell bodies across age and sex within the SBNN has been lacking in rats. We therefore quantified AVP- and OT-ir fibers and cell bodies in 22 subregions of the forebrain SBNN in juvenile and adult, male and female rats. We found numerous age (16 subregions) and sex (10 subregions) differences in AVP-ir fiber fractional areas, and AVP-ir cell body numbers, which were mainly observed in the medial amygdala/bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to lateral septum circuit. In contrast to AVP, we observed no age or sex differences in OT-ir fiber fractional areas or cell bodies in any of the 22 subregions of the forebrain SBNN. Thus, unlike the static pattern observed for OT, AVP innervation of the forebrain SBNN appears to undergo developmental changes, and is highly sexually dimorphic, which likely has significant functional consequences for the regulation of social behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett T DiBenedictis
- Neurobiology of Social Behavior Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
| | - Elizabeth R Nussbaum
- Neurobiology of Social Behavior Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
| | - Harry K Cheung
- Neurobiology of Social Behavior Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
| | - Alexa H Veenema
- Neurobiology of Social Behavior Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
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Ruiz-Palmero I, Ortiz-Rodriguez A, Melcangi RC, Caruso D, Garcia-Segura LM, Rune GM, Arevalo MA. Oestradiol synthesized by female neurons generates sex differences in neuritogenesis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:31891. [PMID: 27553191 PMCID: PMC4995407 DOI: 10.1038/srep31891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Testosterone produced by the foetal testis is converted by male neurons to oestradiol, which masculinizes neuronal morphology. Female neurons are known to synthesize oestradiol in absence of exogenous testosterone. However, the role of neuronal oestradiol on the differentiation of foetal female neurons is unknown. Here we show that, due to endogenous neuronal oestradiol synthesis, female hippocampal neurons have higher expression of the neuritogenic protein Neurogenin 3 and enhanced neuritogenesis than males. Exogenous application of testosterone or its metabolite dihydrotestosterone increases Neurogenin 3 expression and promotes neuritogenesis in males, but reduces these parameters in females. Together our data indicate that gonadal-independent oestradiol synthesis by female neurons participates in the generation of sex differences in hippocampal neuronal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Ruiz-Palmero
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Avenida Doctor Arce 37, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Ortiz-Rodriguez
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Avenida Doctor Arce 37, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - Roberto Cosimo Melcangi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Donatella Caruso
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via G. Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Luis M Garcia-Segura
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Avenida Doctor Arce 37, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gabriele M Rune
- Institute of Neuroanatomy, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maria-Angeles Arevalo
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Avenida Doctor Arce 37, 28002 Madrid, Spain
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Fokidis HB, Adomat HH, Kharmate G, Hosseini-Beheshti E, Guns ES, Soma KK. Regulation of local steroidogenesis in the brain and in prostate cancer: lessons learned from interdisciplinary collaboration. Front Neuroendocrinol 2015; 36:108-29. [PMID: 25223867 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Sex steroids play critical roles in the regulation of the brain and many other organs. Traditionally, researchers have focused on sex steroid signaling that involves travel from the gonads via the circulation to intracellular receptors in target tissues. This classic concept has been challenged, however, by the growing number of cases in which steroids are synthesized locally and act locally within diverse tissues. For example, the brain and prostate carcinoma were previously considered targets of gonadal sex steroids, but under certain circumstances, these tissues can upregulate their steroidogenic potential, particularly when circulating sex steroid concentrations are low. We review some of the similarities and differences between local sex steroid synthesis in the brain and prostate cancer. We also share five lessons that we have learned during the course of our interdisciplinary collaboration, which brought together neuroendocrinologists and cancer biologists. These lessons have important implications for future research in both fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Bobby Fokidis
- Department of Biology, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL 37289, USA; Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Hans H Adomat
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | | | | | - Emma S Guns
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; Department of Urological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Kiran K Soma
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Brain Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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Allieri F, Spigolon G, Melcangi R, Collado P, Guillamón A, Gotti S, Panzica G. Androgen receptor deficiency alters the arginine-vasopressin sexually dimorphic system in Tfm rats. Neuroscience 2013; 253:67-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Revised: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Grassi D, Bellini MJ, Acaz-Fonseca E, Panzica G, Garcia-Segura LM. Estradiol and testosterone regulate arginine-vasopressin expression in SH-SY5Y human female neuroblastoma cells through estrogen receptors-α and -β. Endocrinology 2013; 154:2092-100. [PMID: 23584859 DOI: 10.1210/en.2012-2137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The expression of arginine-vasopressin (AVP) is regulated by estradiol and testosterone (T) in different neuronal populations by mechanisms that are not yet fully understood. Estrogen receptors (ERs) have been shown to participate in the regulation of AVP neurons by estradiol. In addition, there is evidence of the participation of ERβ in the regulation of AVP expression exerted by T via its metabolite 5α-dihydrotestosterone (5α-DHT) and its further conversion in the androgen metabolite and ERβ ligand 3β-diol. In this study we have explored the role of ERs in the regulation exerted by estradiol and T on AVP expression, using the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Estradiol treatment increased AVP mRNA levels in SH-SY5Y cells in comparison with cells treated with vehicle. The stimulatory effect of estradiol on AVP expression was imitated by the ERα agonist 4,4',4',-(4-propyl-[1H]-pyrazole-1,3,5-triyl)trisphenol and blocked by the ER antagonist, ICI 182,780, and the ERα antagonist 1,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-methyl-5-[4-(2-piperidinylethoxy)phenol]-1hpyrazoledihydrochloride. In contrast, the ERβ agonist 2,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propionitrile reduced AVP expression, whereas the ERβ antagonist 4-[2-phenyl-5,7-bis(trifluoromethyl) pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-3-yl]phenol enhanced the action of estradiol on AVP expression. T increased AVP expression in SH-SY5Y cells by a mechanism that was dependent on aromatase but not on 5α-reductase activity. The T effect was not affected by blocking the androgen receptor, was not imitated by the T metabolite 5α-DHT, and was blocked by the ERα antagonist 1,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-methyl-5-[4-(2-piperidinylethoxy)phenol]-1hpyrazoledihydrochloride. In contrast, 5α-DHT had a similar effect as the ERβ agonists 2,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propionitrile and 3β-diol, reducing AVP expression. These findings suggest that estradiol and T regulate AVP expression in SH-SY5Y cells through ERs, exerting a stimulatory action via ERα and an inhibitory action via ERβ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Grassi
- Instituto Cajal, Consejo Suerior de Investigaciones Científicas, Avenida Doctor Arce 37, E-28002 Madrid, Spain
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Hiroi R, Lacagnina AF, Hinds LR, Carbone DG, Uht RM, Handa RJ. The androgen metabolite, 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (3β-diol), activates the oxytocin promoter through an estrogen receptor-β pathway. Endocrinology 2013; 154:1802-12. [PMID: 23515287 PMCID: PMC3628024 DOI: 10.1210/en.2012-2253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Testosterone has been shown to suppress the acute stress-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; however, the mechanisms underlying this response remain unclear. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is regulated by a neuroendocrine subpopulation of medial parvocellular neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). These neurons are devoid of androgen receptors (ARs). Therefore, a possibility is that the PVN target neurons respond to a metabolite in the testosterone catabolic pathway via an AR-independent mechanism. The dihydrotestosterone metabolite, 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (3β-diol), binds and activates estrogen receptor-β (ER-β), the predominant ER in the PVN. In the PVN, ER-β is coexpressed with oxytocin (OT). Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that 3β-diol regulates OT expression through ER-β activation. Treatment of ovariectomized rats with estradiol benzoate or 3β-diol for 4 days increased OT mRNA selectively in the midcaudal, but not rostral PVN compared with vehicle-treated controls. 3β-Diol treatment also increased OT mRNA in the hypothalamic N38 cell line in vitro. The functional interactions between 3β-diol and ER-β with the human OT promoter were examined using an OT promoter-luciferase reporter construct (OT-luc). In a dose-dependent manner, 3β-diol treatment increased OT-luc activity when cells were cotransfected with ER-β, but not ER-α. The 3β-diol-induced OT-luc activity was reduced by deletion of the promoter region containing the composite hormone response element (cHRE). Point mutations of the cHRE also prevented OT-luc activation by 3β-diol. These results indicate that 3β-diol induces OT promoter activity via ER-β-cHRE interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryoko Hiroi
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Building ABC1, Room 422, 425 North Fifth Street, Phoenix, Arizona 85004, USA
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15
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Chung WCJ, Auger AP. Gender differences in neurodevelopment and epigenetics. Pflugers Arch 2013; 465:573-84. [PMID: 23503727 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-013-1258-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 02/26/2013] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The concept that the brain differs in make-up between males and females is not new. For example, it is well established that anatomists in the nineteenth century found sex differences in human brain weight. The importance of sex differences in the organization of the brain cannot be overstated as they may directly affect cognitive functions, such as verbal skills and visuospatial tasks in a sex-dependent fashion. Moreover, the incidence of neurological and psychiatric diseases is also highly dependent on sex. These clinical observations reiterate the importance that gender must be taken into account as a relevant possible contributing factor in order to understand the pathogenesis of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Gender-dependent differentiation of the brain has been detected at every level of organization--morphological, neurochemical, and functional--and has been shown to be primarily controlled by sex differences in gonadal steroid hormone levels during perinatal development. In this review, we discuss howthe gonadal steroid hormone testosterone and its metabolites affect downstream signaling cascades, including gonadal steroid receptor activation, and epigenetic events in order to differentiate the brain in a gender-dependent fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilson C J Chung
- Department of Biological Sciences and School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242, USA.
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16
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Abstract
Oestrogen receptor (ER)α and ERβ are members of the ligand-activated superfamily of nuclear receptors and mediate most facets of oestrogen signalling. Several naturally occurring splice variants of each ER have been identified in the human brain, yet the biological significance of these splice variants in the brain remains unknown. In the present study, we exploit the unique structural differences of the human ERβ splice variants to determine the functional significance of individual ER domains in the brain. We previously established that full-length rodent ERβ (i.e. rERβ1) has constitutive transcriptional activity in neuronal cells in the absence of ligand. By contrast to the rodent splice variants, the human ERβ splice variants used in the present study contain varying length truncations of exon 8, which encodes for the E/F domains. Our results reveal that, in neuronal cells, each human-specific ERβ splice variant constitutively activated promoters mediated by a canonical oestrogen response element and repressed promoters mediated by activator protein-1 sites via p38 activity. From these data, we conclude that the C-terminus, encoding the AF-2 region and F domain, is not essential for the constitutive properties of human ERβ. Taken together, these studies show that human-specific ERβ variants are constitutively active and also provide novel insight into the contributions of the functional domains of ERβ towards mediating constitutive transcription at various promoters in neuronal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- N N Mott
- Department of Cell and Molecular Physiology, Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL, USA
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17
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Yi SS, Kim HJ, Do SG, Lee YB, Ahn HJ, Hwang IK, Yoon YS. Arginine vasopressin (AVP) expressional changes in the hypothalamic paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Anat Cell Biol 2012; 45:114-20. [PMID: 22822466 PMCID: PMC3398173 DOI: 10.5115/acb.2012.45.2.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2012] [Revised: 05/29/2012] [Accepted: 05/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Arginine vasopressin (AVP) is a neuropeptide with vasoconstrictive, antidiuretic, cardiovascular regulative and hepatic glycogenolysis effects, that also affects other behaviors including modulating learning. A number of studies on AVP regulation have been conducted in various metabolic diseases (disorders). In this study, the immunoreactivities of AVP in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and supraoptic nucleus (SON) and mRNA expressions in the hypothalamus were investigated by immunohistochemistry and quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats at different ages (i.e., at postnatal months [PM] 1, 8, and 12). Blood glucose levels in the PM 8 group were higher than in the other groups. However, cresyl violet positive neurons were detected in the PVN and SON of all animals, and numbers of cresyl violet positive neurons were similar in all aged groups. In addition, AVP immunoreactivity was detected in the PVN and SON of all age groups, and AVP immunoreactivity and mRNA expression levels were found to be increased in proportion to age by immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR. These results suggest that the diabetic condition is temporally generated after hypertension has developed. Furthermore, our findings suggest that increased AVP expressions in the hypothalamic PVN and SON are associated with hypertension by age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun Shin Yi
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, College of Biomedical Sciences, Soonchunhyang University, Asan, Korea
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18
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17β-Estradiol is required for the sexually dimorphic effects of repeated binge-pattern alcohol exposure on the HPA axis during adolescence. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32263. [PMID: 22384198 PMCID: PMC3284554 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Alcohol consumption during adolescence has long-term sexually dimorphic effects on anxiety behavior and mood disorders. We have previously shown that repeated binge-pattern alcohol exposure increased the expression of two critical central regulators of stress and anxiety, corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP), in adolescent male rats. By contrast, there was no effect of alcohol on these same genes in adolescent females. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that 17β-estradiol (E2), the predominant sex steroid hormone in females, prevents alcohol-induced changes in CRH and AVP gene expression in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. To test this hypothesis, postnatal day (PND) 26 females were ovariectomized and given E2 replacement or cholesterol as a control. Next, they were given an alcohol exposure paradigm of 1) saline alone, 2) acute (single dose) or 3) a repeated binge-pattern. Our results showed that acute and repeated binge-pattern alcohol treatment increased plasma ACTH and CORT levels in both E2- and Ch-treated groups, however habituation to repeated binge-pattern alcohol exposure was evident only in E2-treated animals. Further, repeated binge-pattern alcohol exposure significantly decreased CRH and AVP mRNA in Ch-, but not E2-treated animals, which was consistent with our previous observations in gonad intact females. We further tested the effects of E2 and alcohol treatment on the activity of the wild type CRH promoter in a PVN-derived neuronal cell line. Alcohol increased CRH promoter activity in these cells and concomitant treatment with E2 completely abolished the effect. Together our data suggest that E2 regulates the reactivity of the HPA axis to a repeated stressor through modulation of the habituation response and further serves to maintain normal steady state mRNA levels of CRH and AVP in the PVN in response to a repeated alcohol stressor.
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Martínez-Mota L, Ulloa RE, Herrera-Pérez J, Chavira R, Fernández-Guasti A. Sex and age differences in the impact of the forced swimming test on the levels of steroid hormones. Physiol Behav 2011; 104:900-5. [PMID: 21658399 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2011] [Revised: 05/21/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Compared with the adult disorder, depression in children exhibits differences in its neurobiology, particularly in the HPA axis regulation. The bases of such differences can be evaluated in animal models of depression. The objective of the present study was to determine age and sex differences of Wistar rats in the forced swimming test (FST). The influence of sex and age on corticosterone, estrogens and testosterone serum levels was also determined. Prepubertal rats showed immobility, swimming and climbing behaviors during the pre-test and test sessions. In addition, in the prepubertal animals, no sex differences were found during the pre-test and test sessions. Age comparisons indicated no differences in the female groups, however adult males exhibited more immobility and less swimming than young males, in both FST sessions. The young and female rats showed less immobility behavior and increased levels of estrogens after the FST. The present results indicate that the FST is an animal model suitable to evaluate depressive-like behaviors in prepubertal subjects and to explore behavioral changes related to neurodevelopment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Martínez-Mota
- Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Calz. Mexico Xochimilco 101, San Lorenzo Huipulco, Tlalpan, Mexico City, 14370, Mexico.
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Karatsoreos IN, Butler MP, Lesauter J, Silver R. Androgens modulate structure and function of the suprachiasmatic nucleus brain clock. Endocrinology 2011; 152:1970-8. [PMID: 21363939 PMCID: PMC3075936 DOI: 10.1210/en.2010-1398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Gonadal hormones can modulate circadian rhythms in rodents and humans, and androgen receptors are highly localized within the core region of the mouse suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) brain clock. Although androgens are known to modulate neural plasticity in other CNS compartments, the role of androgens and their receptors on plasticity in the SCN is unexplored. In the present study, we ask whether androgens influence the structure and function of the mouse SCN by examining the effects of gonadectomy (GDX) on the structure of the SCN circuit and its responses to light, including induction of clock genes and behavioral phase shifting. We found that after GDX, glial fibrillary acidic protein increased with concomitant decreases in the expression of the synaptic proteins synaptophysin and postsynaptic density 95. We also found that GDX exerts effects on the molecular and behavioral responses to light that are phase dependent. In late night [circadian time (CT)21], GDX increased light-induced mPer1 but not mPer2 expression compared with intact (INT) controls. In contrast, in early night (CT13.5), GDX decreased light induced mPer2 but had no effect on mPer1. At CT13.5, GDX animals also showed larger phase delays than did INT. Treatment of GDX animals with the nonaromatizable androgen dihydrotestosterone restored glial fibrillary acidic protein, postsynaptic density 95, and synaptophysin in the SCN and reinstated the INT pattern of molecular and behavioral responses to light. Together, the results reveal a role for androgens in regulating circuitry in the mouse SCN, with functional consequences for clock gene expression and behavioral responses to photic phase resetting stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilia N Karatsoreos
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, USA
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Przybycien-Szymanska MM, Rao YS, Pak TR. Binge-pattern alcohol exposure during puberty induces sexually dimorphic changes in genes regulating the HPA axis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2010; 298:E320-8. [PMID: 19952347 PMCID: PMC2822472 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00615.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Maternal alcohol consumption during critical periods of fetal brain development leads to devastating long-term consequences on adult reproductive physiology, cognitive function, and social behaviors. However, very little is known about the long-term consequences of alcohol consumption during puberty, which is perhaps an equally dynamic and critical period of brain development. Alcohol abuse during adulthood has been linked with an increase in clinically diagnosed anxiety disorders, yet the etiology and neurochemical mechanisms of alcohol-induced anxiety behavior is unknown. In this study, we determined the effects of binge ethanol exposure during puberty on two critical central regulators of stress and anxiety behavior: corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP). Our results showed that ethanol increased plasma corticosterone (CORT) levels in both sexes, yet binge-treated animals had significantly lower CORT levels than animals exposed to a single dose, suggesting that the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis habituated to the repeated stressful stimuli of ethanol. Binge ethanol exposure also significantly increased CRH and AVP gene expression in the paraventricular nucleus of males, but not females. Overall, our results demonstrate that binge ethanol exposure during puberty changes the central expression of stress-related genes in a sex-specific manner, potentially leading to permanent dysregulation of the HPA axis and long-term behavioral consequences.
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