IL-23 mediates murine liver transplantation ischemia-reperfusion injury via IFN-γ/IRF-1 pathway

The Role of Interferon Regulatory Factors in Liver Diseases

The interferon regulatory factors (IRFs) family comprises 11 members that are involved in various biological processes such as antiviral defense, cell proliferation regulation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Recent studies have highlighted the roles of IRF1-9 in a range of liver diseases, including hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), alcohol-induced liver injury, Con A-induced liver injury, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). IRF1 is involved in the progression of hepatic IRI through signaling pathways such as PIAS1/NFATc1/HDAC1/IRF1/p38 MAPK and IRF1/JNK. The regulation of downstream IL-12, IL-15, p21, p38, HMGB1, JNK, Beclin1, β-catenin, caspase 3, caspase 8, IFN-γ, IFN-β and other genes are involved in the progression of hepatic IRI, and in the development of HCC through the regulation of PD-L1, IL-6, IL-8, CXCL1, CXCL10, and CXCR3. In addition, IRF3-PPP2R1B and IRF4-FSTL1-DIP2A/CD14 pathways are involved in the development of NAFLD. Other members of the IRF family also play moderately important functions in different liver diseases. Therefore, given the significance of IRFs in liver diseases and the lack of a comprehensive compilation of their molecular mechanisms in different liver diseases, this review is dedicated to exploring the molecular mechanisms of IRFs in various liver diseases.

Key role of interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF-1) in regulating liver disease: progress and outlook

Interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF-1) is a member of the IRF family. It is the first transcription factor to be identified that could bind to the interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE) on the target gene and displays crucial roles in the interferon-induced signals and pathways. IRF-1, as an important medium, has all of the advantages of full cell cycle regulation, cell death signaling transduction, and reinforcing immune surveillance, which are well documented. Current studies indicate that IRF-1 is of vital importance to the occurrence and evolution of multifarious liver diseases, including but not limited to inhibiting the replication of the hepatitis virus (A/B/C/E), alleviating the progression of liver fibrosis, and aggravating hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (HIRI). The tumor suppression of IRF-1 is related to the clinical characteristics of liver cancer patients, which makes it a potential indicator for predicting the prognosis and recurrence of liver cancer; additionally, the latest studies have revealed other effects of IRF-1 such as protection against alcoholic/non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD/NAFLD), cholangiocarcinoma suppression, and uncommon traits in other liver diseases that had previously received little attention. Intriguingly, several compounds and drugs have featured a protective function in specific liver disease models in which there is significant involvement of the IRF-1 signal. In this paper, we hope to propose a prospective research basis upon which to help decipher translational medicine applications of IRF-1 in liver disease treatment.

Interferon-α stimulates DExH-box helicase 58 to prevent hepatocyte ferroptosis

BACKGROUND

Liver ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is usually caused by hepatic inflow occlusion during liver surgery, and is frequently observed during war wounds and trauma. Hepatocyte ferroptosis plays a critical role in liver I/R injury, however, it remains unclear whether this process is controlled or regulated by members of the DEAD/DExH-box helicase (DDX/DHX) family.

METHODS

The expression of DDX/DHX family members during liver I/R injury was screened using transcriptome analysis. Hepatocyte-specific Dhx58 knockout mice were constructed, and a partial liver I/R operation was performed. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) in the liver post I/R suggested enhanced ferroptosis by Dhx58hep-/-. The mRNAs and proteins associated with DExH-box helicase 58 (DHX58) were screened using RNA immunoprecipitation-sequencing (RIP-seq) and IP-mass spectrometry (IP-MS).

RESULTS

Excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) decreased the expression of the IFN-stimulated gene Dhx58 in hepatocytes and promoted hepatic ferroptosis, while treatment using IFN-α increased DHX58 expression and prevented ferroptosis during liver I/R injury. Mechanistically, DHX58 with RNA-binding activity constitutively associates with the mRNA of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), a central ferroptosis suppressor, and recruits the m6A reader YT521-B homology domain containing 2 (YTHDC2) to promote the translation of Gpx4 mRNA in an m6A-dependent manner, thus enhancing GPX4 protein levels and preventing hepatic ferroptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides mechanistic evidence that IFN-α stimulates DHX58 to promote the translation of m6A-modified Gpx4 mRNA, suggesting the potential clinical application of IFN-α in the prevention of hepatic ferroptosis during liver I/R injury.

Atherosclerosis Deteriorates Liver Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury Via Interferon Regulatory Factor-1 Overexpression in a Murine Model

BACKGROUND

Abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) is associated with cardiovascular-related mortality, along with an elevated risk of coronary, cerebrovascular, and cardiovascular events. Notably, AAC is strongly associated with poor overall and recurrence free survival posthepatectomy for hepatocellular carcinoma. Despite the acknowledged significance of atherosclerosis in systemic inflammation, its response to ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) remains poorly elucidated. In this study, we aimed to clarify the impact of atherosclerosis on the liver immune system using a warm IRI mouse model.

METHODS

Injury was induced in an atherosclerotic mouse model (ApoE-/-) or C57BL/6J wild-type (WT) mice through 70% clamping for 1 hour and analyzed after 6 hours of reperfusion.

RESULTS

Elevated serum levels of aspartate and alanine aminotransferase, along with histological assessment, indicated considerable damage in the livers of ApoE-/- mice than that in WT mice. This indicates a substantial contribution of atherosclerosis to IRI. Furthermore, T and natural killer (NK) cells in ApoE-/- mouse livers displayed a more inflammatory phenotype than those in WT mouse livers. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed a significant upregulation of interleukin (IL)-15 and its transcriptional regulator, interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1) in ApoE-/- mouse livers compared with that in WT mouse livers.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that in an atherosclerotic mouse model, atherosclerosis can mirror intrahepatic immunity, particularly activating liver NK and T cells through IL-15 production, thereby exacerbating hepatic damage. The upregulation of IL-15 expression is associated with IRF-1 overexpression.

Spatial transcriptomics analysis of zone-dependent hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury murine model

Hepatic ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is a common complication in liver transplantation. The connection between I/R-induced injury response and liver heterogeneity has yet to be fully understood. In this study, we converge histopathological examination with spatial transcriptomics to dissect I/R injury patterns and their associated molecular changes, which reveal that the pericentral zones are most sensitive to I/R injury in terms of histology, transcriptomic changes, and cell type dynamics. Bioinformatic analysis of I/R injury-related pathways predicts that celastrol can protect against liver I/R injury by inducing ischemic pre-conditioning, which is experimentally validated. Mechanistically, celastrol likely implements its protective effect against I/R injury by activating HIF1α signaling and represents a potential strategy for resolving liver I/R.

Activation of Granulocytes in Response to a High Protein Diet Leads to the Formation of Necrotic Lesions in the Liver

In their aspiration to become healthy, people are known to follow extreme diets. However, the acute impact on organs regulating systemic metabolism is not well characterized. Here, we investigated the acute impact of six extreme diets on the liver in mice. Most diets did not lead to clear pathology after short-term feeding. However, two weeks of feeding with a high protein diet (HPD) resulted in an acute increase of liver enzymes in the blood, indicative of liver damage. Histology revealed the formation of necrotic lesions in this organ which persisted for several weeks. Flow cytometric analysis of hepatic immune cell populations showed that HPD feeding induced activation of macrophages and neutrophils. Neutralization of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β or depletion of macrophages with clodronate-loaded liposomes or with genetic models did not ameliorate liver necrosis. In contrast, the depletion of neutrophils prevented HPD-induced hepatic inflammation. After prolonged feeding, HPD-feeding was associated with a strong increase of the cytokines IL-10 and IL-27, suggesting that anti-inflammatory mediators are activated to prevent nutrient-overload-induced damage to the liver. In summary, whereas our data indicates that most extreme diets do not have a major impact on the liver within two weeks, diets with a very high protein content may lead to severe, acute hepatic damage and should therefore be avoided.

Molecular Mechanisms of Ischaemia-Reperfusion Injury and Regeneration in the Liver-Shock and Surgery-Associated Changes

Hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) represents a major challenge during liver surgery, liver preservation for transplantation, and can cause hemorrhagic shock with severe hypoxemia and trauma. The reduction of blood supply with a concomitant deficit in oxygen delivery initiates various molecular mechanisms involving the innate and adaptive immune response, alterations in gene transcription, induction of cell death programs, and changes in metabolic state and vascular function. Hepatic IRI is a major cause of morbidity and mortality, and is associated with an increased risk for tumor growth and recurrence after oncologic surgery for primary and secondary hepatobiliary malignancies. Therapeutic strategies to prevent or treat hepatic IRI have been investigated in animal models but, for the most part, have failed to provide a protective effect in a clinical setting. This review focuses on the molecular mechanisms underlying hepatic IRI and regeneration, as well as its clinical implications. A better understanding of this complex and highly dynamic process may allow for the development of innovative therapeutic approaches and optimize patient outcomes.

Transcriptional changes in orthotopic liver transplantation and ischemia/reperfusion injury

Background There are few effective targeting strategies to reduce liver ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), which is one of the reasons for the poor prognosis of liver transplant recipients. Methods A systematic approach combining gene expression with protein interaction (PPI) network was used to screen the characteristic genes and related biological functions of post-transplant. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between IRI+ and IRI- were identified. Logistic regression model and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve were used to identify potential target genes of IRI. The expression of key genes was verified by qRT-PCR and Western-blot experiments. Finally, the ssGSEA was used to identify the immune cell infiltration in patients with IRI. Results The 283 common DEGs in GSE87487 and GSE151648 were mainly related to apoptosis and IL-17 signaling pathway. Through PPI network and logistic regression analysis, we identified that IL6, CCL2 and CXCL8 may be involved in the ischemia/reperfusion (IR) process. In addition, 32 genes were showed associated with IRI through inflammatory and metabolic pathways. Among the key genes identified, the differential expression of AGBL4, CILP2 and IL4I1 was verified by molecular experiments. Th17 cells of differentially infiltrated immune cells were positively correlated with CILP2 and IL4I1. The difference of Th17 cells between IRI+ and IRI- was verified by flow cytometry. Conclusion The study showed that AGBL4, CILP2 and IL4I1 were associated with IRI. Th17 cells may be associated with the regulation of IRI by key genes. These genes and related pathways may be targets for improving IRI.

The Role of Interferon Regulatory Factors in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is becoming the most common chronic liver disease with many metabolic comorbidities, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), an advanced form of NAFLD, accompanies the progression of hepatic steatosis, inflammation, cell death, and varying degree of liver fibrosis. Interferons (IFNs) have been shown to play important roles in the pathogenesis of NAFLD and NASH. Their regulating transcriptional factors such as interferon regulatory factors (IRFs) can regulate IFN expression, as well as genes involved in macrophage polarization, which are implicated in the pathogenesis of NAFLD and advanced liver disease. In this review, the roles of IRF-involved signaling pathways in hepatic inflammation, insulin resistance, and immune cell activation are reviewed. IRFs such as IRF1 and IRF4 are also involved in the polarization of macrophages that contribute to critical roles in NAFLD or NASH pathogenesis. In addition, IRFs have been shown to be regulated by treatments including microRNAs, PPAR modulators, anti-inflammatory agents, and TLR agonists or antagonists. Modulating IRF-mediated factors through these treatments in chronic liver disease can ameliorate the progression of NAFLD to NASH. Furthermore, adenoviruses and CRISPR activation plasmids can also be applied to regulate IRF-mediated effects in chronic liver disease. Pre-clinical and clinical trials for evaluating IRF regulators in NAFLD treatment are essential in the future direction.

DNA-double strand breaks enhance the expression of major histocompatibility complex class II through the ATM-NF-κΒ-IRF1-CIITA pathway

Major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II) is important for the adaptive immune response because MHC II presents processed antigens to a cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4)-positive T-cells. Conventional doses of chemotherapeutic agents induce tumor cell death by causing DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). However, cellular responses caused by sub-lethal doses of chemotherapeutic agents are poorly understood. In this study, using low doses of chemotherapeutic agents, we showed that DSBs enhanced the expression of MHC II on cells that originate from antigen-presenting cells (APCs). These agents induced the MHC class II transactivator (CIITA), the master regulator of MHC II, and interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF1), a transcription factor for CIITA. Short hairpin RNA against IRF1 suppressed chemotherapeutic agent-induced CIITA expression, whereas exogenous expression of IRF1 induced CIITA. Inhibition of ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM), a DSB-activated kinase, suppressed induction of IRF1, CIITA, and MHC II. Similar results were observed by inhibiting NF-κB, a downstream target of ATM. These results suggest that DSBs induce MHC II activity via the ATM-NF-κB-IRF1-CIITA pathway in cells that intrinsically present antigens. Additionally, chemotherapeutic agents induced T-cell regulatory molecules. Our findings suggest that chemotherapeutic agents enhance the antigen presentation activity of APCs for T-cell activation.

Interleukine-17 Modulates Neurogenesis and Behavior Following Exposure to Trauma in Mice

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric disorder accompanied by deficits in cognitive and social skills. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is a lifelong phenomenon, with new neurons being formed in the granular cell layer of the dentate gyrus. Impaired neurogenesis is associated with multiple behavioral disorders including Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. PTSD patients often present hippocampal atrophy and animal models clearly present impaired neurogenesis. Previous studies on PTSD patients demonstrated elevated levels of Th17 cells and plasma levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-17A (IL-17A). Since IL-17A can impair neurogenesis in mice, we thus hypothesized that decreasing the serum levels of IL-17A will increase hippocampal neurogenesis and alleviate symptoms in a murine model of PTSD. Surprisingly, our results showed that attempting to neutralize IL-17A with an antibody resulted in increased serum levels of IL-17A, while targeting IL-23, the upstream regulator of IL-17, did lower the levels of IL-17A in trauma-exposed mice. As expected, increased levels of serum IL-17A (in anti-IL-17A treated mice) resulted in impaired neurogenesis, reflected by reduced number of proliferating Ki67⁺ neural progenitors and newly formed DCX⁺ neurons, which was correlated with increased expression of Hes1. Nevertheless, increased maturation was noted by the expression of Slit2 and Ache. In contrast, treatment with anti-IL-23 indeed resulted in increased neurogenesis. Behaviorally, both treatments did not affect trauma-related freezing behavior but did affect trauma-related social deficits. Unexpectedly, increased levels of serum IL-17A (in anti-IL-17A treated mice) prevented social deficits in trauma-exposed mice while anti-IL-23 exacerbated these deficits. We thus conclude that IL-17 is involved in regulating neurogenesis following exposure to stress but may be important in maintaining social behavior.

Modulation of Prostanoids Profile and Counter-Regulation of SDF-1α/CXCR4 and VIP/VPAC2 Expression by Sitagliptin in Non-Diabetic Rat Model of Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Molecular mechanisms underlying the beneficial effect of sitagliptin repurposed for hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) are poorly understood. We aimed to evaluate the impact of IRI and sitagliptin on the hepatic profile of eicosanoids (LC-MS/MS) and expression/concentration (RTqPCR/ELISA) of GLP-1/GLP-1R, SDF-1α/CXCR4 and VIP/VPAC1, VPAC2, and PAC1 in 36 rats. Animals were divided into four groups and subjected to ischemia (60 min) and reperfusion (24 h) with or without pretreatment with sitagliptin (5 mg/kg) (IR and SIR) or sham-operated with or without sitagliptin pretreatment (controls and sitagliptin). PGI₂, PGE₂, and 13,14-dihydro-PGE₁ were significantly upregulated in IR but not SIR, while sitagliptin upregulated PGD₂ and 15-deoxy-12,14-PGJ₂. IR and sitagliptin non-significantly upregulated GLP-1 while Glp1r expression was borderline detectable. VIP concentration and Vpac2 expression were downregulated in IR but not SIR, while Vpac1 was significantly downregulated solely in SIR. IRI upregulated both CXCR4 expression and concentration, and sitagliptin pretreatment abrogated receptor overexpression and downregulated Sdf1. In conclusion, hepatic IRI is accompanied by an elevation in proinflammatory prostanoids and overexpression of CXCR4, combined with downregulation of VIP/VPAC2. Beneficial effects of sitagliptin during hepatic IRI might be mediated by drug-induced normalization of proinflammatory prostanoids and upregulation of PGD₂ and by concomitant downregulation of SDF-1α/CXCR4 and reinstating VIP/VCAP2 signaling.

Cytokines in Liver Transplantation

Cytokines, soluble mediators of the immune system, play a critical role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune, allergic and infectious diseases. They are also implicated in the initiation and development of allograft rejection. During recent years, there have been considerable advances in generating novel anti-cytokine agents with promoted efficacy and safety, which could be administrated for managing dysregulated cytokine secretion; besides, gene therapy for overexpression of immunomodulatory cytokines has shown substantial improvements. Liver transplantation has been established as a life-saving treatment for end-stage hepatic diseases but the growing number of recipients urge for improved post-transplant care including tolerance induction, infection control and resolving immunosuppressant drugs adverse effects. Cytokines with a wide range of proinflammatory and regulatory properties might be considered as potential therapeutic targets for selective suppression or enhancement of the immune responses in recipients. In the present review, we aimed to summarize the positive and negative effects of cytokines on liver allograft in addition to their prognostic and therapeutic values.

Sitagliptin Modulates Oxidative, Nitrative and Halogenative Stress and Inflammatory Response in Rat Model of Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion

A possibility of repurposing sitagliptin, a well-established antidiabetic drug, for alleviating injury caused by ischemia-reperfusion (IR) is being researched. The aim of this study was to shed some light on the molecular background of the protective activity of sitagliptin during hepatic IR. The expression and/or concentration of inflammation and oxidative stress-involved factors have been determined in rat liver homogenates using quantitative RT-PCR and Luminex^® xMAP^® technology and markers of nitrative and halogenative stress were quantified using targeted metabolomics (LC-MS/MS). Animals (n = 36) divided into four groups were treated with sitagliptin (5 mg/kg) (S and SIR) or saline solution (C and IR), and the livers from IR and SIR were subjected to ischemia (60 min) and reperfusion (24 h). The midkine expression (by 2.2-fold) and the free 3-nitrotyrosine (by 2.5-fold) and IL-10 (by 2-fold) concentration were significantly higher and the Nox4 expression was lower (by 9.4-fold) in the IR than the C animals. As compared to IR, the SIR animals had a lower expression of interleukin-6 (by 4.2-fold) and midkine (by 2-fold), a lower concentration of 3-nitrotyrosine (by 2.5-fold) and a higher Nox4 (by 2.9-fold) and 3-bromotyrosine (by 1.4-fold). In conclusion, IR disturbs the oxidative, nitrative and halogenative balance and aggravates the inflammatory response in the liver, which can be attenuated by low doses of sitagliptin.

Dendritic Cell-Mediated Regulation of Liver Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury and Liver Transplant Rejection

Liver allograft recipients are more likely to develop transplantation tolerance than those that receive other types of organ graft. Experimental studies suggest that immune cells and other non-parenchymal cells in the unique liver microenvironment play critical roles in promoting liver tolerogenicity. Of these, liver interstitial dendritic cells (DCs) are heterogeneous, innate immune cells that appear to play pivotal roles in the instigation, integration and regulation of inflammatory responses after liver transplantation. Interstitial liver DCs (recruited in situ or derived from circulating precursors) have been implicated in regulation of both ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) and anti-donor immunity. Thus, livers transplanted from mice constitutively lacking DCs into syngeneic, wild-type recipients, display increased tissue injury, indicating a protective role of liver-resident donor DCs against transplant IRI. Also, donor DC depletion before transplant prevents mouse spontaneous liver allograft tolerance across major histocompatibility complex (MHC) barriers. On the other hand, mouse liver graft-infiltrating host DCs that acquire donor MHC antigen via "cross-dressing", regulate anti-donor T cell reactivity in association with exhaustion of graft-infiltrating T cells and promote allograft tolerance. In an early phase clinical trial, infusion of donor-derived regulatory DCs (DCreg) before living donor liver transplantation can induce alterations in host T cell populations that may be conducive to attenuation of anti-donor immune reactivity. We discuss the role of DCs in regulation of warm and liver transplant IRI and the induction of liver allograft tolerance. We also address design of cell therapies using DCreg to reduce the immunosuppressive drug burden and promote clinical liver allograft tolerance.

Comparative analysis of the superoxide dismutase gene family in Cetartiodactyla

Cetacea, whales, dolphins and porpoises form an order of mammals adapted to aquatic life. Their transition to an aquatic habitat resulted in exceptional protection against cellular insults, including oxidative and osmotic stress. Here, we considered the structure and molecular evolution of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) gene family, which encodes essential enzymes in the mammalian antioxidant system, in the superorder Cetartiodactyla. To this end, we juxtaposed cetaceans and their closest extant relatives (order Artiodactyla). We identified 94 genes in 23 species, of which 70 are bona fide intact genes. Although the SOD gene family is conserved in Cetartiodactyla, lineage-specific gene duplications and deletions were observed. Phylogenetic analyses show that the SOD2 subfamily diverged from a clade containing SOD1 and SOD3, suggesting that cytoplasmic, extracellular and mitochondrial SODs have started down independent evolutionary paths. Specific-amino acid changes (e.g. K130N in SOD2) that may enhance ROS elimination were identified in cetaceans. In silico analysis suggests that the core transcription factor repertoire of cetartiodactyl SOD genes may include Sp1, NF-κB, Nrf2 and AHR. Putative transcription factors binding sites responding to hypoxia were (e.g. Suppressor of Hairless; Su(H)) found in the cetacean SOD1 gene. We found significant evidence for positive selection in cetaceans using codon models. Cetaceans with different diving abilities also show divergent evolution of SOD1 and SOD2. Our genome-wide analysis of SOD genes helps clarify their relationship and evolutionary trajectory and identify putative functional changes in cetaceans.

IL-17 and IL-23 levels in patients with early-stage chronic lymphocytic leukemia

OBJECTIVE

Cytokines produced by bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells are important components of the tumor microenvironment in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). The roles of IL-17 and IL-23 in both autoimmune diseases and tumor growth have been demonstrated. The role of the IL-17/23 axis in apoptosis has also been demonstrated in studies. Autoimmune cytopenias are common in CLL. In this study, we aimed to compare IL-17/IL-23 levels in early-stage CLL patients with healthy controls.

METHODS

After obtaining ethical approval from the local ethics committee, 22 patients with early-stage chronic lymphocytic leukemia and 21 healthy control groups were included in this study. IL-17 and IL-23 were analyzed using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method.

RESULTS

The findings showed that the median IL-23 level was lower in men in the chronic lymphocytic leukemia group than women. There was a positive correlation between IL-17 and IL-23 levels in both the control group and the chronic lymphocytic leukemia group. There was no significant correlation between stage and IL-17 and IL-23 levels in chronic lymphocytic leukemia patients.

CONCLUSION

Results of studies conducted on IL-17 and/or IL-23 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia in the literature are not consistent. These inconsistent results can be explained by the fact that the immune system develops differently in each individual due to environmental factors, past infections, intestinal flora, vaccines, ethnicity, and even gender. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that the development and application of personalized immunotherapy strategies instead of standard therapy in chronic lymphocytic leukemia may increase therapeutic success rates.

Interferon Regulatory Factor-1 (IRF1) activates autophagy to promote liver ischemia/reperfusion injury by inhibiting β-catenin in mice

Autophagy is an important factor in liver ischemia-reperfusion injury. In the current study we investigate the function of interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF1) in regulating autophagy to promote hepatic ischemia reperfusion injury (IR). The high expression of IRF1 during hepatic IR exhibited increased liver damage and was associated with activation of autophagy shown by Western blot markers, as well as immunofluorescent staining for autophagosomes. These effects were diminished by IRF1 deficiency in IRF1 knock out (KO) mice. Moreover, the autophagy inhibitor 3-MA decreased IR-induced liver necrosis and markedly abrogated the rise in liver injury tests (AST/ALT). β-catenin expression decreased during liver IR and was increased in the IRF1 KO mice. Immunoprecipitation assay showed the binding between IRF1 and β-catenin. Overexpression of IRF1 induced autophagy and also inhibited the expression of β-catenin. β-catenin inhibitor increased autophagy while β-catenin agonist suppressed autophagy in primary mouse hepatocytes. These results indicate that IRF1 induced autophagy aggravates hepatic IR injury in part by inhibiting β-catenin and suggests that targeting IRF1 may be an effective strategy in reducing hepatic IR injury.

Neutrophil Chemotaxis and NETosis in Murine Chronic Liver Injury via Cannabinoid Receptor 1/ Gαi/o/ ROS/ p38 MAPK Signaling Pathway

Neutrophils play an essential role in the control of inflammatory diseases. However, whether cannabinoid receptors (CBs) play a role in neutrophil chemotaxis and NETosis in sterile liver inflammation remains unknown. The expression of marker genes on neutrophils was characterized by FACS, immunofluorescence, qRT-PCR, and Western blot. The amount of neutrophils was significantly elevated from 7 days and reached the peak at 2 weeks in carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-treated mouse liver. The mRNA expression of neutrophil marker Ly6G had positive correlation with CB1 and CB2 expression in injured liver. In vitro CBs were abundantly expressed in isolated neutrophils and CB1 agonist ACEA promoted the chemotaxis and cytoskeletal remodeling, which can be suppressed by CB1 antagonist AM281. Moreover, ACEA induced NETosis, myeloperoxidase release from lysosome and ROS burst, indicating neutrophil activation, via Gα_i/o. Conversely, CB2 agonist JWH133 had no effect on neutrophil function. ROS and p38 MAPK signaling pathways were involved in CB1-mediated neutrophil function, and ROS was upstream of p38 MAPK. CB1 blockade in vivo significantly attenuated neutrophil infiltration and liver inflammation in CCl₄-treated mice. Taken together, CB1 mediates neutrophil chemotaxis and NETosis via Gα_i/o/ROS/p38 MAPK signaling pathway in liver inflammation, which represents an effective therapeutic strategy for liver diseases.