Urea transporter expression in aging kidney and brain during dehydration

Modulation of Urea Transport Attenuates TLR2-Mediated Microglial Activation and Upregulates Microglial Metabolism In Vitro

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder traditionally characterised by the presence of amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tau tangles in the brain. However, emerging research has highlighted additional metabolic hallmarks of AD pathology. These include the metabolic reprogramming of microglia in favour of glycolysis over oxidative phosphorylation. This shift is attributed to an 'M1'-like pro-inflammatory phenotype, which exacerbates neuroinflammation and contributes to neuronal damage. The urea cycle also presents as an altered metabolic pathway in AD, due to elevated urea levels and altered expression of urea cycle enzymes, metabolites, and transporters in the brain. However, to date, these changes remain largely unexplored. Methods: This study focuses on understanding the effects of extracellular urea and urea transporter-B (UT-B) inhibition on inflammatory changes in lipoteichoic acid (LTA)-stimulated BV2 microglia and on the viability of SH-SY5Y neuronal cells under oxidative stress and neurotoxic conditions. Results: In BV2 microglia, UT-B inhibition demonstrated a notable anti-inflammatory effect by reducing the formation of nitric oxide (NO) and the expression of tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα) and CCL2 in response to stimulation with the toll-like receptor (TLR)2 agonist, lipoteichoic acid (LTA). This was accompanied by a reduction in extracellular urea and upregulation of UT-B expression. The application of exogenous urea was also shown to mediate the inflammatory profile of BV2 cells in a similar manner but had only a modest impact on UT-B expression. While exposure to LTA alone did not alter the microglial metabolic profile, inhibition of UT-B upregulated the expression of genes associated with both glycolysis and fatty acid oxidation. Conversely, neither increased extracellular urea nor UT-B inhibition had a significant impact on cell viability or cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y neurones exposed to oxidative stressors tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP) and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Conclusions: This study further highlights the involvement of urea transport in regulating the neuroinflammation associated with AD. Moreover, we reveal a novel role for UT-B in maintaining microglial metabolic homeostasis. Taken together, these findings contribute supporting evidence to the regulation of UT-B as a therapeutic target for intervention into neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative disease.

The Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation and Exercise on Locomotor Activity, Exploratory Activity, and Anxiety-Like Behavior in Adult and Aged Rats

Aging is an inevitable and complex biological process that is associated with a gradual decline in physiological functions and a higher disease susceptibility. Omega-3 fatty acids, particularly docosahexaenoic acid, play a crucial role in maintaining brain health and their deficiency is linked to age-related cognitive decline. Combining omega-3-rich diets with exercise may enhance cognitive function more effectively, as both share overlapping neurobiological and physiological effects. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of exercise and omega-3 fatty acid (FA) supplementation in two different doses (160 mg/kg and 320 mg/kg) on anxiety-like behavior and cognitive abilities in both adult and aged rats. Male Wistar rats (4-5- and 23-24-month-old) were randomly divided into seven groups: 3-week control supplemented with placebo without exercise, low-dose omega-3 FAs, high-dose omega-3 FAs, 7-week control supplemented with placebo without exercise, exercise-only, low-dose omega-3 FAs with exercise, and high-dose omega-3 FAs with exercise. The administered oil contained omega-3 FAs with DHA:EPA in a ratio of 1.5:1. Our results indicate that aging negatively impacts the locomotor and exploratory activity of rats. In adult rats, a low dose of omega-3 FAs reduces locomotor activity when combined with exercise while high dose of omega-3 FAs reduces anxiety-like behavior and improves recognition memory when combined with exercise. The combination of omega-3 FAs and exercise had varying impacts on behavior, suggesting a need for further research in this area to fully understand their therapeutic efficacy in the context of cognitive changes associated with aging.

Use of Urine Electrolytes and Urine Osmolality in the Clinical Diagnosis of Fluid, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Disorders

We discuss the use of urine electrolytes and urine osmolality in the clinical diagnosis of patients with fluid, electrolytes, and acid-base disorders, emphasizing their physiological basis, their utility, and the caveats and limitations in their use. While our focus is on information obtained from measurements in the urine, clinical diagnosis in these patients must integrate information obtained from the history, the physical examination, and other laboratory data.

The Use of Selected Urine Chemistries in the Diagnosis of Kidney Disorders

Urinary chemistries vary widely in both health and disease and are affected by diet, volume status, medications, and disease states. When properly examined, these tests provide important insight into the mechanism and therapy of various clinical disorders that are first detected by abnormalities in plasma chemistries. These tests cannot be interpreted in isolation, but instead require knowledge of key clinical information, such as medications, physical examination, and plasma chemistries, to include kidney function. When used appropriately and with knowledge of limitations, urine chemistries can provide important insight into the pathophysiology and treatment of a wide variety of disorders.

Hereditary Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus: Pathophysiology and Possible Treatment. An Update

Under physiological conditions, excessive loss of water through the urine is prevented by the release of the antidiuretic hormone arginine-vasopressin (AVP) from the posterior pituitary. In the kidney, AVP elicits a number of cellular responses, which converge on increasing the osmotic reabsorption of water in the collecting duct. One of the key events triggered by the binding of AVP to its type-2 receptor (AVPR2) is the exocytosis of the water channel aquaporin 2 (AQP2) at the apical membrane the principal cells of the collecting duct. Mutations of either AVPR2 or AQP2 result in a genetic disease known as nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, which is characterized by the lack of responsiveness of the collecting duct to the antidiuretic action of AVP. The affected subject, being incapable of concentrating the urine, presents marked polyuria and compensatory polydipsia and is constantly at risk of severe dehydration. The molecular bases of the disease are fully uncovered, as well as the genetic or clinical tests for a prompt diagnosis of the disease in newborns. A real cure for nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI) is still missing, and the main symptoms of the disease are handled with s continuous supply of water, a restrictive diet, and nonspecific drugs. Unfortunately, the current therapeutic options are limited and only partially beneficial. Further investigation in vitro or using the available animal models of the disease, combined with clinical trials, will eventually lead to the identification of one or more targeted strategies that will improve or replace the current conventional therapy and grant NDI patients a better quality of life. Here we provide an updated overview of the genetic defects causing NDI, the most recent strategies under investigation for rescuing the activity of mutated AVPR2 or AQP2, or for bypassing defective AVPR2 signaling and restoring AQP2 plasma membrane expression.

Dehydration and Cognition in Geriatrics: A Hydromolecular Hypothesis

Dehydration is one of the ten most frequent diagnoses responsible for the hospital admission of elderly in the United States. It is associated with increased mortality, morbidity and an estimated cost of 1.14 billion per year (Xiao et al., 2004; Schlanger et al., 2010; Pretorius et al., 2013; Frangeskou et al., 2015). Older individuals are predisposed to dehydration encephalopathy as a result of decreased total body water (TBW) and diminished sensation of thirst. We hypothesize that thirst blunting in older individuals is the result of a defective microRNA-6842-3p failing to silence the expression of the vesicular GABA transporters (VGAT) and alpha 7 cholinergic nicotinic receptors in the subfornical organ (SFO) of the hypothalamus. We hypothesize further that resultant dehydration facilitates protein misfolding and aggregation, predisposing to neurocognitive disorders. We completed a search of predicted microRNA targets, utilizing the public domain tool miRDB and found that microRNA-6842-3p modulates the SLC6A1 and CHRNA7 genes both of which were previously hypothesized to inhibit the thirst sensation by their action on SFO. The primary aim of this article is to answer two questions: Can prevention and correction of dehydration in elderly lower age-related cognitive deterioration? Can exosomal miR-6842 in the peripheral blood predict dehydration encephalopathy in elderly?

Expression of urea transporters and their regulation

UT-A and UT-B families of urea transporters consist of multiple isoforms that are subject to regulation of both acutely and by long-term measures. This chapter provides a brief overview of the expression of the urea transporter forms and their locations in the kidney. Rapid regulation of UT-A1 results from the combination of phosphorylation and membrane accumulation. Phosphorylation of UT-A1 has been linked to vasopressin and hyperosmolality, although through different kinases. Other acute influences on urea transporter activity are ubiquitination and glycosylation, both of which influence the membrane association of the urea transporter, again through different mechanisms. Long-term regulation of urea transport is most closely associated with the environment that the kidney experiences. Low-protein diets may influence the amount of urea transporter available. Conditions of osmotic diuresis, where urea concentrations are low, will prompt an increase in urea transporter abundance. Although adrenal steroids affect urea transporter abundance, conflicting reports make conclusions tenuous. Urea transporters are upregulated when P2Y2 purinergic receptors are decreased, suggesting a role for these receptors in UT regulation. Hypercalcemia and hypokalemia both cause urine concentration deficiencies. Urea transporter abundances are reduced in aging animals and animals with angiotensin-converting enzyme deficiencies. This chapter will provide information about both rapid and long-term regulation of urea transporters and provide an introduction into the literature.

Urine concentrating and diluting ability during aging

Urine concentrating ability is reduced during normal aging in people and rats. The abundance of many of the key transport proteins that contribute to urine concentrating ability is reduced in the kidney medulla of aged rats. The reductions in water, sodium, and urea transport protein abundances, and their reduced response to water restriction, contribute to the reduced ability of aged rats to concentrate their urine and conserve water. If similar mechanisms occur in human kidneys, it would provide a molecular explanation for the reduced urine concentrating ability in aging and may provide opportunities for novel therapeutic approaches to improve urine concentrating ability and/or nocturnal polyuria.

Molecular mechanisms of urea transport in health and disease

In the late 1980s, urea permeability measurements produced values that could not be explained by paracellular transport or lipid phase diffusion. The existence of urea transport proteins were thus proposed and less than a decade later, the first urea transporter was cloned. The family of urea transporters has two major subgroups, designated SLC14A1 (or UT-B) and Slc14A2 (or UT-A). UT-B and UT-A gene products are glycoproteins located in various extra-renal tissues however, a majority of the resulting isoforms are found in the kidney. The UT-B (Slc14A1) urea transporter was originally isolated from erythrocytes and two isoforms have been reported. In kidney, UT-B is located primarily in the descending vasa recta. The UT-A (Slc14A2) urea transporter yields six distinct isoforms, of which three are found chiefly in the kidney medulla. UT-A1 and UT-A3 are found in the inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD), while UT-A2 is located in the thin descending limb. These transporters are crucial to the kidney's ability to concentrate urine. The regulation of urea transporter activity in the IMCD involves acute modification through phosphorylation and subsequent movement to the plasma membrane. UT-A1 and UT-A3 accumulate in the plasma membrane in response to stimulation by vasopressin or hypertonicity. Long-term regulation of the urea transporters in the IMCD involves altering protein abundance in response to changes in hydration status, low protein diets, or adrenal steroids. Urea transporters have been studied using animal models of disease including diabetes mellitus, lithium intoxication, hypertension, and nephrotoxic drug responses. Exciting new genetically engineered mouse models are being developed to study these transporters.

The emerging physiological roles of the SLC14A family of urea transporters

In mammals, urea is the main nitrogenous breakdown product of protein catabolism and is produced in the liver. In certain tissues, the movement of urea across cell membranes is specifically mediated by a group of proteins known as the SLC14A family of facilitative urea transporters. These proteins are derived from two distinct genes, UT-A (SLC14A2) and UT-B (SLC14A1). Facilitative urea transporters play an important role in two major physiological processes - urinary concentration and urea nitrogen salvaging. Although UT-A and UT-B transporters both have a similar basic structure and mediate the transport of urea in a facilitative manner, there are a number of significant differences between them. UT-A transporters are mainly found in the kidney, are highly specific for urea, have relatively lower transport rates and are highly regulated at both gene expression and cellular localization levels. In contrast, UT-B transporters are more widespread in their tissue location, transport both urea and water, have a relatively high transport rate, are inhibited by mercurial compounds and currently appear to be less acutely regulated. This review details the fundamental research that has so far been performed to investigate the function and physiological significance of these two types of urea transporters.

Aging kidney: modern perspectives for an ‘old’ problem

The scientific community and health systems will have to address the increasing incidence of reduced kidney function because of progressive global aging. The aim of this review is to describe the morphological and functional alterations that characterize the aging kidney and to suggest not only pharmaceutical pathways but also lifestyle changes that could be beneficially targeted.

Urea transport in the kidney

Urea transport proteins were initially proposed to exist in the kidney in the late 1980s when studies of urea permeability revealed values in excess of those predicted by simple lipid-phase diffusion and paracellular transport. Less than a decade later, the first urea transporter was cloned. Currently, the SLC14A family of urea transporters contains two major subgroups: SLC14A1, the UT-B urea transporter originally isolated from erythrocytes; and SLC14A2, the UT-A group with six distinct isoforms described to date. In the kidney, UT-A1 and UT-A3 are found in the inner medullary collecting duct; UT-A2 is located in the thin descending limb, and UT-B is located primarily in the descending vasa recta; all are glycoproteins. These transporters are crucial to the kidney's ability to concentrate urine. UT-A1 and UT-A3 are acutely regulated by vasopressin. UT-A1 has also been shown to be regulated by hypertonicity, angiotensin II, and oxytocin. Acute regulation of these transporters is through phosphorylation. Both UT-A1 and UT-A3 rapidly accumulate in the plasma membrane in response to stimulation by vasopressin or hypertonicity. Long-term regulation involves altering protein abundance in response to changes in hydration status, low protein diets, adrenal steroids, sustained diuresis, or antidiuresis. Urea transporters have been studied using animal models of disease including diabetes mellitus, lithium intoxication, hypertension, and nephrotoxic drug responses. Exciting new animal models are being developed to study these transporters and search for active urea transporters. Here we introduce urea and describe the current knowledge of the urea transporter proteins, their regulation, and their role in the kidney.

Urinary concentration and dilution in the aging kidney

Aged people and rats have a reduced ability to maximally concentrate their urine. Many of the key transport proteins that contribute to urine concentrating ability are reduced in the medulla of aged rats. The reductions in the abundances of water, sodium, and urea transport proteins, and their reduced response to water restriction, contributes to the reduced ability of aged rats to concentrate their urine and conserve water. If similar mechanisms occur in human kidneys, it would provide a molecular explanation for the reduced concentrating ability in aging and may provide opportunities for novel therapeutic approaches to improve urine concentrating ability.

Dialysis disequilibrium syndrome: a narrative review

Dialysis Disequilibrium Syndrome (DDS) is characterized by neurological symptoms caused by rapid removal of urea during hemodialysis. It develops primarily from an osmotic gradient that develops between the brain and the plasma as a result of rapid hemodialysis. This results in brain edema that manifests as neurological symptoms such as headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps, tremors, disturbed consciousness, and convulsions. In severe cases, patients can die from advanced cerebral edema. Recent advancements in cell biology implicate the role of urea disequilibrium (with a smaller contribution from organic osmolytes) as the pathophysiological mechanism responsible for this syndrome. In this review, we discuss the pathogenesis, clinical features and prevention of DDS.

Aquaporin-2 downregulation in kidney medulla of aging rats is posttranscriptional and is abolished by water deprivation

Aging kidney is associated in humans and rodents with polyuria and reduced urine concentrating ability. In senescent female WAG/Rij rats, this defect is independent of arginine-vasopressin (AVP)/V(2) receptor/cAMP pathway. It has been attributed to underexpression and mistargeting of aquaporin-2 (AQP2) water channel in the inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD). We showed previously that dDAVP administration could partially correct this defect. Since AQP2 can also be regulated by AVP-independent pathways in water deprivation (WD), we investigated AQP2 and phosphorylated AQP2 (p-AQP2) regulation in thirsted adult (10 mo old) and senescent (30 mo old) female WAG/Rij rats. Following 2-day WD, urine flow rate decreased and urine osmolality increased in both groups. However, in agreement with significantly lower cortico-papillary osmotic gradient with aging, urine osmolality remained lower in senescent animals. WD induced sixfold increase of plasma AVP in all animals which, interestingly, did not result in higher papillary cAMP level. Following WD, AQP2 and p-AQP2 expression increased hugely in 10- and 30-mo-old rats and their mistargeting in old animals was corrected. Moreover, the age-related difference in AQP2 regulation was abolished after WD. To further investigate the mechanism of AQP2 underexpression with aging, AQP2 mRNA was quantified by real-time RT-PCR. In the outer medulla, preservation of AQP2 protein expression was achieved through increased AQP2 mRNA level in senescent rats. In the IMCD, no change in AQP2 mRNA was detected with aging but AQP2 protein expression was markedly lower in 30-mo-old animals. In conclusion, there is a posttranscriptional downregulation of AQP2 with aging, which is abolished by WD.

The erythrocyte urea transporter UT-B

During the past decade significant progress has been made in our understanding of the role played by urea transporters in the production of concentrated urine by the kidney. Urea transporters have been cloned and characterized in a wide range of species. The genomic organization of the two major families of mammalian urea transporters, UT-A and UT-B, has been defined, providing new insight into the mechanisms that regulate their expression and function in physiological and pathological conditions. Beside the kidney, the presence of urea transporters has been documented in a variety of tissues, where their role is not fully known. Recently, mice with targeted deletion of the major urea transporters have been generated, which have shown variable impairment of urine concentrating ability, and have helped to clarify the physiological contribution of individual transporters to this process. This review focuses on the erythrocyte urea transporter UT-B.

Pathways and genes differentially expressed in the motor cortex of patients with sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal disorder caused by the progressive degeneration of motoneurons in brain and spinal cord. Despite identification of disease-linked mutations, the diversity of processes involved and the ambiguity of their relative importance in ALS pathogenesis still represent a major impediment to disease models as a basis for effective therapies. Moreover, the human motor cortex, although critical to ALS pathology and physiologically altered in most forms of the disease, has not been screened systematically for therapeutic targets.

RESULTS

By whole-genome expression profiling and stringent significance tests we identify genes and gene groups de-regulated in the motor cortex of patients with sporadic ALS, and interpret the role of individual candidate genes in a framework of differentially expressed pathways. Our findings emphasize the importance of defense responses and cytoskeletal, mitochondrial and proteasomal dysfunction, reflect reduced neuronal maintenance and vesicle trafficking, and implicate impaired ion homeostasis and glycolysis in ALS pathogenesis. Additionally, we compared our dataset with publicly available data for the SALS spinal cord, and show a high correlation of changes linked to the diseased state in the SALS motor cortex. In an analogous comparison with data for the Alzheimer's disease hippocampus we demonstrate a low correlation of global changes and a moderate correlation for changes specifically linked to the SALS diseased state.

CONCLUSION

Gene and sample numbers investigated allow pathway- and gene-based analyses by established error-correction methods, drawing a molecular portrait of the ALS motor cortex that faithfully represents many known disease features and uncovers several novel aspects of ALS pathology. Contrary to expectations for a tissue under oxidative stress, nuclear-encoded mitochondrial genes are uniformly down-regulated. Moreover, the down-regulation of mitochondrial and glycolytic genes implies a combined reduction of mitochondrial and cytoplasmic energy supply, with a possible role in the death of ALS motoneurons. Identifying candidate genes exclusively expressed in non-neuronal cells, we also highlight the importance of these cells in disease development in the motor cortex. Notably, some pathways and candidate genes identified by this study are direct or indirect targets of medication already applied to unrelated illnesses and point the way towards the rapid development of effective symptomatic ALS therapies.

Age-Related Increase in Plasma Urea Level and Decrease in Fractional Urea Excretion: Clinical Application in the Syndrome of Inappropriate Secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone

This study confirms in humans an age-related increase in plasma urea levels (r = 0.62; P < 0.001; y = 0.229x + 18.26) and no correlation between plasma creatinine and age (r = 0.06; NS). Fractional urea excretion (FE urea) decreases with age (r = -0.41; P < 0.001; y = -0.226x + 55). Comparing urea and creatinine clearances, measured in 19 young and in 15 old women, a larger decrease of urea clearance (-56%) compared with the creatinine clearance (-43%) was observed as expected, explaining the lower FE urea in the elderly. In old women, the daily urea excretion was 27% and the daily creatinine excretion was 42% lower than in young women. An age-related decrease of same magnitude in both creatinine production and creatinine clearance explains why plasma creatinine remains stable with increasing age. The observation of a more important decrease in urea clearance (56%) than in urea production (27%) in older women led to an expected increase in plasma urea of 29%. These observations incited a comparison of biochemical profiles from younger and older patients with the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH). Young patients with SIADH present lower mean plasma urea (18 +/- 8 mg/dl) and higher mean FE urea (58 +/- 14%), compared with both young control subjects (mean plasma urea 27 +/- 7 mg/dl; mean FE urea 46 +/- 10%) and old patients with SIADH (mean plasma urea 29 +/- 8 mg/dl; mean FE urea 44 +/- 15%). Physicians must realize that frankly low plasma urea values and high FE urea values can be expected only in young patients with SIADH, whereas old patients with SIADH will present values of plasma urea and FE urea in the same range than young control subjects. However, old patients with SIADH show still lower mean plasma urea values and higher mean FE urea values, compared with old control subjects (mean plasma urea 39 +/- 8 mg/dl; mean FE urea 36 +/- 9%), in whom plasma urea values between 40 and 50 mg/dl must be considered as usual.

Renal ENaC subunit, Na-K-2Cl and Na-Cl cotransporter abundances in aged, water-restricted F344 x Brown Norway rats

Renal sodium reabsorption is a key determinant of final urine concentration. Our aim was to determine whether differences existed between aged and young rats in their response to water restriction with regard to the regulation of abundance of any of the major distal renal sodium transporter proteins. Male Fisher 344 x Brown Norway (F344 x BN) rats of 3-, 10-, 24-, or 31 months of age (3M, 10M, 24M, or 31M) were either water restricted (WR) for 5 days or control (ad libitum water). Major renal sodium transporters and channel subunits were evaluated by immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry. Age did not significantly affect plasma arginine vasopressin or aldosterone levels, but renin activity was only 8% in 31M-WR rats relative to 3M-WR (P<0.05). Extreme aging (31M) led to decreased outer medullary abundance of the bumetanide-sensitive Na-K-2Cl cotransporter and decreased cortical abundance of the beta- and gamma-subunits (70-kDa band) of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) (P<0.05). Water restriction significantly (P<0.05) increased the abundance of Na-K-2Cl cotransporter (NKCC2) and Na-Cl cotransporter (NCC) across ages. However, these increases were significantly blunted as rats aged. Mean band densities were increased in WR rats (relative to age controls) by 54 and 106% at 3M, but only 25 and 29% at 24M and 0 and 6% at 31M for NKCC2 and NCC, respectively. Aged F344 x BN rats have reduced basal distal tubular renal sodium transporter abundances and blunted upregulation during water restriction, which may contribute to decreased urinary concentrating capacity.

Ultrastructural localization of UT-A and UT-B in rat kidneys with different hydration status

Urea transport in the kidney is mediated by a family of transporter proteins, including renal urea transporters (UT-A) and erythrocyte urea transporters (UT-B). We aimed to determine whether hydration status affects the subcellular distribution of urea transporters. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups: dehydrated rats (WD) given minimum water, hydrated rats (WL) given 3% sucrose in water for 3 days before death, and control rats given free access to water. We labeled kidney sections with antibodies against UT-A1 and UT-A2 (L194), UT-A3 (Q2), and UT-B using preembedding immunoperoxidase and immunogold methods. In control animals, UT-A1 and UT-A3 immunoreactivities were observed throughout the cytoplasm in inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD) cells, and weak labeling was observed on the basolateral plasma membrane. UT-A2 immunoreactivity in the descending thin limbs (DTL) was observed mainly on the apical and basolateral membranes of type I epithelium, and very faint labeling was observed in the long-loop DTL at the border between the outer and inner medulla. UT-A1 immunoreactivity intensity was markedly lower, and UT-A3 immunoreactivity was higher in IMCD of WD vs. controls. UT-A2 immunoreactivity intensities in the plasma membrane and cytoplasm of type I, II, and III epithelia of DTL were greater in WD vs. controls. In contrast, UT-A1 expression was greater and UT-A2 and UT-A3 expressions were lower in WL vs. controls. The subcellular distribution of UT-A in DTL or IMCD did not differ between control and experimental animals. UT-B was expressed in the plasma membrane of the descending vasa recta of both control and experimental animals. UT-B intensity was higher in WD and lower in WL vs. controls. These data indicate that changes in hydration status over 3 days affected urea transporter protein expression without changing its subcellular distribution.

Molecular basis for the dialysis disequilibrium syndrome: altered aquaporin and urea transporter expression in the brain

BACKGROUND

Cerebral disorders caused by brain oedema characterize the dialysis disequilibrium syndrome, a complication of rapid haemodialysis. Brain oedema is presumably caused by the 'reverse urea effect', i.e. the significant urea gradient between blood and brain after dialysis, with, as a result, an inflow of water into the brain. To assess the molecular basis of this effect, we examined the expression of urea transporter UT-B1 and aquaporin (AQP) 4 and AQP9 in the brain of uraemic rats.

METHODS

Brain, kidneys and one testis were collected from four sham-operated (control) and four uraemic rats, 10 weeks after 5/6 nephrectomy (Nx). Protein abundance was measured by semi-quantitave immunoblotting using affinity-purified rabbit anti-rat antibodies applied on tissue crude homogenates.

RESULTS

The results are expressed as means+/-SE of band density (arbitrary units). In Nx compared with control rats, the brain expression of UT-B1 was reduced by half (32+/-3 vs 62+/-8, P<0.01) whereas that of AQ4 was doubled (251+/-13 vs 135+/-5, P<0.001), and that of AQP9 increased by 65% (253+/-22 vs 154+/-10, P<0.01). UT-B1 expression was also lowered by Nx in kidney medulla (45+/-21 vs 141+/-4, P<0.01) but was unchanged in testis.

CONCLUSIONS

The conjunction of a reduced expression of UT-B and an increased expression of AQPs in brain cells may bring a new clue to understanding the DDS mechanism. Because of low UT-B abundance, urea exit from astrocytes is most probably delayed during rapid removal of extracellular urea through fast dialysis. This creates an osmotic driving force that promotes water entry into the cells (favoured by abundant AQPs) and subsequent brain swelling.

UT-B1 urea transporter is expressed along the urinary and gastrointestinal tracts of the mouse

Selective transporters account for rapid urea transport across plasma membranes of several cell types. UT-B1 urea transporter is widely distributed in rat and human tissues. Because mice exhibit high urea turnover and are the preferred species for gene engineering, we have delineated UT-B1 tissue expression in murine tissues. A cDNA was cloned from BALB/c mouse kidney, encoding a polypeptide that differed from C57BL/6 mouse UT-B1 by one residue (Val-8-Ala). UT-B1 mRNA was detected by RT-PCR in brain, kidney, bladder, testis, lung, spleen, and digestive tract (liver, stomach, jejunum, colon). Northern blotting revealed seven UT-B1 transcripts in mouse tissues. Immunoblots identified a nonglycosylated UT-B1 protein of 29 kDa in most tissues and of 36 and 32 kDa in testis and liver, respectively. UT-B1 protein of gastrointestinal tract did not undergo N-glycosylation. Immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization localized UT-B1 in urinary tract urothelium (papillary surface, ureter, bladder, and urethra), prominently on plasma membranes and restricted to the basolateral area in umbrella cells. UT-B1 was found in endothelial cells of descending vasa recta in kidney medulla and in astrocyte processes in brain. Dehydration induced by water deprivation for 2 days caused a tissue-specific decrease in UT-B1 abundance in the urinary bladder and the ureter.

Downregulation of renal vasopressin V2 receptor and aquaporin-2 expression parallels age-associated defects in urine concentration

Renal concentrating ability is known to be impaired with aging. The antidiuretic hormone AVP plays an important role in renal water excretion by regulating the membrane insertion and abundance of the water channel aquaporin-2 (AQP2); this effect is primarily mediated via the V2 subtype of the AVP receptor (V2R). This study evaluated the hypothesis that decreased renal sensitivity to AVP, with subsequent altered renal AQP2 expression, contributes to the reduced urinary concentrating ability with aging. Our results show that under baseline conditions, urine osmolality is significantly lower in aged Fischer 344 and Brown-Norway F1 hybrid (F344BN) rats despite equivalent plasma AVP concentrations as in young rats. Levels of kidney V2R mRNA expression and AQP2 abundances were also significantly decreased in aged F344BN rats, as was AQP2 immunostaining in collecting duct cells. In response to moderate water restriction, urine osmolality increased by significantly lesser amounts in aged F344BN rats compared with young rats despite similar increases in plasma AVP levels. Moderate water restriction induced equivalent relative increases in renal AQP2 abundances in all age groups but resulted in significantly lower abundances in total kidney AQP2 protein in aged compared with young F344BN rats. These results therefore demonstrate a functional impairment of renal concentrating ability in aged F344BN rats that is not due to impaired secretion of AVP but rather appears to be related to impaired responsiveness of the kidney to AVP that is secondary, at least in part, to a downregulation of renal V2R expression and AQP2 abundance.

Renal urea transporters

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Urea is transported across the kidney inner medullary collecting duct by urea-transporter proteins. Two urea-transporter genes have been cloned from humans and rodents: the UT-A (Slc14A2) gene encodes five protein and eight cDNA isoforms; the UT-B (Slc14A1) gene encodes a single isoform. In the past year, significant progress has been made in understanding the regulation of urea-transporter protein abundance in kidney, studies of genetically engineered mice that lack a urea transporter, identification of urea transporters outside of the kidney, cloning of urea transporters in nonmammalian species, and active urea transport in microorganisms.

RECENT FINDINGS

UT-A1 protein abundance is increased by 12 days of vasopressin, but not by 5 days. Analysis of the UT-A1 promoter suggests that vasopressin increases UT-A1 indirectly following a direct effect to increase the transcription of other genes, such as the Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl- cotransporter NKCC2/BSC1 and the aquaporin (AQP) 2 water channel, that begin to increase inner medullary osmolality. UT-A1 protein abundance is also increased by adrenalectomy, and is decreased by glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids. However, each hormone works through its own receptor. Knockout mice that lack UT-A1 and UT-A3, or lack UT-B, have a urine-concentrating defect and a decrease in inner medullary interstitial urea content.

SUMMARY

Urea transporters play a critical role in the urine-concentrating mechanism. Their abundance is regulated by vasopressin, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids. These regulatory mechanisms may be important in disease states such as diabetes because changes in urea-transporter abundance in diabetic rats require glucocorticoids and vasopressin.