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Lepretre F, Gras D, Chanez P, Duez C. Natural killer cells in the lung: potential role in asthma and virus-induced exacerbation? Eur Respir Rev 2023; 32:230036. [PMID: 37437915 DOI: 10.1183/16000617.0036-2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory airway disorder whose pathophysiological and immunological mechanisms are not completely understood. Asthma exacerbations are mostly driven by respiratory viral infections and characterised by worsening of symptoms. Despite current therapies, asthma exacerbations can still be life-threatening. Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphoid cells well known for their antiviral activity and are present in the lung as circulating and resident cells. However, their functions in asthma and its exacerbations are still unclear. In this review, we will address NK cell activation and functions, which are particularly relevant for asthma and virus-induced asthma exacerbations. Then, the role of NK cells in the lungs at homeostasis in healthy individuals will be described, as well as their functions during pulmonary viral infections, with an emphasis on those associated with asthma exacerbations. Finally, we will discuss the involvement of NK cells in asthma and virus-induced exacerbations and examine the effect of asthma treatments on NK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Lepretre
- Aix-Marseille Université, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, Marseille, France
| | - Delphine Gras
- Aix-Marseille Université, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, Marseille, France
| | - Pascal Chanez
- Aix-Marseille Université, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, Marseille, France
- APHM, Hôpital Nord, Clinique des Bronches, de l'allergie et du sommeil, Marseille, France
| | - Catherine Duez
- Aix-Marseille Université, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, Marseille, France
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2
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Yu H, Zaveri S, Sattar Z, Schaible M, Perez Gandara B, Uddin A, McGarvey LR, Ohlmeyer M, Geraghty P. Protein Phosphatase 2A as a Therapeutic Target in Pulmonary Diseases. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2023; 59:1552. [PMID: 37763671 PMCID: PMC10535831 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59091552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
New disease targets and medicinal chemistry approaches are urgently needed to develop novel therapeutic strategies for treating pulmonary diseases. Emerging evidence suggests that reduced activity of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), a complex heterotrimeric enzyme that regulates dephosphorylation of serine and threonine residues from many proteins, is observed in multiple pulmonary diseases, including lung cancer, smoke-induced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, asthma, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Loss of PP2A responses is linked to many mechanisms associated with disease progressions, such as senescence, proliferation, inflammation, corticosteroid resistance, enhanced protease responses, and mRNA stability. Therefore, chemical restoration of PP2A may represent a novel treatment for these diseases. This review outlines the potential impact of reduced PP2A activity in pulmonary diseases, endogenous and exogenous inhibitors of PP2A, details the possible PP2A-dependent mechanisms observed in these conditions, and outlines potential therapeutic strategies for treatment. Substantial medicinal chemistry efforts are underway to develop therapeutics targeting PP2A activity. The development of specific activators of PP2A that selectively target PP2A holoenzymes could improve our understanding of the function of PP2A in pulmonary diseases. This may lead to the development of therapeutics for restoring normal PP2A responses within the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howard Yu
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; (H.Y.); (S.Z.); (Z.S.); (M.S.); (B.P.G.); (A.U.); (L.R.M.)
| | - Sahil Zaveri
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; (H.Y.); (S.Z.); (Z.S.); (M.S.); (B.P.G.); (A.U.); (L.R.M.)
| | - Zeeshan Sattar
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; (H.Y.); (S.Z.); (Z.S.); (M.S.); (B.P.G.); (A.U.); (L.R.M.)
| | - Michael Schaible
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; (H.Y.); (S.Z.); (Z.S.); (M.S.); (B.P.G.); (A.U.); (L.R.M.)
| | - Brais Perez Gandara
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; (H.Y.); (S.Z.); (Z.S.); (M.S.); (B.P.G.); (A.U.); (L.R.M.)
| | - Anwar Uddin
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; (H.Y.); (S.Z.); (Z.S.); (M.S.); (B.P.G.); (A.U.); (L.R.M.)
| | - Lucas R. McGarvey
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; (H.Y.); (S.Z.); (Z.S.); (M.S.); (B.P.G.); (A.U.); (L.R.M.)
| | | | - Patrick Geraghty
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Health Sciences University, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; (H.Y.); (S.Z.); (Z.S.); (M.S.); (B.P.G.); (A.U.); (L.R.M.)
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3
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Dy ABC, Girkin J, Marrocco A, Collison A, Mwase C, O'Sullivan MJ, Phung TKN, Mattes J, Koziol-White C, Gern JE, Bochkov YA, Bartlett NW, Park JA. Rhinovirus infection induces secretion of endothelin-1 from airway epithelial cells in both in vitro and in vivo models. Respir Res 2023; 24:205. [PMID: 37598152 PMCID: PMC10440034 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-023-02510-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rhinovirus (RV) infection of airway epithelial cells triggers asthma exacerbations, during which airway smooth muscle (ASM) excessively contracts. Due to ASM contraction, airway epithelial cells become mechanically compressed. We previously reported that compressed human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells are a source of endothelin-1 (ET-1) that causes ASM contraction. Here, we hypothesized that epithelial sensing of RV by TLR3 and epithelial compression induce ET-1 secretion through a TGF-β receptor (TGFβR)-dependent mechanism. METHODS To test this, we used primary HBE cells well-differentiated in air-liquid interface culture and two mouse models (ovalbumin and house dust mite) of allergic airway disease (AAD). HBE cells were infected with RV-A16, treated with a TLR3 agonist (poly(I:C)), or exposed to compression. Thereafter, EDN1 (ET-1 protein-encoding gene) mRNA expression and secreted ET-1 protein were measured. We examined the role of TGFβR in ET-1 secretion using either a pharmacologic inhibitor of TGFβR or recombinant TGF-β1 protein. In the AAD mouse models, allergen-sensitized and allergen-challenged mice were subsequently infected with RV. We then measured ET-1 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) following methacholine challenge. RESULTS Our data reveal that RV infection induced EDN1 expression and ET-1 secretion in HBE cells, potentially mediated by TLR3. TGFβR activation was partially required for ET-1 secretion, which was induced by RV, poly(I:C), or compression. TGFβR activation alone was sufficient to increase ET-1 secretion. In AAD mouse models, RV induced ET-1 secretion in BALF, which positively correlated with AHR. CONCLUSIONS Our data provide evidence that RV infection increased epithelial-cell ET-1 secretion through a TGFβR-dependent mechanism, which contributes to bronchoconstriction during RV-induced asthma exacerbations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alane Blythe C Dy
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, SPH1-315, USA
| | - Jason Girkin
- College of Health, Medicine and Wellbeing, University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, Australia
| | - Antonella Marrocco
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, SPH1-315, USA
| | - Adam Collison
- College of Health, Medicine and Wellbeing, University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, Australia
| | - Chimwemwe Mwase
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, SPH1-315, USA
| | - Michael J O'Sullivan
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, SPH1-315, USA
| | - Thien-Khoi N Phung
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, SPH1-315, USA
| | - Joerg Mattes
- College of Health, Medicine and Wellbeing, University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, Australia
| | | | - James E Gern
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Yury A Bochkov
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Nathan W Bartlett
- College of Health, Medicine and Wellbeing, University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, Australia
| | - Jin-Ah Park
- Program in Molecular and Integrative Physiological Sciences, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, SPH1-315, USA.
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Montinaro A, Walczak H. Harnessing TRAIL-induced cell death for cancer therapy: a long walk with thrilling discoveries. Cell Death Differ 2023; 30:237-249. [PMID: 36195672 PMCID: PMC9950482 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-022-01059-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis inducing ligand (TRAIL) can induce apoptosis in a wide variety of cancer cells, both in vitro and in vivo, importantly without killing any essential normal cells. These findings formed the basis for the development of TRAIL-receptor agonists (TRAs) for cancer therapy. However, clinical trials conducted with different types of TRAs have, thus far, afforded only limited therapeutic benefit, as either the respectively chosen agonist showed insufficient anticancer activity or signs of toxicity, or the right TRAIL-comprising combination therapy was not employed. Therefore, in this review we will discuss molecular determinants of TRAIL resistance, the most promising TRAIL-sensitizing agents discovered to date and, importantly, whether any of these could also prove therapeutically efficacious upon cancer relapse following conventional first-line therapies. We will also discuss the more recent progress made with regards to the clinical development of highly active non-immunogenic next generation TRAs. Based thereupon, we next propose how TRAIL resistance might be successfully overcome, leading to the possible future development of highly potent, cancer-selective combination therapies that are based on our current understanding of biology TRAIL-induced cell death. It is possible that such therapies may offer the opportunity to tackle one of the major current obstacles to effective cancer therapy, namely overcoming chemo- and/or targeted-therapy resistance. Even if this were achievable only for certain types of therapy resistance and only for particular types of cancer, this would be a significant and meaningful achievement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Montinaro
- Centre for Cell Death, Cancer, and Inflammation (CCCI), UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, 72 Huntley Street, London, WC1E 6DD, UK.
| | - Henning Walczak
- Centre for Cell Death, Cancer, and Inflammation (CCCI), UCL Cancer Institute, University College London, 72 Huntley Street, London, WC1E 6DD, UK.
- CECAD Cluster of Excellence, University of Cologne, 50931, Cologne, Germany.
- Center for Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Joseph-Stelzmann-Str. 52, University of Cologne, 50931, Cologne, Germany.
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5
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Dissanayake E, Brockman-Schneider RA, Stubbendieck RM, Helling BA, Zhang Z, Bochkov YA, Kirkham C, Murphy TF, Ober C, Currie CR, Gern JE. Rhinovirus increases Moraxella catarrhalis adhesion to the respiratory epithelium. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 12:1060748. [PMID: 36733852 PMCID: PMC9886879 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1060748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhinovirus causes many types of respiratory illnesses, ranging from minor colds to exacerbations of asthma. Moraxella catarrhalis is an opportunistic pathogen that is increased in abundance during rhinovirus illnesses and asthma exacerbations and is associated with increased severity of illness through mechanisms that are ill-defined. We used a co-infection model of human airway epithelium differentiated at the air-liquid interface to test the hypothesis that rhinovirus infection promotes M. catarrhalis adhesion and survival on the respiratory epithelium. Initial experiments showed that infection with M. catarrhalis alone did not damage the epithelium or induce cytokine production, but increased trans-epithelial electrical resistance, indicative of increased barrier function. In a co-infection model, infection with the more virulent rhinovirus-A and rhinovirus-C, but not the less virulent rhinovirus-B types, increased cell-associated M. catarrhalis. Immunofluorescent staining demonstrated that M. catarrhalis adhered to rhinovirus-infected ciliated epithelial cells and infected cells being extruded from the epithelium. Rhinovirus induced pronounced changes in gene expression and secretion of inflammatory cytokines. In contrast, M. catarrhalis caused minimal effects and did not enhance RV-induced responses. Our results indicate that rhinovirus-A or C infection increases M. catarrhalis survival and cell association while M. catarrhalis infection alone does not cause cytopathology or epithelial inflammation. Our findings suggest that rhinovirus and M. catarrhalis co-infection could promote epithelial damage and more severe illness by amplifying leukocyte inflammatory responses at the epithelial surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eishika Dissanayake
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | | | - Reed M. Stubbendieck
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Britney A. Helling
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Zhumin Zhang
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Yury A. Bochkov
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Charmaine Kirkham
- Clinical and Translational Research Center, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Timothy F. Murphy
- Clinical and Translational Research Center, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Carole Ober
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Cameron R. Currie
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
- Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, David Braley Centre for Antibiotic Discovery, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - James E. Gern
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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6
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Rajput C, Han M, Ishikawa T, Lei J, Goldsmith AM, Jazaeri S, Stroupe CC, Bentley JK, Hershenson MB. Rhinovirus C Infection Induces Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Expansion and Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation. Front Immunol 2021; 12:649520. [PMID: 33968043 PMCID: PMC8100319 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.649520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhinovirus C (RV-C) infection is associated with severe asthma exacerbations. Since type 2 inflammation is an important disease mechanism in asthma, we hypothesized that RV-C infection, in contrast to RV-A, preferentially stimulates type 2 inflammation, leading to exacerbated eosinophilic inflammation. To test this, we developed a mouse model of RV-C15 airways disease. RV-C15 was generated from the full-length cDNA clone and grown in HeLa-E8 cells expressing human CDHR3. BALB/c mice were inoculated intranasally with 5 x 106 ePFU RV-C15, RV-A1B or sham. Mice inoculated with RV-C15 showed lung viral titers of 1 x 105 TCID50 units 24 h after infection, with levels declining thereafter. IFN-α, β, γ and λ2 mRNAs peaked 24-72 hrs post-infection. Immunofluorescence verified colocalization of RV-C15, CDHR3 and acetyl-α-tubulin in mouse ciliated airway epithelial cells. Compared to RV-A1B, mice infected with RV-C15 demonstrated higher bronchoalveolar eosinophils, mRNA expression of IL-5, IL-13, IL-25, Muc5ac and Gob5/Clca, protein production of IL-5, IL-13, IL-25, IL-33 and TSLP, and expansion of type 2 innate lymphoid cells. Analogous results were found in mice treated with house dust mite before infection, including increased airway responsiveness. In contrast to Rorafl/fl littermates, RV-C-infected Rorafl/flIl7rcre mice deficient in ILC2s failed to show eosinophilic inflammation or mRNA expression of IL-13, Muc5ac and Muc5b. We conclude that, compared to RV-A1B, RV-C15 infection induces ILC2-dependent type 2 airway inflammation, providing insight into the mechanism of RV-C-induced asthma exacerbations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Marc B. Hershenson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
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McGuire JJ, Frieling JS, Lo CH, Li T, Muhammad A, Lawrence HR, Lawrence NJ, Cook LM, Lynch CC. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived interleukin-28 drives the selection of apoptosis resistant bone metastatic prostate cancer. Nat Commun 2021; 12:723. [PMID: 33526787 PMCID: PMC7851397 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-20962-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone metastatic prostate cancer (PCa) promotes mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) recruitment and their differentiation into osteoblasts. However, the effects of bone-marrow derived MSCs on PCa cells are less explored. Here, we report MSC-derived interleukin-28 (IL-28) triggers prostate cancer cell apoptosis via IL-28 receptor alpha (IL-28Rα)-STAT1 signaling. However, chronic exposure to MSCs drives the selection of prostate cancer cells that are resistant to IL-28-induced apoptosis and therapeutics such as docetaxel. Further, MSC-selected/IL-28-resistant prostate cancer cells grow at accelerated rates in bone. Acquired resistance to apoptosis is PCa cell intrinsic, and is associated with a shift in IL-28Rα signaling via STAT1 to STAT3. Notably, STAT3 ablation or inhibition impairs MSC-selected prostate cancer cell growth and survival. Thus, bone marrow MSCs drive the emergence of therapy-resistant bone metastatic prostate cancer yet this can be disabled by targeting STAT3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy J McGuire
- Cancer Biology Ph.D. Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
- Tumor Biology Department, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Jeremy S Frieling
- Tumor Biology Department, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Chen Hao Lo
- Cancer Biology Ph.D. Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
- Tumor Biology Department, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Tao Li
- Tumor Biology Department, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Ayaz Muhammad
- Department of Drug Discovery, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Harshani R Lawrence
- Department of Drug Discovery, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Nicholas J Lawrence
- Department of Drug Discovery, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Leah M Cook
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Conor C Lynch
- Tumor Biology Department, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA.
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Sag D, Ayyildiz ZO, Gunalp S, Wingender G. The Role of TRAIL/DRs in the Modulation of Immune Cells and Responses. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11101469. [PMID: 31574961 PMCID: PMC6826877 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11101469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Expression of TRAIL (tumor necrosis factor–related apoptosis–inducing ligand) by immune cells can lead to the induction of apoptosis in tumor cells. However, it becomes increasingly clear that the interaction of TRAIL and its death receptors (DRs) can also directly impact immune cells and influence immune responses. Here, we review what is known about the role of TRAIL/DRs in immune cells and immune responses in general and in the tumor microenvironment in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duygu Sag
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), 35340 Balcova/Izmir, Turkey.
- Department of Medical Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Dokuz Eylul University, 35340 Balcova/Izmir, Turkey.
- Department of Genome Sciences and Molecular Biotechnology, Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute, Dokuz Eylul University, 35340 Balcova/Izmir, Turkey.
| | - Zeynep Ozge Ayyildiz
- Department of Genome Sciences and Molecular Biotechnology, Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute, Dokuz Eylul University, 35340 Balcova/Izmir, Turkey.
| | - Sinem Gunalp
- Department of Genome Sciences and Molecular Biotechnology, Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute, Dokuz Eylul University, 35340 Balcova/Izmir, Turkey.
| | - Gerhard Wingender
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), 35340 Balcova/Izmir, Turkey.
- Department of Biomedicine and Health Technologies, Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute, Dokuz Eylul University, 35340 Balcova/Izmir, Turkey.
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9
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Sun Y, Shi X, Peng X, Li Y, Ma H, Li D, Cao X. MicroRNA-181a exerts anti-inflammatory effects via inhibition of the ERK pathway in mice with intervertebral disc degeneration. J Cell Physiol 2019; 235:2676-2686. [PMID: 31508816 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.29171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Enzymatic decomposition of extracellular matrix and possibly local inflammation may cause intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD). MicroRNAs have been reported to correlate with the development of IDD. In this experiment, we aim at finding out the role of miR-181a in the inflammation of IDD and the underlying mechanism. The targeting relationship between miR-181a and tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) was verified. Following the establishment of IDD mouse models, disc height index (DHI) and the change of DHI (%DHI) were measured. The functional role of miR-181a in IDD was determined using ectopic expression and depletion and reporter assay experiments. Expression of miR-181a, TRAIL, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway-related genes and inflammatory factors was evaluated. Also, the expression of collagen I and collagen II was observed. miR-181a directly targeted TRAIL. IDD mice exhibited significant degeneration of the intervertebral disc. miR-181a was downregulated while TRAIL was upregulated in mice with IDD. miR-181a upregulation and the ERK pathway inhibition could reduce expression of TRAIL, ERK pathway-related genes, inflammatory factors, and collagen I, but promote collagen II expression. Our results reveal that upregulation of miR-181a protects against inflammatory response by inactivating the ERK pathway via suppression of TRAIL in IDD mice. These results point to miR-181a as a potential therapeutic target for the clinical management of IDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanpeng Sun
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Luoyang Orthopedic Hospital of Henan Province, Luoyang, China
| | - Xiangqin Shi
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Luoyang Orthopedic Hospital of Henan Province, Luoyang, China
| | - Xiaodong Peng
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Luoyang Orthopedic Hospital of Henan Province, Luoyang, China
| | - Yanzhou Li
- Department of Intervention, Luoyang Orthopedic Hospital of Henan Province, Luoyang, China
| | - Husheng Ma
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Luoyang Orthopedic Hospital of Henan Province, Luoyang, China
| | - Dongfang Li
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Luoyang Orthopedic Hospital of Henan Province, Luoyang, China
| | - Xiangyang Cao
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Luoyang Orthopedic Hospital of Henan Province, Luoyang, China
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Transcriptomic Analysis Reveals Priming of The Host Antiviral Interferon Signaling Pathway by Bronchobini ® Resulting in Balanced Immune Response to Rhinovirus Infection in Mouse Lung Tissue Slices. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092242. [PMID: 31067687 PMCID: PMC6540047 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhinovirus (RV) is the predominant virus causing respiratory tract infections. Bronchobini® is a low dose multi component, multi target preparation used to treat inflammatory respiratory diseases such as the common cold, described to ease severity of symptoms such as cough and viscous mucus production. The aim of the study was to assess the efficacy of Bronchobini® in RV infection and to elucidate its mode of action. Therefore, Bronchobini®’s ingredients (BRO) were assessed in an ex vivo model of RV infection using mouse precision-cut lung slices, an organotypic tissue capable to reflect the host immune response to RV infection. Cytokine profiles were assessed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and mesoscale discovery (MSD). Gene expression analysis was performed using Affymetrix microarrays and ingenuity pathway analysis. BRO treatment resulted in the significant suppression of RV-induced antiviral and pro-inflammatory cytokine release. Transcriptome analysis revealed a multifactorial mode of action of BRO, with a strong inhibition of the RV-induced pro-inflammatory and antiviral host response mediated by nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) and interferon signaling pathways. Interestingly, this was due to priming of these pathways in the absence of virus. Overall, BRO exerted its beneficial anti-inflammatory effect by priming the antiviral host response resulting in a reduced inflammatory response to RV infection, thereby balancing an otherwise excessive inflammatory response.
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11
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Collison AM, Li J, de Siqueira AP, Lv X, Toop HD, Morris JC, Starkey MR, Hansbro PM, Zhang J, Mattes J. TRAIL signals through the ubiquitin ligase MID1 to promote pulmonary fibrosis. BMC Pulm Med 2019; 19:31. [PMID: 30732588 PMCID: PMC6367767 DOI: 10.1186/s12890-019-0786-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) has previously been demonstrated to play a pro-inflammatory role in allergic airways disease and COPD through the upregulation of the E3 ubiquitin ligase MID1 and the subsequent deactivation of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). METHODS Biopsies were taken from eight IPF patients presenting to the Second Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, China between January 2013 and February 2014 with control samples obtained from resected lung cancers. Serum TRAIL, MID1 protein and PP2A activity in biopsies, and patients' lung function were measured. Wild type and TRAIL deficient Tnfsf10-/- BALB/c mice were administered bleomycin to induce fibrosis and some groups were treated with the FTY720 analogue AAL(s) to activate PP2A. Mouse fibroblasts were treated with recombinant TRAIL and fibrotic responses were assessed. RESULTS TRAIL in serum and MID1 protein levels in biopsies from IPF patients were increased compared to controls. MID1 levels were inversely associated while PP2A activity levels correlated with DLco. Tnfsf10-/- and mice treated with the PP2A activator AAL(s) were largely protected against bleomycin-induced reductions in lung function and fibrotic changes. Addition of recombinant TRAIL to mouse fibroblasts in-vitro increased collagen production which was reversed by PP2A activation with AAL(s). CONCLUSION TRAIL signalling through MID1 deactivates PP2A and promotes fibrosis with corresponding lung function decline. This may provide novel therapeutic targets for IPF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam M. Collison
- Experimental and Translational Respiratory Medicine Group, Level 2 East, Hunter Medical Research Institute, School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia
- Priority Research Centre GrowUpWell, The University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Junyao Li
- Experimental and Translational Respiratory Medicine Group, Level 2 East, Hunter Medical Research Institute, School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia
- Priority Research Centre GrowUpWell, The University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130041 People’s Republic of China
| | - Ana Pereira de Siqueira
- Experimental and Translational Respiratory Medicine Group, Level 2 East, Hunter Medical Research Institute, School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia
- Priority Research Centre GrowUpWell, The University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Xuejiao Lv
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130041 People’s Republic of China
| | - Hamish D. Toop
- School of Chemistry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales Australia
| | - Jonathan C. Morris
- School of Chemistry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales Australia
| | - Malcolm R. Starkey
- Priority Research Centre GrowUpWell, The University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, The University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Philip M. Hansbro
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, The University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
| | - Jie Zhang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, 130041 People’s Republic of China
| | - Joerg Mattes
- Experimental and Translational Respiratory Medicine Group, Level 2 East, Hunter Medical Research Institute, School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia
- Priority Research Centre GrowUpWell, The University of Newcastle and Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, Australia
- Paediatric Respiratory & Sleep Medicine Department, Newcastle Children’s Hospital, Kaleidoscope, Newcastle, Australia
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12
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Girkin J, Maltby S, Singanayagam A, Bartlett N, Mallia P. In vivo experimental models of infection and disease. RHINOVIRUS INFECTIONS 2019. [PMCID: PMC7149593 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816417-4.00008-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Human and animal models continue to play a crucial role in research to understand host immunity to rhinovirus (RV) and identify disease mechanisms. Human models have provided direct evidence that RV infection is capable of exacerbating chronic respiratory diseases and identified immunological processes that correlate with clinical disease outcomes. Mice are the most commonly used nonhuman experimental RV infection model. Although semipermissive, under defined experimental conditions sufficient replication occurs to induce host immune responses that recapitulate immunity and disease during human infection. The capacity to use genetically modified mouse strains and drug interventions has shown the mouse model to be an invaluable research tool defining causal relationships between host immunity and disease and supporting development of new treatments. Used in combination the insights achieved from human and animal experimental infection models provide complementary insights into RV biology and yield novel therapeutic options to reduce the burden of RV-induced disease.
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13
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Han M, Rajput C, Ishikawa T, Jarman CR, Lee J, Hershenson MB. Small Animal Models of Respiratory Viral Infection Related to Asthma. Viruses 2018; 10:E682. [PMID: 30513770 PMCID: PMC6316391 DOI: 10.3390/v10120682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Respiratory viral infections are strongly associated with asthma exacerbations. Rhinovirus is most frequently-detected pathogen; followed by respiratory syncytial virus; metapneumovirus; parainfluenza virus; enterovirus and coronavirus. In addition; viral infection; in combination with genetics; allergen exposure; microbiome and other pathogens; may play a role in asthma development. In particular; asthma development has been linked to wheezing-associated respiratory viral infections in early life. To understand underlying mechanisms of viral-induced airways disease; investigators have studied respiratory viral infections in small animals. This report reviews animal models of human respiratory viral infection employing mice; rats; guinea pigs; hamsters and ferrets. Investigators have modeled asthma exacerbations by infecting mice with allergic airways disease. Asthma development has been modeled by administration of virus to immature animals. Small animal models of respiratory viral infection will identify cell and molecular targets for the treatment of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyuan Han
- Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Charu Rajput
- Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Tomoko Ishikawa
- Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Caitlin R Jarman
- Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Julie Lee
- Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
| | - Marc B Hershenson
- Department of Pediatrics and Communicable Diseases, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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14
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Braithwaite AT, Marriott HM, Lawrie A. Divergent Roles for TRAIL in Lung Diseases. Front Med (Lausanne) 2018; 5:212. [PMID: 30101145 PMCID: PMC6072839 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2018.00212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a widely expressed cytokine that can bind five different receptors. TRAIL has been of particular interest for its proposed ability to selectively induce apoptosis in tumour cells. However, it has also been found to regulate a wide variety of non-canonical cellular effects including survival, migration and proliferation via kinase signalling pathways. Lung diseases represent a wide range of conditions affecting multiple tissues. TRAIL has been implicated in several biological processes underlying lung diseases, including angiogenesis, inflammation, and immune regulation. For example, TRAIL is detrimental in pulmonary arterial hypertension—it is upregulated in patient serum and lungs, and drives the underlying proliferative pulmonary vascular remodelling in rodent models. However, TRAIL protects against pulmonary fibrosis in mice models—by inducing apoptosis of neutrophils—and reduced serum TRAIL is found in patients. Conversely, in the airways TRAIL positively regulates inflammation and immune response. In COPD patients and asthmatic patients challenged with antigen, TRAIL and its death receptors are upregulated in serum and airways. Furthermore, TRAIL-deleted mouse models have reduced airway inflammation and remodelling. In the context of respiratory infections, TRAIL assists in immune response, e.g., via T-cell toxicity in influenza infection, and neutrophil killing in S. pneumoniae infection. In this mini-review, we examine the functions of TRAIL and highlight the diverse roles TRAIL has in diseases affecting the lung. Disentangling the facets of TRAIL signalling in lung diseases could help in understanding their pathogenic processes and targeting novel treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam T Braithwaite
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Medical School, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Helen M Marriott
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Medical School, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Allan Lawrie
- Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Medical School, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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15
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Mehta AK, Doherty T, Broide D, Croft M. Tumor necrosis factor family member LIGHT acts with IL-1β and TGF-β to promote airway remodeling during rhinovirus infection. Allergy 2018; 73:1415-1424. [PMID: 29315623 DOI: 10.1111/all.13390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rhinovirus (RV) can exacerbate allergen-driven asthma. However, it has been suggested that serial infections with RV may also lead to asthma-like features in childhood without prior allergen exposure. AIM We sought to test the effects of RV infection in the absence of allergen challenge on lung tissue remodeling and to understand whether RV induced factors in common with allergen that promote remodeling. METHODS We infected C57BL/6 mice multiple times with RV in the absence or presence of allergen to assess airway remodeling. We used knockout mice and blocking reagents to determine the participation of LIGHT (TNFSF14), as well as IL-1β and TGF-β, each previously shown to contribute to lung remodeling driven by allergen. RESULTS Recurrent RV infection without allergen challenge induced an increase in peribronchial smooth muscle mass and subepithelial fibrosis. Rhinovirus (RV) induced LIGHT expression in mouse lungs after infection, and alveolar epithelial cells and neutrophils were found to be potential sources of LIGHT. Accordingly, LIGHT-deficient mice, or mice where LIGHT was neutralized, displayed reduced smooth muscle mass and lung fibrosis. Recurrent RV infection also exacerbated the airway remodeling response to house dust mite allergen, and this was significantly reduced in LIGHT-deficient mice. Furthermore, neutralizing IL-1β or TGF-β also limited subepithelial fibrosis and/or smooth muscle thickness induced by RV. CONCLUSION Rhinovirus can promote airway remodeling in the absence of allergen through upregulating common factors that also contribute to allergen-associated airway remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. K. Mehta
- Division of Immune Regulation; La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology; La Jolla CA USA
| | - T. Doherty
- Department of Medicine; University of California San Diego; La Jolla CA USA
| | - D. Broide
- Department of Medicine; University of California San Diego; La Jolla CA USA
| | - M. Croft
- Division of Immune Regulation; La Jolla Institute for Allergy and Immunology; La Jolla CA USA
- Department of Medicine; University of California San Diego; La Jolla CA USA
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16
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Hansbro PM, Kim RY, Starkey MR, Donovan C, Dua K, Mayall JR, Liu G, Hansbro NG, Simpson JL, Wood LG, Hirota JA, Knight DA, Foster PS, Horvat JC. Mechanisms and treatments for severe, steroid-resistant allergic airway disease and asthma. Immunol Rev 2018; 278:41-62. [PMID: 28658552 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Severe, steroid-resistant asthma is clinically and economically important since affected individuals do not respond to mainstay corticosteroid treatments for asthma. Patients with this disease experience more frequent exacerbations of asthma, are more likely to be hospitalized, and have a poorer quality of life. Effective therapies are urgently required, however, their development has been hampered by a lack of understanding of the pathological processes that underpin disease. A major obstacle to understanding the processes that drive severe, steroid-resistant asthma is that the several endotypes of the disease have been described that are characterized by different inflammatory and immunological phenotypes. This heterogeneity makes pinpointing processes that drive disease difficult in humans. Clinical studies strongly associate specific respiratory infections with severe, steroid-resistant asthma. In this review, we discuss key findings from our studies where we describe the development of representative experimental models to improve our understanding of the links between infection and severe, steroid-resistant forms of this disease. We also discuss their use in elucidating the mechanisms, and their potential for developing effective therapeutic strategies, for severe, steroid-resistant asthma. Finally, we highlight how the immune mechanisms and therapeutic targets we have identified may be applicable to obesity-or pollution-associated asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Hansbro
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Richard Y Kim
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Malcolm R Starkey
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Chantal Donovan
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Kamal Dua
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Jemma R Mayall
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Gang Liu
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Nicole G Hansbro
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Jodie L Simpson
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Lisa G Wood
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Jeremy A Hirota
- James Hogg Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Darryl A Knight
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Paul S Foster
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Jay C Horvat
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute and The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
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17
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Dua K, Shukla SD, Hansbro PM. Aspiration techniques for bronchoalveolar lavage in translational respiratory research: Paving the way to develop novel therapeutic moieties. J Biol Methods 2017; 4:e73. [PMID: 31453230 PMCID: PMC6706109 DOI: 10.14440/jbm.2017.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is a simple, yet informative tool in understanding the immunopathology of various lung diseases via quantifying various inflammatory cells, cytokines and growth factors. At present, this traditional method is often blended with several robust and sophisticated molecular and biological techniques sustaining the significance and longevity of this technique. Crucially, the existence of slightly distinct approaches and variables employed at different laboratories around the globe in performing BAL aspiration indeed demands an utmost need to optimize and develop an effective, cost-effective and a reproducible technique. This mini review will be of importance to the biological translational scientist, particularly respiratory researchers in understanding the fundamentals and approaches to apply and consider with BAL aspiration techniques. This will ensure generating a meaningful and clinically relevant data which in turn accelerate the development of new and effective therapeutic moieties for major respiratory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamal Dua
- Discipline of Pharmacy, Graduate School of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney 2007, NSW, Australia.,Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Lot 1 Kookaburra Circuit, New Lambton Heights, Newcastle, NSW 2305, Australia.,School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Shakti D Shukla
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Lot 1 Kookaburra Circuit, New Lambton Heights, Newcastle, NSW 2305, Australia.,School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Philip M Hansbro
- Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, Lot 1 Kookaburra Circuit, New Lambton Heights, Newcastle, NSW 2305, Australia.,School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
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