In vivo Ca2+ buffering capacity and microvascular oxygen pressures following muscle contractions in diabetic rat skeletal muscles: fiber-type specific effects

Transcapillary PO2 Gradients in Contracting Muscles of Type I Diabetic Rats

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to clarify the effect of Type I diabetes (DIA) on transcapillary PO2 gradients, which are oxygen-driving factors between the blood and the interstitium, in the contracting muscle of rats.

METHODS

Wistar male rats were divided into the diabetic (streptozocin i.p.) and sham groups. Microvascular and interstitial PO2 were measured in the extensor digitorum longus muscle during electrical stimulation-induced muscle contraction, using the phosphorescence quenching method. Transcapillary PO2 gradient, ΔPO2, was calculated as microvascular minus interstitial PO2.

RESULTS

Resting microvascular PO2 was higher in the diabetic group than in the sham group (6.3 ± 1.7 vs. 4.7 ± 0.9 mmHg, p < 0.05) and remained for 180 s. Interstitial PO2 from rest to muscle contraction did not differ between the groups. The ΔPO2 was higher in the diabetic group than in the sham group at rest and during muscle contraction (4.03 ± 1.42 vs. 2.46 ± 0.90 mmHg at rest; 3.67 ± 1.51 vs. 2.22 ± 0.65 mmHg during muscle contraction, p < 0.05). Marked muscle atrophy was observed in the diabetic group.

CONCLUSION

DIA increased microvascular and transcapillary PO2 gradients in the skeletal muscle. The enhanced PO2 gradients were maintained from rest to muscle contraction in diabetic muscle.

Exercise mitigates Dapagliflozin-induced skeletal muscle atrophy in STZ-induced diabetic rats

BACKGROUND

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) are commonly used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and have been found to worsen the reduction of skeletal muscle mass in individuals with T2DM. This study aims to examine the potential of exercise in mitigating the skeletal muscle atrophy induced by SGLT2i treatment.

METHODS

A rat model of T2DM (40 male Sprague-Dawley rats; T2DM induced by a combination of high-fat diet and streptozotocin) was used to examine the effects of six-week treatment with Dapagliflozin (DAPA, SGLT2i) in combination with either aerobic exercise (AE) or resistance training (RT) on skeletal muscle. T2DM-eligible rats were randomized into the T2DM control group (CON, n = 6), DAPA treatment group (DAPA, n = 6), DAPA combined with aerobic exercise intervention group (DAPA + AE, n = 6), and DAPA combined with resistance training intervention group (DAPA + RT, n = 6). To assess the morphological changes in skeletal muscle, myosin ATPase and HE staining were performed. mRNA expression levels of Atrogin-1, MuRF1, and Myostatin were determined using quantitative PCR. Furthermore, protein expression levels of AKT, p70S6K, mTOR, FoXO1/3A, NF-κB, and MuRF1 were examined through western blotting.

RESULTS

Both the administration of DAPA alone and the combined exercise intervention with DAPA resulted in significant reductions in blood glucose levels and body weight in rats. However, DAPA alone administration led to a decrease in skeletal muscle mass, whereas RT significantly increased skeletal muscle mass and muscle fiber cross-sectional area. The DAPA + RT group exhibited notable increases in both total protein levels and phosphorylation levels of AKT and p70S6K in skeletal muscle. Moreover, the DAPA, DAPA + AE, and DAPA + RT groups demonstrated downregulation of protein expression (FoXO1/3A) and mRNA levels (Atrogin-1, MuRF1, and Myostatin) associated with muscle atrophy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide support for the notion that dapagliflozin may induce skeletal muscle atrophy through mechanisms unrelated to protein metabolism impairment in skeletal muscle, as it does not hinder protein metabolic pathways while reduces muscle atrophy-related genes. Additionally, our observations reveal that RT proves more effective than AE in enhancing skeletal muscle mass and muscle fiber cross-sectional area in rats with T2DM by stimulating protein anabolism within the skeletal muscle.

Impaired fatigue resistance, sarcoplasmic reticulum function, and mitochondrial activity in soleus muscle of db/db mice

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is characterized by reduced exercise tolerance due to increased fatigability in skeletal muscle. In this study, we investigated muscle fatigue resistance of soleus (SOL) muscle in obese type 2 diabetic model mice (db/db). No differences in muscle volume, absolute force, or specific force in SOL muscle were observed between db/db mice and control mice (db/+), while fatigue resistance evaluated by repeated tetanic contractions was significantly lower in db/db mice (30th tetani, db/+: 63.7 ± 4.7%, db/db: 51.3 ± 4.8%). The protein abundance related to Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) in SOL muscle was not different between db/db mice and db/+ mice, while SR Ca2+ -ATPase (Ca2+ reuptake to SR) protein was decreased in db/db mice compared to db/+ mice (db/+: 1.00 ± 0.17, db/db: 0.60 ± 0.04, relative units). In addition, mitochondrial oxidative enzyme activity (succinate dehydrogenase) was decreased in the SOL muscle of db/db mice (p < 0.05). These data suggest that fatigue resistance in slow-twitch dominant muscle is impaired in mice with T2DM. Decreased mitochondrial oxidative enzyme activity and impairment of Ca2+ uptake to SR, or both might be involved in the mechanisms.

Ryanodine receptors mediate high intracellular Ca2+ and some myocyte damage following eccentric contractions in rat fast-twitch skeletal muscle

Eccentric contractions (ECC) facilitate cytosolic calcium ion (Ca2+) release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and Ca2+ influx from the extracellular space. Ca2+ is a vital signaling messenger that regulates multiple cellular processes via its spatial and temporal concentration ([Ca2+]i) dynamics. We hypothesized that 1) a specific pattern of spatial/temporal intramyocyte Ca2+ dynamics portends muscle damage following ECC and 2) these dynamics would be regulated by the ryanodine receptor (RyR). [Ca2+]i in the tibialis anterior muscles of anesthetized adult Wistar rats was measured by ratiometric (i.e., ratio, R, 340/380 nm excitation) in vivo bioimaging with Fura-2 pre-ECC and at 5 and 24 h post-ECC (5 × 40 contractions). Separate groups of rats received RyR inhibitor dantrolene (DAN; 10 mg/kg ip) immediately post-ECC (+DAN). Muscle damage was evaluated by histological analysis on hematoxylin-eosin stained muscle sections. Compared with control (CONT, no ECC), [Ca2+]i distribution was heterogeneous with increased percent total area of high [Ca2+]i sites (operationally defined as R ≥ 1.39, i.e., ≥1 SD of mean control) 5 h post-ECC (CONT, 14.0 ± 8.0; ECC5h: 52.0 ± 7.4%, P < 0.01). DAN substantially reduced the high [Ca2+]i area 5 h post-ECC (ECC5h + DAN: 6.4 ± 3.1%, P < 0.01) and myocyte damage (ECC24h, 63.2 ± 1.0%; ECC24h + DAN: 29.1 ± 2.2%, P < 0.01). Temporal and spatially amplified [Ca2+]i fluctuations occurred regardless of DAN (ECC vs. ECC + DAN, P > 0.05). These results suggest that the RyR-mediated local high [Ca2+]i itself is related to the magnitude of muscle damage, whereas the [Ca2+]i fluctuation is an RyR-independent phenomenon.

Influence of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes on Calcium Handling by Skeletal Muscle: Spotlight on the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum and Mitochondria

Obesity and diabetes have been shown to interfere with energy metabolism and cause peripheral insulin resistance in skeletal muscle. However, recent studies have focused on the effect metabolic insult has on the loss of muscle size, strength, and physical function. Contractile dysfunction has been linked to impaired intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) regulation. In skeletal muscle, [Ca²⁺]_i homeostasis is highly regulated by Ca²⁺ transport across the sarcolemma/plasma membrane, the golgi apparatus, sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), and mitochondria. Particularly, the SR and or mitochondria play an important role in the fine-tuning of this metabolic process. Recent studies showed that obesity and insulin resistance are associated with interactions between the SR and mitochondrial networks (the dynamic tubular reticulum formed by mitochondria), suggesting that metabolic disorders alter Ca²⁺ handling by these organelles. These interactions are facilitated by specific membrane proteins, including ion channels. This review considers the impact of metabolic disorders, such as obesity and type 2 diabetes, on the regulation of [Ca²⁺]_i in skeletal muscle. It also discusses the mechanisms by which this occurs, focusing chiefly on the SR and mitochondria networks. A deeper understanding of the effect of metabolic disorders on calcium handling might be useful for therapeutic strategies.

Sirtuin 3 overexpression preserves maximal sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum calcium ATPase activity in the skeletal muscle of mice subjected to high fat-high sucrose-feeding

Sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum calcium (Ca²⁺) ATPase (SERCA) transports Ca²⁺ in muscle. Impaired SERCA activity contributes to diabetic myopathy. Sirtuin (SIRT) 3 regulates muscle metabolism and function. However, it is unknown if SIRT3 regulates muscle SERCA activity. We determined if SIRT3 overexpression enhances SERCA activity in mouse gastrocnemius muscle and if SIRT3 overexpression preserves gastrocnemius SERCA activity in a model of type 2 diabetes, induced by high fat-high sucrose (HFHS)-feeding. We also determined if the acetylation status of SERCA proteins in mouse gastrocnemius is altered by SIRT3 overexpression or HFHS-feeding. Wild-type (WT) mice and SIRT3 transgenic (SIRT3_TG) mice, overexpressing SIRT3 in skeletal muscle, were fed a standard- or HFHS-diet for 4-months. SIRT3_TG and WT mice developed obesity and glucose intolerance after 4-months of HFHS-feeding. SERCA V_max was higher in gastrocnemius of SIRT3TG mice, compared to WT mice. HFHS-fed mice had lower SERCA1a protein levels and lower SERCA V_max in their gastrocnemius than control-fed mice. The decrease in SERCA V_max in gastrocnemius muscle due to HFHS-feeding was attenuated by SIRT3 overexpression in HFHS-fed SIRT3_TG mice. SERCA1a and SERCA2a acetylation in mouse gastrocnemius was not altered by genotype or diet. These findings suggest SIRT3 overexpression improves SERCA function in diabetic mouse skeletal muscle.

Type I diabetes suppresses intracellular calcium ion increase normally evoked by heat stress in rat skeletal muscle

Heat stress, via its effects on muscle intracellular Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]i), has been invoked as a putative therapeutic countermeasure to type 1 diabetes-induced muscle atrophy. Using a circulation- and neurally intact in vivo muscle preparation, we tested the hypothesis that impaired muscle Ca2+ homeostasis in type 1 diabetic rats is due to attenuated heat stress tolerance mediated via transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1). Male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to one of the following four groups: 1) healthy control 30°C (CONT 30°C); 2) CONT 40°C; 3) diabetes 30°C (DIA 30°C); and 4) DIA 40°C. The temperature of 40°C was selected because it exceeds the TRPV1 activation threshold. Spinotrapezius muscles of Wistar rats were exteriorized in vivo and loaded with the fluorescent Ca2+ probe Fura-2 AM. [Ca2+]i was estimated over 20 min using fluorescence microscopy (340/380 nm ratio) in quiescent muscle held at the required temperature, using a calibrated heat source applied to the ventral muscle surface. Western blotting was performed to determine the protein expression levels of TRPV1 in spinotrapezius muscle. After 20 min of heat stress, the CONT 40°C condition induced a 12.3 ± 5% [Ca2+]i (P < 0.05) elevation that was markedly absent in the DIA 40°C or other conditions. Thus, no significant differences were found among DIA 40°C, DIA 30°C, and CONT 30°C. TRPV1 protein expression was decreased by 42.0 ± 9% in DIA compared with CONT (P < 0.05) and, unlike CONT, heat stress did not increase TRPV1 phosphorylation. In conclusion, diabetes suppresses TRPV1 protein expression and function and inhibits the elevated myocyte [Ca2+]i evoked normally by heat stress. These results suggest that capsaicin or other therapeutic strategies to increase Ca2+ accumulation via TRPV1 might be more effective than hyperthermic therapy for type 1 diabetic patients.

Maintenance of contractile force and increased fatigue resistance in slow-twitch skeletal muscle of mice fed a high-fat diet

Consumption of a high-fat diet (HFD) significantly increases exercise endurance performance during treadmill running. However, whether HFD consumption increases endurance capacity via enhanced muscle fatigue resistance has not been clarified. In this study, we investigated the effects of HFDs on contractile force and fatigue resistance of slow-twitch dominant muscles. The soleus (SOL) muscle of male C57BL/6J mice fed an HFD (60% kcal from fat) or a low-fat diet (LFD) for 12 wk was analyzed. Muscle contractile force was measured under resting conditions and during fatigue induced by repeated tetanic contractions (100 Hz, 50 contractions, and 2-s intervals). Differences in muscle twitch or tetanic force were not evident between HFD and LFD groups, whereas fatigue resistance was higher in the HFD groups. The SOL muscle of HFD-fed mice showed increased levels of markers related to oxidative capacity such as succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) and citrate synthase (CS) activity. In addition, electron microscopy analyses indicated that the total number of mitochondria and mitochondrial volume density increased in the SOL muscle of the HFD groups. These findings suggest that HFD consumption induces increased muscle fatigue resistance in slow-twitch dominant muscle fibers. This effect of HFD may be related to elevated oxidative enzyme activity, high mitochondrial content, or both.NEW & NOTEWORTHY In this study, we examined the effects of HFDs on muscle contractile force and fatigue resistance of slow-twitch dominant muscles ex vivo. We found that contractile function was comparable between the HFD groups and the LFD group, whereas fatigue resistance was higher in the HFD groups. This effect of HFD may be related to elevated oxidative enzyme activity, high mitochondrial content, or both.

Sex differences in mitochondrial Ca2+ handling in mouse fast-twitch skeletal muscle in vivo

We investigated sex differences in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ handling properties in mouse fast-twitch skeletal muscle. Changes in cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_cyto) were measured in vivo using tibialis anterior muscles from male and female mice. The muscles were exposed to increasing concentrations of cyclopiazonic acid [CPA; sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca²⁺-ATPase inhibitor] (from 10 to 30 to 50 μM at 10 min intervals). Thirty minutes after treatment, [Ca²⁺]_cyto was increased by 31.6 ± 2.0% and 13.5 ± 4.5% of initial [Ca²⁺]_cyto in male and female muscles, respectively, and there was a significant difference between sexes. However, muscle preincubation for 5 min with 10 μM carbonyl cyanide-4-(trifluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone (an inhibitor of mitochondria Ca²⁺ uptake) eradicated this difference between sexes with respect to the CPA-induced [Ca²⁺]_cyto increase. Both intermyofibrillar mitochondrial number and volume, assessed in longitudinal fiber sections, were higher in females compared with males (mitochondria number: 13.1 ± 1.0 in males vs. 19.9 ± 2.3 in females; mitochondrial volume: 0.034 ± 0.004 μm³/μm³ fiber volume in males vs. 0.066 ± 0.008 μm³/μm³ fiber volume in females, both P < 0.05). There were no sex differences in the content of SR Ca²⁺-ATPase, mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter, mitofusin (Mfn) 1, or Mfn2. These results suggest that 1) mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake ability is greater in female than male myocytes, and 2) this superior Ca²⁺ uptake ability of female myocytes is due, partly, to the higher intermyofibrillar mitochondrial content but not to the expression of mitochondrial proteins related to mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This investigation presents evidence that female versus male fast-twitch muscle exhibits a greater mitochondrial calcium ion uptake capability that is partly conferred by the higher intermyofibrillar mitochondrial volume density.

Regional differences in Ca2+ entry along the proximal-middle-distal muscle axis during eccentric contractions in rat skeletal muscle

Eccentric (ECC) contraction-induced muscle damage is associated with calcium ion (Ca²⁺) influx from the extracellular milieu through stretch-activated channels. It remains unknown whether Ca²⁺ influx consequent to repetitive ECC contractions is nonuniform across different muscle regions. We tested the hypothesis that there are regional differences in Ca²⁺ entry along the proximal-middle-distal muscle axis. Tibialis anterior (TA) muscles of adult male Wistar rats were exposed by reflecting the overlying skin and fasciae and ECC contractions evoked by peroneal nerve stimulation paired with simultaneous ankle extension (50 times/set, 2 protocols: 1 set and 10 sets). During ECC in the proximal, middle, and distal TA, we determined 1) muscle fiber extension by high-speed camera (200 frames/s) and 2) Ca²⁺ accumulation by in vivo bioimaging (Ca²⁺-sensitive probe Fura-2-acetoxymethyl ester). Muscle fiber extension from resting was significantly different among regions (i.e., proximal, 4.0%: < middle, 11.2%: < distal, 17.0%; ECC phase length at 500th contraction). Intracellular Ca²⁺ accumulation after 1 set of ECC was higher in the distal (1.46 ± 0.04, P < 0.05) than the proximal (1.27 ± 0.04) or middle (1.26 ± 0.05) regions. However, this regional Ca²⁺ accumulation difference disappeared by 32.5 min after the 1 set protocol when the muscle was quiescent and by contraction set 5 for the 10-set protocol. The initial preferential ECC-induced Ca²⁺ accumulation observed distally was associated spatially with the greater muscle extension compared with that of the proximal and middle regions. Disappearance of the regional Ca²⁺ accumulation disparity in quiescent and ECC-contracting muscle might be explained, in part, by axial Ca²⁺ propagation and account for the uniformity of muscle damage across regions evident 3 days post-ECC.NEW & NOTEWORTHY After 1 set of 50 eccentric (ECC) contractions in the anterior tibialis muscle, intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]i) accumulation evinces substantial regional heterogeneity that is spatially coherent with muscle length changes (i.e., distal [Ca²⁺]i > middle, proximal). However, irrespective of whether 50 or 500 ECC contractions are performed, this heterogeneity is subsequently abolished, at least in part, by axial intracellular Ca²⁺ propagation. This Ca²⁺ homogenization across regions is consistent with the absence of any interregional difference in muscle damage 3 days post-ECC.

Dysfunction of muscle contraction with impaired intracellular Ca2+ handling in skeletal muscle and the effect of exercise training in male db/db mice

Type 2 diabetes is characterized by reduced contractile force production and increased fatigability of skeletal muscle. While the maintenance of Ca²⁺ homeostasis during muscle contraction is a requisite for optimal contractile function, the mechanisms underlying muscle contractile dysfunction in type 2 diabetes are unclear. Here, we investigated skeletal muscle contractile force and Ca²⁺ flux during contraction and pharmacological stimulation in type 2 diabetic model mice ( db/db mice). Furthermore, we investigated the effect of treadmill exercise training on muscle contractile function. In male db/db mice, muscle contractile force and peak Ca²⁺ levels were both lower during tetanic stimulation of the fast-twitch muscles, while Ca²⁺ accumulation was higher after stimulation compared with control mice. While 6 wk of exercise training did not improve glucose tolerance, exercise did improve muscle contractile dysfunction, peak Ca²⁺ levels, and Ca²⁺ accumulation following stimulation in male db/db mice. These data suggest that dysfunctional Ca²⁺ flux may contribute to skeletal muscle contractile dysfunction in type 2 diabetes and that exercise training may be a promising therapeutic approach for dysfunctional skeletal muscle contraction. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The purpose of this study was to examine muscle contractile function and Ca²⁺ regulation as well as the effect of exercise training in skeletal muscle in obese diabetic mice ( db/db). We observed impairment of muscle contractile force and Ca²⁺ regulation in a male type 2 diabetic animal model. These dysfunctions in muscle were improved by 6 wk of exercise training.

The effects of RSR13 on microvascular Po2 kinetics and muscle contractile performance in the rat arterial ligation model of peripheral arterial disease

Exercise intolerance and claudication are symptomatic of peripheral arterial disease. There is a close relationship between muscle O2 delivery, microvascular oxygen partial pressure (P mvO2), and contractile performance. We therefore hypothesized that a reduction of hemoglobin-oxygen affinity via RSR13 would maintain a higher P mvO2 and enhance blood-muscle O2 transport and contractile function. In male Wistar rats (12 wk of age), we created hindlimb ischemia via right-side iliac artery ligation (AL). The contralateral (left) muscle served as control (CONT). Seven days after AL, phosphorescence-quenching techniques were used to measure P mvO2 at rest and during contractions (electrical stimulation; 1 Hz, 300 s) in tibialis anterior muscle (TA) under saline ( n = 10) or RSR13 ( n = 10) conditions. RSR13 at rest increased TA P mvO2 in CONT (13.9 ± 1.6 to 19.3 ± 1.9 Torr, P < 0.05) and AL (9.0 ± 0.5 to 9.9 ± 0.7 Torr, P < 0.05). Furthermore, RSR13 extended maintenance of the initial TA force (i.e., improved contractile performance) such that force was not decreased significantly until contraction 240 vs. 150 in CONT and 80 vs. 20 in AL. This improved muscle endurance with RSR13 was accompanied by a greater ΔP mvO2 (P mvO2 decrease from baseline) (CONT, 7.4 ± 1.0 to 11.2 ± 1.3; AL, 6.9 ± 0.5 to 8.6 ± 0.6 Torr, both P < 0.05). Whereas RSR13 did not alter the kinetics profile of P mvO2 (i.e., mean response time) substantially during contractions, muscle force was elevated, and the ratio of muscle force to P mvO2 increased. In conclusion, reduction of hemoglobin-oxygen affinity via RSR13 in AL increased P mvO2 and improved muscle contractile performance most likely via enhanced blood-muscle O2 diffusion.

NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first investigation to examine the effect of RSR13 (erythrocyte allosteric effector) on skeletal muscle microvascular oxygen partial pressure kinetics and contractile function using an arterial ligation model of peripheral arterial disease in experimental animals. The present results provide strong support for the concept that reducing hemoglobin-O2 affinity via RSR13 improved tibialis anterior muscle contractile performance most likely via enhanced blood-muscle O2 diffusion.

Long-term, but not short-term high-fat diet induces fiber composition changes and impaired contractile force in mouse fast-twitch skeletal muscle

In this study, we investigated the effects of a short-term and long-term high-fat diet (HFD) on morphological and functional features of fast-twitch skeletal muscle. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed a HFD (60% fat) for 4 weeks (4-week HFD) or 12 weeks (12-week HFD). Subsequently, the fast-twitch extensor digitorum longus muscle was isolated, and the composition of muscle fiber type, expression levels of proteins involved in muscle contraction, and force production on electrical stimulation were analyzed. The 12-week HFD, but not the 4-week HFD, resulted in a decreased muscle tetanic force on 100 Hz stimulation compared with control (5.1 ± 1.4 N/g in the 12-week HFD vs. 7.5 ± 1.7 N/g in the control group; P < 0.05), whereas muscle weight and cross-sectional area were not altered after both HFD protocols. Morphological analysis indicated that the percentage of type IIx myosin heavy chain fibers, mitochondrial oxidative enzyme activity, and intramyocellular lipid levels increased in the 12-week HFD group, but not in the 4-week HFD group, compared with controls (P < 0.05). No changes in the expression levels of calcium handling-related proteins and myofibrillar proteins (myosin heavy chain and actin) were detected in the HFD models, whereas fast-troponin T-protein expression was decreased in the 12-week HFD group, but not in the 4-week HFD group (P < 0.05). These findings indicate that a long-term HFD, but not a short-term HFD, impairs contractile force in fast-twitch muscle fibers. Given that skeletal muscle strength largely depends on muscle fiber type, the impaired muscle contractile force by a HFD might result from morphological changes of fiber type composition.

Improved skeletal muscle Ca2+ regulation in vivo following contractions in mice overexpressing PGC-1α

In skeletal muscle, resting intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) homeostasis is exquisitely regulated by Ca²⁺ transport across the sarcolemmal, mitochondrial, and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) membranes. Of these three systems, the relative importance of the mitochondria in [Ca²⁺]_i regulation remains poorly understood in in vivo skeletal muscle. We tested the hypothesis that the capacity for Ca²⁺ uptake by mitochondria is a primary factor in determining [Ca²⁺]_i regulation in muscle at rest and following contractions. Tibialis anterior muscle of anesthetized peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α)-overexpressing (OE, increased mitochondria model) and wild-type (WT) littermate mice was exteriorized in vivo and loaded with the fluorescent probe fura 2-AM, and Rhod 2-AM Ca²⁺ buffering and mitochondrial [Ca²⁺] were evaluated at rest and during recovery from fatiguing tetanic contractions induced by electrical stimulation (120 s, 100 Hz). In addition, the effects of pharmacological inhibition of SR (thapsigargin) and mitochondrial [carbonyl cyanide-4-(trifluoromethoxy) phenylhydrazone (FCCP)] function were examined at rest. [Ca²⁺]_i in WT remained elevated for the entire postcontraction recovery period (+6 ± 1% at 450 s), but in PGC-1α OE [Ca²⁺]_i returned to resting baseline within 150 s. Thapsigargin immediately and substantially increased resting [Ca²⁺]_i in WT, whereas in PGC-1α OE this effect was delayed and markedly diminished (WT, +12 ± 3; PGC-1α OE, +1 ± 2% at 600 s after thapsigargin treatment, P < 0.05). FCCP abolished this improvement of [Ca²⁺]_i regulation in PGC-1α OE. Mitochondrial [Ca²⁺] accumulation was observed in PGC-1α OE following contractions and thapsigargin treatment. In the SR, PGC-1α OE downregulated SR Ca²⁺-ATPase 1 (Ca²⁺ uptake) and parvalbumin (Ca²⁺ buffering) protein levels, whereas mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake-related proteins (Mfn1, Mfn2, and mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uniporter) were upregulated. These data demonstrate a heretofore unappreciated role for skeletal muscle mitochondria in [Ca²⁺]_i regulation in vivo following fatiguing tetanic contractions and at rest.

Release of skeletal muscle peptide fragments identifies individual proteins degraded during insulin deprivation in type 1 diabetic humans and mice

Insulin regulates skeletal muscle protein degradation, but the types of proteins being degraded in vivo remain to be determined due to methodological limitations. We present a method to assess the types of skeletal muscle proteins that are degraded by extracting their degradation products as low-molecular weight (LMW) peptides from muscle samples. High-resolution mass spectrometry was used to identify the original intact proteins that generated the LMW peptides, which we validated in rodents and then applied to humans. We deprived insulin from insulin-treated streptozotocin (STZ) diabetic mice for 6 and 96 h and for 8 h in type 1 diabetic humans (T1D) for comparison with insulin-treated conditions. Protein degradation was measured using activation of autophagy and proteasome pathways, stable isotope tracers, and LMW approaches. In mice, insulin deprivation activated proteasome pathways and autophagy in muscle homogenates and isolated mitochondria. Reproducibility analysis of LMW extracts revealed that ∼80% of proteins were detected consistently. As expected, insulin deprivation increased whole body protein turnover in T1D. Individual protein degradation increased with insulin deprivation, including those involved in mitochondrial function, proteome homeostasis, nDNA support, and contractile/cytoskeleton. Individual mitochondrial proteins that generated more LMW fragment with insulin deprivation included ATP synthase subunit-γ (+0.5-fold, P = 0.007) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 6 (+0.305-fold, P = 0.03). In conclusion, identifying LMW peptide fragments offers an approach to determine the degradation of individual proteins. Insulin deprivation increases degradation of select proteins and provides insight into the regulatory role of insulin in maintaining proteome homeostasis, especially of mitochondria.

Single muscle fiber contractile properties in diabetic RAT muscle

INTRODUCTION

Diabetes is associated with accelerated loss of muscle mass and function. We compared the contractile properties of single muscle fibers in young rat soleus muscle of uncontrolled streptozotocin-induced diabetic animals (n = 10) and nondiabetic controls (n = 10).

METHODS

Single fiber maximal force, shortening velocity, and power were assessed during maximal activation with calcium using the slack test 4 weeks after induction. Myosin heavy chain expression was determined using sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Oxidized myosin levels were detected by analyzing protein carbonyls in muscle homogenates. All fibers expressed the type I myosin heavy chain isoform.

RESULTS

Diabetic rats had higher blood glucose (537 vs. 175 mg/dl; P < 0.001) and lower body weight (171 vs. 356 g; P < 0.001) than controls. Muscle fibers from diabetic rats showed smaller cross-sectional area (1128 vs. 1812 μm(2) ), lower maximal force (258 vs. 492 μN), and reduced absolute power (182 vs. 388 μN FL/s) (all P < 0.0001). No differences were seen in shortening velocity, specific force or specific power. Myosin carbonylation was higher (P < 0.01) in diabetic rats.

CONCLUSIONS

After 4 weeks of untreated diabetes, there are significant alterations in muscle at the level of isolated single fibers and myosin protein, although some contractile properties seem to be protected. Muscle Nerve, 2015 Muscle Nerve 53: 958-964, 2016.