Interaction among unitary spike trains: implications for whole nerve measurements

Interactive effects of apneic and baroreflex stress on neural coding strategies in human muscle sympathetic nerve activity

The sympathetic nervous system exhibits patterns of action potential (AP) discharge in human muscle sympathetic nerve activity that suggest coding strategies express reflex specificity. This study explored the interactive effects of baroreceptor unloading using lower body negative pressure (LBNP) and volitional end-expiratory apnea (APN) on sympathetic postganglionic neuronal discharge patterns inferred from the firing patterns of differently sized sympathetic AP clusters. Seven individuals were studied using multi-unit microneurography (fibular) and a continuous wavelet approach to quantify AP discharge probability, recruitment, and latency during APN performed under ambient conditions, -10 and -40 mmHg LBNP. Compared to the ambient condition, LBNP increased AP discharge rate at -10 and -40 mmHg and recruited larger previously-silent sympathetic neurons at -40 mmHg. Compared to spontaneous breathing, APN increased AP discharge when performed during the ambient condition (∆351±132 AP/min), -10 mmHg (∆423±184 AP/min), and -40 mmHg (∆355±278 AP/min; main effect APN: P<0.01; LBNP-by-APN interaction: P=0.55). APN recruited larger previously-silent AP clusters during the ambient condition (∆4±3; P<0.02) and -10 mmHg (∆4±3; P<0.01), but not -40 mmHg (∆0±2; P=0.53; LBNP-by-APN: P<0.01). LBNP did not affect AP latency. However, APN reduced AP latency similarly during all conditions (ambient pressure: ∆-0.04±0.04s, -10 mmHg: ∆-0.03±0.03s, -40 mmHg: ∆-0.03±0.04s; main effect APN: P<0.01; LBNP-by-APN: P=0.48). These data indicate that apneic and baroreflex mechanisms appear to additively modify the axonal discharge rate of previously active sympathetic postganglionic neurons and interact to affect recruitment of previously-silent sympathetic neurons. Reductions in AP latency due to apneic stress were not impacted by baroreflex unloading.

Sympathetic neural recruitment strategies: responses to severe chemoreflex and baroreflex stress

This study tested the hypothesis that neural coding patterns exist within the autonomic nervous system. We investigated sympathetic axonal recruitment strategies in humans during chemoreflex- and baroreflex-mediated sympathoexcitation using a novel action potential (AP) analysis technique. Muscle sympathetic nerve activity (microneurography) was collected in 11 young individuals (6 females) during baseline and two subsequent protocols: 1) severe chemoreflex stimulation (maximal end-inspiratory apnea following rebreathe), and 2) severe baroreceptor unloading (-80 mmHg lower body negative pressure; LBNP). When compared with each respective baseline, apnea and LBNP increased AP frequency and mean AP content per sympathetic burst (all P < 0.01). When APs were binned according to peak-to-peak amplitude (i.e., into "clusters"), total clusters detected increased during both apnea (Δ7 ± 5; P = 0.0009) and LBNP (Δ11 ± 8; P = 0.0012) compared with baseline. This was concomitant to an increased number of active clusters per burst during apnea (Δ3 ± 1; P < 0.0001) and LBNP (Δ3 ± 3; P = 0.0076). At baseline and during apnea (R(2) = 0.98; P < 0.0001) and LBNP (R(2) = 0.95; P < 0.0001), a pattern emerged whereby AP cluster latency decreased as cluster size increased. Furthermore, the AP cluster latency profile was shifted downward during apnea (∼53 ms) and upward during LBNP (∼31 ms). The data indicate that variations in synaptic delays and latent subpopulations of larger axons exist as recruitment strategies for sympathetic outflow. The synaptic delay component appears to express reflex specificity, whereas latent subpopulation recruitment demonstrates sensitivity to stress severity.

Neurophysiological modeling of bladder afferent activity in the rat overactive bladder model

The overactive bladder (OAB) is a syndrome-based urinary dysfunction characterized by “urgency, with or without urge incontinence, usually with frequency and nocturia”. Earlier we developed a mathematical model of bladder nerve activity during voiding in anesthetized rats and found that the nerve activity in the relaxation phase of voiding contractions was all afferent. In the present study, we applied this mathematical model to an acetic acid (AA) rat model of bladder overactivity to study the sensitivity of afferent fibers in intact nerves to bladder pressure and volume changes. The afferent activity in the filling phase and the slope, i.e., the sensitivity of the afferent fibers to pressure changes in the post-void relaxation phase, were found to be significantly higher in AA than in saline measurements, while the offset (nerve activity at pressure ~0) and maximum pressure were comparable. We have thus shown, for the first time, that the sensitivity of afferent fibers in the OAB can be studied without cutting nerves or preparation of single fibers. We conclude that bladder overactivity induced by AA in rats is neurogenic in origin and is caused by increased sensitivity of afferent sensors in the bladder wall.

The unsilent majority-TRPV1 drives "spontaneous" transmission of unmyelinated primary afferents within cardiorespiratory NTS

Cranial primary afferent sensory neurons figure importantly in homeostatic control of visceral organ systems. Of the two broad classes of visceral afferents, the role of unmyelinated or C-type class remains poorly understood. This review contrasts key aspects of peripheral discharge properties of C-fiber afferents and their glutamate transmission mechanisms within the solitary tract nucleus (NTS). During normal prevailing conditions, most information arrives at the NTS through myelinated A-type nerves. However, most of visceral afferent axons (75-90%) in NTS are unmyelinated, C-type axons. Centrally, C-type solitary tract (ST) afferent terminals have presynaptic transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) receptors. Capsaicin activation of TRPV1 blocks phasic or synchronous release of glutamate but facilitates release of glutamate from a separate pool of vesicles. This TRPV1-operated pool of vesicles is active at normal temperatures and is responsible for actively driving a 10-fold higher release of glutamate at TRPV1 compared with TRPV1- terminals even in the absence of afferent action potentials. This novel TRPV1 mechanism is responsible for an additional asynchronous release of glutamate that is not present in myelinated terminals. The NTS is rich with presynaptic G protein-coupled receptors, and the implications of TRPV1-operated glutamate offer unique targets for signaling in C-type sensory afferent terminals from neuropeptides, inflammatory mediators, lipid metabolites, cytokines, and cannabinoids. From a homeostatic view, this combination could have broad implications for integration in chronic pathological disturbances in which the numeric dominance of C-type endings and TRPV1 would broadly disturb multisystem control mechanisms.

Relationship between size and latency of action potentials in human muscle sympathetic nerve activity

We employed a novel action potential detection and classification technique to study the relationship between the recruitment of sympathetic action potentials (i.e., neurons) and the size of integrated sympathetic bursts in human muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA). Multifiber postganglionic sympathetic nerve activity from the common fibular nerve was collected using microneurography in 10 healthy subjects at rest and during activation of sympathetic outflow using lower body negative pressure (LBNP). Burst occurrence increased with LBNP. Integrated burst strength (size) varied from 0.22 ± 0.07 V at rest to 0.28 ± 0.09 V during LBNP. Sympathetic burst size (i.e., peak height) was directly related to the number of action potentials within a sympathetic burst both at baseline ( r = 0.75 ± 0.13; P < 0.001) and LBNP ( r = 0.75 ± 0.12; P < 0.001). Also, the amplitude of detected action potentials within sympathetic bursts was directly related to the increased burst size at both baseline ( r = 0.59 ± 0.16; P < 0.001) and LBNP ( r = 0.61 ± 0.12; P < 0.001). In addition, the number of detected action potentials and the number of distinct action potential clusters within a given sympathetic burst were correlated at baseline ( r = 0.7 ± 0.1; P < 0.001) and during LBNP ( r = 0.74 ± 0.03; P < 0.001). Furthermore, action potential latency (i.e., an inverse index of neural conduction velocity) was decreased as a function of action potential size at baseline and LBNP. LBNP did not change the number of action potentials and unique clusters per sympathetic burst. It was concluded that there exists a hierarchical pattern of recruitment of additional faster conducting neurons of larger amplitude as the sympathetic bursts become stronger (i.e., larger amplitude bursts). This fundamental pattern was evident at rest and was not altered by the level of baroreceptor unloading applied in this study.

Sympathetic neural activation: an ordered affair

Is there an ordered pattern in the recruitment of postganglionic sympathetic neurones? Using new multi-unit action potential detection and analysis techniques we sought to determine whether the activation of sympathetic vasomotor neurones during stress is governed by the size principle of recruitment. Multi-unit postganglionic sympathetic activity (fibular nerve) was collected from five male subjects at rest and during periods of elevated sympathetic stress (end-inspiratory apnoeas; 178 ± 37 s(mean ± S.D.)). Compared to baseline (0.24 ± 0.04 V), periods of elevated stress resulted in augmented sympathetic burst size (1.34 ± 0.38 V, P < 0.05). Increased burst size was directly related to both the number of action potentials within a multi-unit burst of postganglionic sympathetic activity (r = 0.88 ± 0.04, P < 0.001 in all subjects), and the amplitude of detected action potentials (r = 0.88 ± 0.06, P < 0.001 in all subjects). The recruitment of larger, otherwise silent, neurons accounted for approximately 74% of the increase in detected action potentials across burst sizes. Further, action potential conduction velocities (inverse of latencies) were increased as a function of action potential size (R² = 0.936, P = 0.001). As axon diameter is positively correlated with action potential size and conduction velocity, these data suggest that the principle of ordered recruitment based on neuronal size applies to postganglionic sympathetic vasomotor neurones. This information may be pertinent to our understanding of reflex-specific recruitment strategies in postganglionic sympathetic nerves, patterns of vasomotor control during stress, and the malleability of sympathetic neuronal properties and recruitment in health and disease.

Bimodality of cardiac vagal afferent C-fibres in the rat

Vagal afferent C-fibres from the heart constitute an important input to the neurogenic cardiovascular regulation. These fibres respond to altered cardiac filling pressures and to chemical stimuli. In rats, we tested whether cardiac vagal afferent C-fibres react exclusively to one stimulus (chemical or mechanical) or whether the fibres are bimodal, i.e. responsive to either kind of stimulus. As a mechanical stimulus, an indwelling balloon was inflated in the aorta to increase left ventricular end-diastolic pressure. The serotonin 5HT(3) receptor agonist phenylbiguanide was injected into the pericardial sac as a chemical stimulus. An increase of fibre activity by more than two standard deviations compared with control was considered a response to a stimulus. Most fibres (42 out of 57) responded to both stimuli and were categorized as bimodal, 9 fibres were solely mechanosensitive and 6 were solely chemosensitive. Hence, the majority of cardiac vagal C-fibres are likely to be bimodal, responding to both cardiac filling pressure and serotonin 5HT(3) receptor stimulation. Our results emphasize the potential role of endogenous mediators in the afferent limb of cardiac reflexes.

Uniformity in dynamic baroreflex regulation of left and right cardiac sympathetic nerve activities

Functional laterality of cardiac sympathetic nerve stimulation in chronotropic and inotropic effects is well known. Whether left (LSNA) and right (RSNA) cardiac sympathetic nerve activities show laterality during dynamic baroreflex activation remains to be determined. In nine anesthetized, vagotomized, and aortic-denervated rabbits, we randomly perturbed intracarotid sinus pressure (CSP) in both carotid sinus regions while simultaneously recording LSNA and RSNA. The baroreflex neural arc transfer function from CSP to LSNA and from CSP to RSNA revealed derivative characteristics, i.e., the magnitude of LSNA and RSNA responses became greater as the input frequency of CSP perturbation increased. The average slope of increasing gain in the frequencies between 0.03 and 0.3 Hz showed no difference between LSNA and RSNA responses (9.7 +/- 2.9 vs. 9.7 +/- 3.1 dB/decade, means +/- SD). The amplitude ratio and phase difference between LSNA and RSNA approximated unity and zero radians, respectively, in the frequencies from 0.01 to 1 Hz. In addition, the LSNA-RSNA relationship during stepwise CSP perturbation from 40 to 160 mmHg showed a straight line (r(2) ranged from 0.969 to 0.999). These findings indicate no laterality in the dynamic as well as static baroreflex regulation of LSNA and RSNA as far as grouped axonal activity is concerned.

Contribution of potassium channels to the discharge properties of rat aortic baroreceptor sensory endings

The expression of several types of membrane potassium channel at the cell body and central synaptic terminal of the rat aortic arch baroreceptor has been reported by others. It is not known if any of the same channels function at the peripheral sensory terminal of these afferent nerves. Our study examined the effect of three potassium channel blocking agents on the pressure-evoked discharge of such baroreceptors. Thirty-one single unit, regularly discharging baroreceptors were studied using an in vitro aortic arch-aortic nerve preparation. Discharge thresholds and suprathreshold pressure sensitivities were derived from responses of receptors to slowly rising ramps of pressure applied to the aortic arch. Vessel diameter was recorded along with receptor discharge to assess any drug-induced changes in vascular smooth muscle. The blocking agents tested have a range of specificities for classes of potassium channels: tetraethylammonium (TEA), 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) and charybdotoxin. TEA depressed the pressure sensitivity of all baroreceptors tested (n = 3) in a dose-dependent manner. Baroreceptor responses to 4-AP were complex (n = 22) and varied widely across individuals. Three were unaffected by 5 mM 4-AP. Most baroreceptors were generally depressed by 4-AP. Some of the 4-AP effects appeared to be related to actions at vascular smooth muscle. None of the baroreceptors tested (n = 6) was affected by charybdotoxin. The results of selective potassium channel blockade are generally consistent with what would be expected from a sustained depolarization of baroreceptor endings such as has been reported with raising extracellular potassium and probably includes effects of inactivation of other voltage-dependent channels.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Contrasting actions of cocaine, local anaesthetic and tetrodotoxin on discharge properties of rat aortic baroreceptors

1. Effects of cocaine, lignocaine, benzocaine and tetrodotoxin (TTX) on the simultaneously measured pressure- and diameter-discharge frequency relations of single fibre baroreceptors were compared in rat in vitro aortic arch-aortic nerve preparations. 2. Between 1 and 10 microM, cocaine produced selective increases in the pressure threshold shifting the pressure-response curve without altering the gain or threshold frequency. At near-blocking concentrations, gain was depressed as well. Cocaine experiments were done in nitroprusside (NP, 1 microM). Neither NP or NP with cocaine altered diameter (P > 0.36). 3. Lignocaine (at > 10 microM) and benzocaine (at > 100 microM) shifted pressure-response curves to higher pressures and generally depressed discharge by increasing pressure threshold and decreasing maximum discharge frequency (P < 0.05). Gain decreased and threshold frequency increased at higher concentrations. Diameter was unaffected by lignocaine or benzocaine (P > 0.14). 4. TTX increased thresholds and discharge frequencies at threshold but did not shift pressure-discharge curve locations. This produced superimposable discharge curves with changes occurring as losses of discharge points in the threshold region. Diameter was unaffected by TTX (P > 0.80). 5. The contrasting patterns of effects between TTX and local anaesthetics suggest that blockade of TTX-sensitive sodium channels alone may not be responsible for the effects of cocaine, lignocaine and benzocaine.