1
|
Bossen J, Kühle JP, Roeder T. The tracheal immune system of insects - A blueprint for understanding epithelial immunity. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 157:103960. [PMID: 37235953 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2023.103960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 05/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The unique design of respiratory organs in multicellular organisms makes them prone to infection by pathogens. To cope with this vulnerability, highly effective local immune systems evolved that are also operative in the tracheal system of insects. Many pathogens and parasites (including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and metazoan parasites) colonize the trachea or invade the host via this route. Currently, only two modules of the tracheal immune system have been characterized in depth: 1) Immune deficiency pathway-mediated activation of antimicrobial peptide gene expression and 2) local melanization processes that protect the structure from wounding. There is an urgent need to increase our understanding of the architecture of tracheal immune systems, especially regarding those mechanisms that enable the maintenance of immune homeostasis. This need for new studies is particularly exigent for species other than Drosophila.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Judith Bossen
- Kiel University, Zoology, Dept, Molecular Physiology, Kiel, Germany; Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Germany
| | - Jan-Philip Kühle
- Kiel University, Zoology, Dept, Molecular Physiology, Kiel, Germany
| | - Thomas Roeder
- Kiel University, Zoology, Dept, Molecular Physiology, Kiel, Germany; Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Herhold HW, Davis SR, DeGrey SP, Grimaldi DA. Comparative Anatomy of the Insect Tracheal System Part 1: Introduction, Apterygotes, Paleoptera, Polyneoptera. BULLETIN OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 2023. [DOI: 10.1206/0003-0090.459.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hollister W. Herhold
- Richard Gilder Graduate School and Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, New York
| | - Steven R. Davis
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History; Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Samuel P. DeGrey
- Kimberly Research and Extension Center, University of Idaho, Kimberly
| | - David A. Grimaldi
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, New York
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wagner JM, Klok CJ, Duell ME, Socha JJ, Cao G, Gong H, Harrison JF. Isometric spiracular scaling in scarab beetles: implications for diffusive and advective oxygen transport. eLife 2022; 11:82129. [PMID: 36098509 PMCID: PMC9522208 DOI: 10.7554/elife.82129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The scaling of respiratory structures has been hypothesized to be a major driving factor in the evolution of many aspects of animal physiology. Here, we provide the first assessment of the scaling of the spiracles in insects using 10 scarab beetle species differing 180× in mass, including some of the most massive extant insect species. Using X-ray microtomography, we measured the cross-sectional area and depth of all eight spiracles, enabling the calculation of their diffusive and advective capacities. Each of these metrics scaled with geometric isometry. Because diffusive capacities scale with lower slopes than metabolic rates, the largest beetles measured require 10-fold higher PO2 gradients across the spiracles to sustain metabolism by diffusion compared to the smallest species. Large beetles can exchange sufficient oxygen for resting metabolism by diffusion across the spiracles, but not during flight. In contrast, spiracular advective capacities scale similarly or more steeply than metabolic rates, so spiracular advective capacities should match or exceed respiratory demands in the largest beetles. These data illustrate a general principle of gas exchange: scaling of respiratory transport structures with geometric isometry diminishes the potential for diffusive gas exchange but enhances advective capacities; combining such structural scaling with muscle-driven ventilation allows larger animals to achieve high metabolic rates when active.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julian M Wagner
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, United States
| | - C Jaco Klok
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Henderson, United States
| | - Meghan E Duell
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, United States
| | | | - Guohua Cao
- School of Biomedical Engineering, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghei, China
| | - Hao Gong
- Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Raś M, Wipfler B, Dannenfeld T, Iwan D. Postembryonic development of the tracheal system of beetles in the context of aptery and adaptations towards an arid environment. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13378. [PMID: 35855904 PMCID: PMC9288169 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The tracheal system comprises one of the major adaptations of insects towards a terrestrial lifestyle. Many aspects such as the modifications towards wing reduction or a life in an arid climate are still poorly understood. To address these issues, we performed the first three-dimensional morphometric analyses of the tracheal system of a wingless insect, the desert beetle Gonopus tibialis and compared it with a flying beetle (Tenebrio molitor). Our results clearly show that the reduction of the flight apparatus has severe consequences for the tracheal system. This includes the reduction of the tracheal density, the relative volume of the trachea, the volume of the respective spiracles and the complete loss of individual tracheae. At the same time, the reduction of wings in the desert beetle allows modifications of the tracheal system that would be impossible in an animal with a functional flight apparatus such as the formation of a subelytral cavity as a part of the tracheal system, the strong elongation of the digestive tract including its tracheal system or the respiration through a single spiracle. Finally, we addressed when these modifications of the tracheal system take place during the development of the studied beetles. We can clearly show that they develop during pupation while the larvae of both species are almost identical in their tracheal system and body shape.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Raś
- Zoological Museum, Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Benjamin Wipfler
- Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig, Leibniz-Institut zur Analyse des Biodiversitätswandels, Bonn, Germany
| | - Tim Dannenfeld
- Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig, Leibniz-Institut zur Analyse des Biodiversitätswandels, Bonn, Germany
| | - Dariusz Iwan
- Zoological Museum, Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Dunn KN, Davis SR, Herhold HW, Stanger-Hall KF, Bybee SM, Branham MA. Morphological changes in the tracheal system associated with light organs of the firefly Photinus pyralis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) across life stages. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0268112. [PMID: 35648743 PMCID: PMC9159635 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0268112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxygen is an important and often limiting reagent of a firefly’s bioluminescent chemical reaction. Therefore, the development of the tracheal system and its subsequent modification to support the function of firefly light organs are key to understanding this process. We employ micro-CT scanning, 3D rendering, and confocal microscopy to assess the abdominal tracheal system in Photinus pyralis from the external spiracles to the light organ’s internal tracheal brush, a feature named here for the first time. The abdominal spiracles in firefly larvae and pupae are of the biforous type, with a filter apparatus and appear to have an occlusor muscle to restrict airflow. The first abdominal spiracle in the adult firefly is enlarged and bears an occlusor muscle, and abdominal spiracles two through eight are small, with a small atrium and bilobed closing apparatus. Internal tracheal system features, including various branches, trunks, and viscerals, were homologized across life stages. In adults, the sexually dimorphic elaboration and increase in volume associated with tracheal features of luminous segments emphasizes the importance of gas exchange during the bioluminescent process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristin N. Dunn
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Steven R. Davis
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Hollister W. Herhold
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Kathrin F. Stanger-Hall
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Seth M. Bybee
- Department of Biology, Monte L. Bean Life Science Museum, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, United States of America
| | - Marc A. Branham
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Chatterjee K, Graybill PM, Socha JJ, Davalos RV, Staples AE. Frequency-specific, valveless flow control in insect-mimetic microfluidic devices. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2021; 16:036004. [PMID: 33561847 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/abe4bc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Inexpensive, portable lab-on-a-chip devices would revolutionize fields like environmental monitoring and global health, but current microfluidic chips are tethered to extensive off-chip hardware. Insects, however, are self-contained and expertly manipulate fluids at the microscale using largely unexplored methods. We fabricated a series of microfluidic devices that mimic key features of insect respiratory kinematics observed by synchrotron-radiation imaging, including the collapse of portions of multiple respiratory tracts in response to a single fluctuating pressure signal. In one single-channel device, the flow rate and direction could be controlled by the actuation frequency alone, without the use of internal valves. Additionally, we fabricated multichannel chips whose individual channels responded selectively (on with a variable, frequency-dependent flow rate, or off) to a single, global actuation frequency. Our results demonstrate that insect-mimetic designs have the potential to drastically reduce the actuation overhead for microfluidic chips, and that insect respiratory systems may share features with impedance-mismatch pumps.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Krishnashis Chatterjee
- Laboratory for Fluid Dynamics in Nature, Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
- Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | - Philip M Graybill
- Bioelectromechanical Systems Laboratory, Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
- Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | - John J Socha
- Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | - Rafael V Davalos
- Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
- Bioelectromechanical Systems Laboratory, Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| | - Anne E Staples
- Laboratory for Fluid Dynamics in Nature, Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
- Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Hillyer JF, Pass G. The Insect Circulatory System: Structure, Function, and Evolution. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2020; 65:121-143. [PMID: 31585504 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-025003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Although the insect circulatory system is involved in a multitude of vital physiological processes, it has gone grossly understudied. This review highlights this critical physiological system by detailing the structure and function of the circulatory organs, including the dorsal heart and the accessory pulsatile organs that supply hemolymph to the appendages. It also emphasizes how the circulatory system develops and ages and how, by means of reflex bleeding and functional integration with the immune system, it supports mechanisms for defense against predators and microbial invaders, respectively. Beyond that, this review details evolutionary trends and novelties associated with this system, as well as the ways in which this system also plays critical roles in thermoregulation and tracheal ventilation in high-performance fliers. Finally, this review highlights how novel discoveries could be harnessed for the control of vector-borne diseases and for translational medicine, and it details principal knowledge gaps that necessitate further investigation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julián F Hillyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, USA;
| | - Günther Pass
- Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria;
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Alba-Tercedor J, Alba-Alejandre I, Vega FE. Revealing the respiratory system of the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei; Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) using micro-computed tomography. Sci Rep 2019; 9:17753. [PMID: 31780747 PMCID: PMC6882887 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54157-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) is the most economically important insect pest of coffee globally. Micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) was used to reconstruct the respiratory system of this species for the first time; this is the smallest insect (ca. 2 mm long) for which this has been done to date. Anatomical details of the spiracles and tracheal tubes are described, images presented, and new terms introduced. The total volume and the relationship between tracheal lumen diameter, length and volume are also presented. The total length of the tracheal tubes are seventy times the length of the entire animal. Videos and a 3D model for use with mobile devices are included as supplementary information; these could be useful for future research and for teaching insect anatomy to students and the public in general.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Javier Alba-Tercedor
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus de Fuentenueva, 18071, Granada, Spain.
| | - Ignacio Alba-Alejandre
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus de Fuentenueva, 18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Fernando E Vega
- Sustainable Perennial Crops Laboratory, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Two Divergent Genetic Lineages within the Horned Passalus Beetle, Odontotaenius disjunctus (Coleoptera: Passalidae): An Emerging Model for Insect Behavior, Physiology, and Microbiome Research. INSECTS 2019; 10:insects10060159. [PMID: 31167431 PMCID: PMC6628224 DOI: 10.3390/insects10060159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The horned passalus (Odontotaenius disjunctus) is one of the most extensively studied saproxylic beetles in the eastern United States. For several decades this species has been the subject of investigations into the behaviors associated with subsociality as well as physiological responses to stress, and, most recently, the composition of its gut microbiome has been closely examined. However, no published study to date has characterized this beetle's broad-scale population genetic structure. Here, we conducted intensive geographic sampling throughout the southern Appalachian Mountains and surrounding areas and then assessed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence variation among individuals. Unexpectedly, we discovered two divergent, yet broadly sympatric, mtDNA clades. Indeed, the magnitude of divergence between- vs. within-clades ranged from 5.9 to 7.5×, depending on the dataset under consideration, and members of the two lineages were often syntopic (i.e., found in the same rotting log). Given the potential implications for past and future studies on behavior, physiology, and the gut microbiome, we developed a simple cost-efficient molecular assay (i.e., polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism; PCR-RFLP) to rapidly determine mtDNA clade membership of O. disjunctus individuals. We suggest that the evolutionary processes that gave rise to the emergence and persistence of divergent sympatric lineages reported here warrant investigation, as this type of spatial-genetic pattern appears to be rare among southern Appalachian forest invertebrates.
Collapse
|
10
|
Pass G. Beyond aerodynamics: The critical roles of the circulatory and tracheal systems in maintaining insect wing functionality. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2018; 47:391-407. [PMID: 29859244 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2018.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 05/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Insect wings consist almost entirely of lifeless cuticle; yet their veins host a complex multimodal sensory apparatus and other tissues that require a continuous supply of water, nutrients and oxygen. This review provides a survey of the various living components in insect wings, as well as the specific contribution of the circulatory and tracheal systems to provide all essential substances. In most insects, hemolymph circulates through the veinal network in a loop flow caused by the contraction of accessory pulsatile organs in the thorax. In other insects, hemolymph oscillates into and out of the wings due to the complex interaction of several factors, such as heartbeat reversal, intermittent pumping of the accessory pulsatile organs in the thorax, and the elasticity of the wall of a special type of tracheae. A practically unexplored subject is the need for continuous hydration of the wing cuticle to retain its flexibility and toughness, including the associated problem of water loss due to evaporation. Also, widely neglected is the influence of the hemolymph mass and the circulating flow in the veins on the aerodynamic properties of insect wings during flight. Ventilation of the extraordinarily long wing tracheae is probably accomplished by intricate interactions with the circulatory system, and by the exchange of oxygen via cutaneous respiration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Günther Pass
- Department of Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, A-1090, Vienna, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Raś M, Iwan D, Kamiński MJ. The tracheal system in post-embryonic development of holometabolous insects: a case study using the mealworm beetle. J Anat 2018; 232:997-1015. [PMID: 29574917 PMCID: PMC5980188 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The tracheal (respiratory) system is regarded as one of the key elements which enabled insects to conquer terrestrial habitats and, as a result, achieve extreme species diversity. Despite this fact, anatomical data concerning this biological system is relatively scarce, especially in an ontogenetic context. The purpose of this study is to provide novel and reliable information on the post-embryonic development of the tracheal system of holometabolous insects using micro-computed tomography methods. Data concerning the structure of the respiratory system acquired from different developmental stages (larvae, pupae and adults) of a single insect species (Tenebrio molitor) are co-analysed in detail. Anatomy of the tracheal system is presented. Sample sizes used (29 individuals) enabled statistical analysis of the results obtained. The following aspects have been investigated (among others): the spiracle arrangement, the number of tracheal ramifications originating from particular spiracles, the diameter of longitudinal trunks, tracheal system volumes, tracheae diameter distribution and fractal dimension analysis. Based on the data acquired, the modularity of the tracheal system is postulated. Using anatomical and functional factors, the following respiratory module types have been distinguished: cephalo-prothoracic, metathoracic and abdominal. These modules can be unambiguously identified in all of the studied developmental stages. A cephalo-prothoracic module aerates organs located in the head capsule, prothorax and additionally prolegs. It is characterised by relatively thick longitudinal trunks and originates in the first thoracic spiracle pair. Thoracic modules support the flight muscles, wings, elytra, meso- and metalegs. The unique feature of this module is the presence of additional longitudinal connections between the neighbouring spiracles. These modules are concentrated around the second prothoracic and the first abdominal spiracle pairs. An abdominal module is characterised by relatively thin ventral longitudinal trunks. Its main role is to support systems located in the abdomen; however, its long visceral tracheae aerate organs situated medially from the flight muscles. Analysis of changes of the tracheal system volume enabled the calculation of growth scaling among body tissues and the volume of the tracheal system. The data presented show that the development of the body volume and tracheal system is not linear in holometabola due to the occurrence of the pupal stage causing a decrease in body volume in the imago and at the same time influencing high growth rates of the tracheal system during metamorphosis, exceeding that ones observed for hemimetabola.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Raś
- Zoological Museum, Museum and Institute of ZoologyPolish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Dariusz Iwan
- Zoological Museum, Museum and Institute of ZoologyPolish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| | - Marcin Jan Kamiński
- Zoological Museum, Museum and Institute of ZoologyPolish Academy of SciencesWarsawPoland
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Webster MR, Socha JJ, Teresi L, Nardinocchi P, De Vita R. Structure of tracheae and the functional implications for collapse in the American cockroach. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2015; 10:066011. [PMID: 26584154 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/10/6/066011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The tracheal tubes of insects are complex and heterogeneous composites with a microstructural organization that affects their function as pumps, valves, or static conduits within the respiratory system. In this study, we examined the microstructure of the primary thoracic tracheae of the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) using a combination of scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy. The organization of the taenidia, which represents the primary source of structural reinforcement of the tracheae, was analyzed. We found that the taenidia were more disorganized in the regions of highest curvature of the tracheal tube. We also used a simple finite element model to explore the effect of cross-sectional shape and distribution of taenidia on the collapsibility of the tracheae. The eccentricity of the tracheal cross-section had a stronger effect on the collapse properties than did the distribution of taenidia. The combination of the macro-scale geometry, meso-scale heterogeneity, and microscale organization likely enables rhythmic tracheal compression during respiration, ultimately driving oxygen-rich air to cells and tissues throughout the insect body. The material design principles of these natural composites could potentially aid in the development of new bio-inspired microfluidic systems based on the differential collapse of tracheae-like networks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Webster
- Mechanics of Soft Biological Systems Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Sandberg K, Verbalis JG, Yosten GLC, Samson WK. Sex and basic science. A Title IX position. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2014; 307:R361-5. [PMID: 24944252 PMCID: PMC5504397 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00251.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Sandberg
- Center for the Study of Sex Differences in Health, Aging and Disease and Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, DC; and
| | - Joseph G Verbalis
- Center for the Study of Sex Differences in Health, Aging and Disease and Department of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, DC; and
| | - Gina L C Yosten
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, Missouri
| | - Willis K Samson
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, Missouri
| |
Collapse
|