Effects of feeding on metabolism, gas transport, and acid-base balance in the bullfrog Rana catesbeiana

Understanding the gastrointestinal physiology and responses to feeding in air-breathing Anabantiform fishes

The Mekong Delta is host to a large number of freshwater species, including a unique group of facultative air-breathing Anabantiforms. Of these, the striped snakehead (Channa striata), the climbing perch (Anabas testudineus), the giant gourami (Osphronemus goramy) and the snakeskin gourami (Trichogaster pectoralis) are major contributors to aquaculture production in Vietnam. The gastrointestinal responses to feeding in these four species are detailed here. Relative intestinal length was lowest in the snakehead, indicating carnivory, and 5.5-fold greater in the snakeskin, indicating herbivory; climbing perch and giant gourami were intermediate, indicating omnivory. N-waste excretion (ammonia-N + urea-N) was greatest in the carnivorous snakehead and least in the herbivorous snakeskin, whereas the opposite trend was observed for net K⁺ excretion. Similarly, the more carnivorous species had a greater stomach acidity than the more herbivorous species. Measurements of acid-base flux to water indicated that the greatest postprandial alkaline tide occurred in the snakehead and a potential acidic tide in the snakeskin. Additional findings of interest were high levels of both PCO₂ (up to 40 mmHg) and HCO₃ ^- (up to 33 mM) in the intestinal chyme of all four of these air-breathing species. Using in vitro gut sac preparations of the climbing perch, it was shown that the intestinal net absorption of fluid, Na⁺ and HCO₃ ^- was upregulated by feeding but not net Cl^- uptake, glucose uptake or K⁺ secretion. Upregulated net absorption of HCO₃ ^- suggests that the high chyme (HCO₃ ^- ) does not result from secretion by the intestinal epithelium. The possibility of ventilatory control of PCO₂ to regulate postprandial acid-base balance in these air-breathing fish is discussed.

Common carp, Cyprinus carpio, prefer branchial ionoregulation at high feeding rates and kidney ionoregulation when food supply is limited: additional effects of cortisol and exercise

This study aims to examine ionoregulatory parameters during exercise and cortisol elevation in common carp fed different food rations. Fish subjected to two different feeding regimes (0.5 or 3.0% body mass (BM) daily) received no implant or an intraperitoneal cortisol implant (250 mg/kg BM) or sham, and were monitored over a 168-h post-implant (PI) period under resting, low aerobic swimming or exhaustive swimming conditions. Plasma osmolality was maintained at relatively stable levels without much influence of feeding, swimming or cortisol, especially in low feeding groups. Nevertheless, a transient hyponatremia was observed in all low feeding fish implanted with cortisol. The hyponatremia was more pronounced in fish swum to exhaustion but even in this group, Na⁺ levels returned to control levels as cortisol levels recovered (168 h-PI). Cortisol-implanted fish also had lower plasma Cl^- levels, and this loss of plasma Cl^- was more prominent in fish fed a high ration during exhaustive swimming (recovered at 168 h-PI). Cortisol stimulated branchial NKA and H⁺ ATPase activities, especially in high ration fish. In contrast, low ration fish upregulated kidney NKA and H⁺ ATPase activities when experiencing elevated levels of cortisol. In conclusion, low feeding fish experience an ionoregulatory disturbance in response to cortisol implantation especially when swum to exhaustion in contrast to high feeding fish.

Phenotypic plasticity in the common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina): long-term physiological effects of chronic hypoxia during embryonic development

Studies of embryonic and hatchling reptiles have revealed marked plasticity in morphology, metabolism, and cardiovascular function following chronic hypoxic incubation. However, the long-term effects of chronic hypoxia have not yet been investigated in these animals. The aim of this study was to determine growth and postprandial O2 consumption (V̇o2), heart rate (fH), and mean arterial pressure (Pm, in kPa) of common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina) that were incubated as embryos in chronic hypoxia (10% O2, H10) or normoxia (21% O2, N21). We hypothesized that hypoxic development would modify posthatching body mass, metabolic rate, and cardiovascular physiology in juvenile snapping turtles. Yearling H10 turtles were significantly smaller than yearling N21 turtles, both of which were raised posthatching in normoxic, common garden conditions. Measurement of postprandial cardiovascular parameters and O2 consumption were conducted in size-matched three-year-old H10 and N21 turtles. Both before and 12 h after feeding, H10 turtles had a significantly lower fH compared with N21 turtles. In addition, V̇o2 was significantly elevated in H10 animals compared with N21 animals 12 h after feeding, and peak postprandial V̇o2 occurred earlier in H10 animals. Pm of three-year-old turtles was not affected by feeding or hypoxic embryonic incubation. Our findings demonstrate that physiological impacts of developmental hypoxia on embryonic reptiles continue into juvenile life.

Plasma retinoids concentration in Leptodactylus chaquensis (Amphibia: Leptodactylidae) from rice agroecosystems, Santa Fe province, Argentina

Retinoids are known to regulate important processes such as differentiation, development, and embryogenesis of vertebrates: Alteration in endogenous retinoids concentration is linked with teratogenic effects. Retinol (ROH), retinoid acid (RA), and isoform 13-Cis-retinoic acid (13-Cis-RA), in plasma of a native adults frog, Leptodactylus chaquensis from a rice field (RF) and a forest (reference site; RS) were measured. ROH did not vary between treatment sites. RA and 13-Cis-RA activities were higher (93.7±8.6 μg mL(-1) and 131.7±11.4 μg mL(-1), respectively) in individuals collected from RF than in those from RS (65.5±8.6 μg mL(-1) and 92.2±10.2 μg mL(-1), respectively). The ratios retinoic acid-retinol (RA/ROH) and 13-Cis-RA/ROH revealed significantly higher values in RF than in RS. RA and 13-Cis-RA concentrations in plasma on wild amphibian's species such as L. chaquensis would be suitable biomarkers of pesticide exposure in field monitoring. Finally, the mechanism of alteration in retinoid metabolites alteration should be further explored both in larvae and adult, considering that the potential exposition and uptake contaminants vary between the double lives of these vertebrates.

B-esterase activities and blood cell morphology in the frog Leptodactylus chaquensis (Amphibia: Leptodactylidae) on rice agroecosystems from Santa Fe Province (Argentina)

Activity of B-esterases (BChE: butyrylcholinesterase and CbE: carboxylesterase using two model substrates: α-naphthyl acetate and 4-nitrophenyl valerate) in a native frog, Leptodactylus chaquensis from rice fields (RF1: methamidophos and RF2: cypermethrin and endosulfan sprayed by aircraft) and non-contaminated area (pristine forest) was measured. The ability of pyridine-2-aldoxime methochloride (2-PAM) to reactivate BChE levels was also explored. In addition, changes in blood cell morphology and parasite infection were determined. Mean values of plasma BChE activities were lower in samples from the two rice fields than in those from the reference site. CbE (4-nitrophenyl valerate) levels varied in the three sites studied, being highest in RF1. Frog plasma from RF1 showed positive reactivation of BChE activity after incubation with 2-PAM. Blood parameters of frogs from RF2 revealed morphological alterations (anisochromasia and immature erythrocytes frequency). Moreover, a major infection of protozoan Trypanosoma sp. in individuals from the two rice fields was detected. We suggest that integrated use of several biomarkers (BChE and CBEs, chemical reactivation of plasma with 2-PAM, and blood cell parameters) may be a promising procedure for use in biomonitoring programmes to diagnose pesticide exposure of wild populations of this frog and other native anuran species in Argentina.

Digestive challenges for vertebrate animals: microbial diversity, cardiorespiratory coupling, and dietary specialization

The digestive system is the interface between the supply of food for an animal and the demand for energy and nutrients to maintain the body, to grow, and to reproduce. Digestive systems are not morphologically static but rather dynamically respond to changes in the physical and chemical characteristics of the diet and the level of food intake. In this article, we discuss three themes that affect the ability of an animal to alter digestive function in relation to novel substrates and changing food supply: (1) the fermentative digestion in herbivores, (2) the integration of cardiopulmonary and digestive functions, and (3) the evolution of dietary specialization. Herbivores consume, digest, and detoxify complex diets by using a wide variety of enzymes expressed by bacteria, predominantly in the phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Carnivores, such as snakes that feed intermittently, sometimes process very large meals that require compensatory adjustments in blood flow, acid secretion, and regulation of acid-base homeostasis. Snakes and birds that specialize in simple diets of prey or nectar retain their ability to digest a wider selection of prey. The digestive system continues to be of interest to comparative physiologists because of its plasticity, both phenotypic and evolutionary, and because of its widespread integration with other physiological systems, including thermoregulation, circulation, ventilation, homeostasis, immunity, and reproduction.

The alkaline tide and ammonia excretion after voluntary feeding in freshwater rainbow trout

We investigated the potential acid–base and nitrogenous waste excretion challenges created by voluntary feeding in freshwater rainbow trout,with particular focus on the possible occurrence of an alkaline tide (a metabolic alkalosis created by gastric HCl secretion during digestion). Plasma metabolites (glucose, urea and ammonia) were measured at various time points before and after voluntary feeding to satiation (approximately 5% body mass meal of dry commercial pellets), as was the net flux of ammonia and titratable alkalinity to the water from unfed and fed fish. Arterial blood, sampled by indwelling catheter, was examined for post-prandial effects on pH, plasma bicarbonate and plasma CO2 tension. There was no significant change in plasma glucose or urea concentrations following feeding, whereas plasma ammonia transiently increased, peaking at threefold above resting values at 12 h after the meal and remaining elevated for 24 h. The increased plasma ammonia was correlated with an increase in net ammonia excretion to the water, with fed fish significantly elevating their net ammonia excretion two- to threefold between 12 and 48 h post feeding. These parameters did not change in unfed control fish. Fed fish likewise increased the net titratable base flux to the water by approximately threefold, which resulted in a transition from a small net acid flux seen in unfed fish to a large net base flux in fed fish. Over 48 h, this resulted in a net excretion of 13 867 μmol kg–1more base to the external water than in unfed fish. The arterial blood exhibited a corresponding rise in pH (between 6 and 12 h) and plasma bicarbonate (between 3 and 12 h) following feeding; however, no respiratory compensation was observed, as PaCO2 remained constant. Overall, there was evidence of numerous challenges created by feeding in a freshwater teleost fish, including the occurrence of an alkaline tide, and its compensation by excretion of base to the external water. The possible influence of feeding ecology and environmental salinity on these challenges, as well as discrepancies in the literature, are discussed.

Post-prandial alkaline tide in freshwater rainbow trout: effects of meal anticipation on recovery from acid–base and ion regulatory disturbances

The post-feeding alkaline tide (elevated blood pH and HCO3–) has been well characterised in air-breathing animals, but to date this phenomenon has only been demonstrated in one piscine species, a marine elasmobranch. We have investigated the acid–base and ion regulatory responses of a freshwater teleost to voluntary feeding as well as to involuntary filling of the stomach via an indwelling gastric intubation tube. One group of rainbow trout(Oncorhynchus mykiss) were fed a 1% body mass ration of homogenised food via the gastric intubation tube. Another group fed voluntarily on a 1% body mass ration. Blood samples were taken via dorsal aortic catheters from fish in both groups before feeding and over the subsequent 72 h. Trout fed via the gastric intubation tube exhibited post-prandial metabolic alkalosis of the blood (pH and plasma HCO3– increases of up to ∼0.2 pH units and 3 mmol l–1, respectively), that was more than twofold greater than the voluntary feeding fish, and took three times as long to recover (72 versus 24 h). Arterial PCO2 was unchanged in both groups indicating that freshwater trout do not retain CO2 to compensate for a post-prandial alkaline tide. Although excretion of HCO3– to the water increased post-prandially, NH4+ excretion followed a similar pattern, such that net acid equivalent fluxes were unaffected. Thus, sites other than the gills or kidney must be responsible for recovery of blood acid–base status, with intestinal HCO3–secretion being a likely candidate. In addition, fish fed via the gastric intubation tube experienced a large (17 mmol l–1) but acute (6 h) drop in plasma chloride and a very large (53%) and long lasting decline in plasma magnesium concentration, that were absent in voluntarily feeding fish. These results further indicate a potentially important role for neuro-endocrine mediated mechanisms when fish feed voluntarily, in promoting the earlier initiation of compensatory responses that regulate blood ion levels and acid–base status. This aspect should also be considered when interpreting studies on other aspects of post-prandial physiology, where force feeding by gavage is commonly used in preference to voluntary feeding.

Specific dynamic action: a review of the postprandial metabolic response

For more than 200 years, the metabolic response that accompanies meal digestion has been characterized, theorized, and experimentally studied. Historically labeled "specific dynamic action" or "SDA", this physiological phenomenon represents the energy expended on all activities of the body incidental to the ingestion, digestion, absorption, and assimilation of a meal. Specific dynamic action or a component of postprandial metabolism has been quantified for more than 250 invertebrate and vertebrate species. Characteristic among all of these species is a rapid postprandial increase in metabolic rate that upon peaking returns more slowly to prefeeding levels. The average maximum increase in metabolic rate stemming from digestion ranges from a modest 25% for humans to 136% for fishes, and to an impressive 687% for snakes. The type, size, composition, and temperature of the meal, as well as body size, body composition, and several environmental factors (e.g., ambient temperature and gas concentration) can each significantly impact the magnitude and duration of the SDA response. Meals that are large, intact or possess a tough exoskeleton require more digestive effort and thus generate a larger SDA than small, fragmented, or soft-bodied meals. Differences in the individual effort of preabsorptive (e.g., swallowing, gastric breakdown, and intestinal transport) and postabsorptive (e.g., catabolism and synthesis) events underlie much of the variation in SDA. Specific dynamic action is an integral part of an organism's energy budget, exemplified by accounting for 19-43% of the daily energy expenditure of free-ranging snakes. There are innumerable opportunities for research in SDA including coverage of unexplored taxa, investigating the underlying sources, determinants, and the central control of postprandial metabolism, and examining the integration of SDA across other physiological systems.

Metabolic and blood gas dependence on digestive state in the Savannah monitor lizard Varanus exanthematicus: an assessment of the alkaline tide

A large alkaline tide (up to 20 mmol l(-1) increase in bicarbonate concentration [HCO3-] with an accompanied increase in blood pH) has previously been reported for some carnivorous reptiles within 24 h after ingesting a large meal. This phenomenon has been attributed to the secretion of large amounts of H+ ions into the stomach, which is required for digestion of large prey items. To test the generality of this phenomenon in carnivorous reptiles, this study quantified the metabolic and acid-base status of the Savannah monitor lizard, Varanus exanthematicus, during digestion at 35 degrees C. Following a meal of approximately 10% of body mass, V(O2) and V(CO2) were measured continuously and arterial pH, blood gases and strong ions were measured every 8 h for 5 days. During peak digestion (24 h post feeding), V(O2) and V(CO2) increased to approximately threefold fasting values (V(O2), 0.95-2.57 ml min(-1) kg(-1); V(CO2) 0.53-1.63 ml min(-1) kg(-1)) while respiratory exchange ratio (R) remained constant (0.62-0.73). During digestion, arterial P(CO2) increased (from 4.6 kPa to 5.8 kPa), and [HCO3-] also increased (from 24.1 mmol l(-1) to 40.3 mmol l(-1)). In contrast to early studies on crocodilians, arterial pH in V. exanthematicus remained relatively stable during digestion (7.43-7.56). Strong ions contributed little to the acid-base compensation during the alkalosis. Collectively the data indicate that the metabolic alkalosis associated with H+ secretion (as indicated by increased plasma bicarbonate) is partially compensated by a respiratory acidosis.

Physiological responses to feeding, fasting and estivation for anurans

Anuran estivation is characterized by long episodes of aphagia. To investigate whether estivating anurans downregulate intestinal performance as an adaptive mechanism to reduce energy expenditure, I compared the metabolic and intestinal responses to feeding, fasting and estivation among non-estivating and estivating species of the anuran families Bufonidae,Leptodactylidae and Ranidae. Standard metabolic rates of the estivating Bufo alvarius, Ceratophrys ornata and Pyxicephalus adspersuswere significantly less than those of the non-estivating Bufo marinus,Leptodactylus pentadactylus and Rana catesbeiana. Whereas the digestion of rodent meals equaling 15% of anuran body mass generated significant metabolic responses for all species, specific dynamic action was significantly greater for the estivating species. For estivating species,feeding triggered more than a doubling of small intestinal mass and significant upregulation of intestinal nutrient transport rates, resulting in six- to tenfold increases in total intestinal nutrient uptake capacity. The postprandial intestinal responses of the non-estivating species were much more modest, averaging a 50% increase in small intestinal mass and 69% increase in uptake capacities. Following 1 month of laboratory-induced estivation, C. ornata and P. adspersus had further depressed metabolic rates by 20%, intestinal masses by 44%, and total intestinal uptake capacities by 60%. In a fashion similar to infrequently feeding, sit-and-wait foraging snakes,estivating anurans possess the capacity to severely downregulate intestinal performance with fasting and estivation, and subsequently upregulate the gut with feeding. The depression in gut performance during estivation aids in reducing energy expenditure, thereby increasing the duration that the animal can remain dormant while relying solely upon stored energy.

Eat and run: prioritization of oxygen delivery during elevated metabolic states

The principal function of the cardiopulmonary system is the matching of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport to the metabolic requirements of different tissues. Increased oxygen demands (VO2), for example during physical activity, result in a rapid compensatory increase in cardiac output and redistribution of blood flow to the appropriate skeletal muscles. These cardiovascular changes are matched by suitable ventilatory increments. This matching of cardiopulmonary performance and metabolism during activity has been demonstrated in a number of different taxa, and is universal among vertebrates. In some animals, large increments in aerobic metabolism may also be associated with physiological states other than activity. In particular, VO2 may increase following feeding due to the energy requiring processes associated with prey handling, digestion and ensuing protein synthesis. This large increase in VO2 is termed "specific dynamic action" (SDA). In reptiles, the increase in VO2 during SDA may be 3-40-fold above resting values, peaking 24-36 h following ingestion, and remaining elevated for up to 7 days. In addition to the increased metabolic demands, digestion is associated with secretion of H+ into the stomach, resulting in a large metabolic alkalosis (alkaline tide) and a near doubling in plasma [HCO3-]. During digestion then, the cardiopulmonary system must meet the simultaneous challenges of an elevated oxygen demand and a pronounced metabolic alkalosis. This paper will compare and contrast the patterns of cardiopulmonary response to similar metabolic increments in these different physiological states (exercise and/or digestion) in a variety of reptiles, including the Burmese python, Python morulus, savannah monitor lizard, Varanus exanthematicus, and American alligator Alligator mississipiensis.

Ventilatory compensation of the alkaline tide during digestion in the snake Boa constrictor

The increased metabolic rate during digestion is associated with changes in arterial acid-base parameters that are caused by gastric acid secretion (the 'alkaline tide'). Net transfer of HCl to the stomach lumen causes an increase in plasma HCO3- levels, but arterial pH does not change because of a ventilatory compensation that counters the metabolic alkalosis. It seems, therefore, that ventilation is controlled to preserve pH and not PCO2 during the postprandial period. To investigate this possibility, we determined arterial acid-base parameters and the metabolic response to digestion in the snake Boa constrictor, where gastric acid secretion was inhibited pharmacologically by oral administration of omeprazole. The increase in oxygen consumption of omeprazole-treated snakes after ingestion of 30% of their own body mass was quantitatively similar to the response in untreated snakes, although the peak of the metabolic response occurred later (36 h versus 24 h). Untreated control animals exhibited a large increase in arterial plasma HCO3- concentration of approximately 12 mmol l(-1), but arterial pH only increased by 0.12 pH units because of a simultaneous increase in arterial PCO2 by about 10 mmHg. Omeprazole virtually abolished the changes in arterial pH and plasma HCO3- concentration during digestion and there was no increase in arterial PCO2. The increased arterial PCO2 during digestion is not caused, therefore, by the increased metabolism during digestion or a lower ventilatory responsiveness to ventilatory stimuli during a presumably relaxed state in digestion. Furthermore, the constant arterial PCO2, in the absence of an alkaline tide, of omeprazole-treated snakes strongly suggests that pH rather than PCO2 normally affects chemoreceptor activity and ventilatory drive.

Cardiorespiratory effects of forced activity and digestion in toads

Digestion and physical activity are associated with large and sometimes opposite changes in several physiological parameters. Gastric acid secretion during digestion causes increased levels of plasma bicarbonate ([HCO-3](pl)), whereas activity leads to a metabolic acidosis with increased lactate and decrease in plasma bicarbonate. Here we describe the combined effects of feeding and activity in the toad Bufo marinus to investigate whether the increased bicarbonate buffering capacity during digestion (the so-called alkaline tide) protects the acid-base disturbance during activity and enhances the subsequent recovery. In addition, we describe the changes in arterial oxygen levels and plasma ion composition, as well as rates of gas exchange, heart rates, and blood pressures. Toads were equipped with catheters in the femoral artery and divided into four experimental regimes: control, digestion, forced activity, and forced activity during the postprandial period (N=6 in each). Digestion induced a significant metabolic alkalosis with increased [HCO-3](pl) that was completely balanced by a respiratory acidosis; that is, increased arterial Pco(2) (P(a)co(2)), so that arterial pH (pH(a)) did not change. Forced activity led to a substantial reduction in pH(a) by 0.43 units, an increase in plasma lactate concentration by 12.5 mmol L(-1), and a reduction in [HCO-3](pl) of similar magnitude. While digesting animals had higher P(a)co(2) and [HCO-3](pl) at rest, the magnitude and duration of the changes in arterial acid-base parameters were similar to those of fasting animals, although the reduction in pH(a) was somewhat lower (0.32 units). In conclusion, while recovery from the acidosis following exercise did not seem to be affected by digestion, the alkaline tide did slightly dampen the reduction in pH(a) during activity.

Increased blood oxygen affinity during digestion in the snakePython molurus

Many snakes exhibit large increases in metabolic rate during digestion that place extensive demands on efficient oxygen transport. In the present study,we describe blood oxygen affinity following three weeks of fasting and 48 h after feeding in the Burmese python (Python molurus). We also report simultaneous measurements of arterial blood gases and haematological parameters. Arterial blood was obtained from chronically implanted catheters,and blood oxygen-dissociation curves were constructed from oxygencontent measurements at known oxygen partial pressure(PO2) values at 2% and 5% CO2. Arterial pH remained constant at approximately 7.6 after feeding, but digestion was associated with an approximately 6 mmol l-1 increase in [HCO3-], while CO2 partial pressure(PCO2) increased from 2.21±0.13 kPa in fasted animals to 2.89±0.17 kPa at 48 h after feeding. Blood oxygen affinity in vivo was predicted on the basis of pH in vivoand the blood oxygen-dissociation curves obtained in vitro. The blood oxygen affinity in vivo increased during digestion, with P50 values decreasing from 4.58±0.11 kPa to 3.53±0.24 kPa. This increase was associated with a significant decrease in the red blood cell [NTP]/[Hb4] ratio (relationship between the concentrations of organic phosphates and total haemoglobin) and a significant decrease in mean cellular haemoglobin content, which is indicative of swelling of the red blood cells. Our data for blood oxygen affinity and arterial oxygen levels, together with previously published values of oxygen uptake and blood flows, allow for a quantitative evaluation of oxygen transport during digestion. This analysis shows that a large part of the increased metabolism during digestion is supported by an increased venous extraction, while arterial PO2(PaO2) and haemoglobin saturation do not vary with digestive status. Thus, we predict that venous PO2 (PvO2) is reduced from a fasting value of 5.2 kPa to 1.6 kPa during digestion.

Effects of meal size, meal type, body temperature, and body size on the specific dynamic action of the marine toad, Bufo marinus

Specific dynamic action (SDA), the accumulated energy expended on all physiological processes associated with meal digestion, is strongly influenced by features of both the meal and the organism. We assessed the effects of meal size, meal type, body temperature, and body size on the postprandial metabolic response and calculated SDA of the marine toad, Bufo marinus. Peak postprandial rates of O(2) consumption (.V(O2)) and CO(2) production (.V(CO2)) and SDA increased with meal size (5%-20% of body mass). Postprandial metabolism was impacted by meal type; the digestion of hard-bodied superworms (Zophobas larva) and crickets was more costly than the digestion of soft-bodied earthworms and juvenile rats. An increase in body temperature (from 20 degrees to 35 degrees C) altered the postprandial metabolic profile, decreasing its duration and increasing its magnitude, but did not effect SDA, with the cost of meal digestion remaining constant across body temperatures. Allometric mass exponents were 0.69 for standard metabolic rate, 0.85 for peak postprandial .V(O2), and 1.02 for SDA; therefore, the factorial scope of peak postprandial .V(O2) increased with body mass. The mass of nutritive organs (stomach, liver, intestines, and kidneys) accounted for 38% and 20% of the variation in peak postprandial .V(O2) and SDA, respectively. Toads forced to exercise experienced 25-fold increases in .V(O2) much greater than the 5.5-fold increase experience during digestion. Controlling for meal size, meal type, and body temperature, the specific dynamic responses of B. marinus are similar to those of the congeneric Bufo alvarius, Bufo boreas, Bufo terrestris, and Bufo woodhouseii.

Structural flexibility of the small intestine and liver of garter snakes in response to feeding and fasting

Garter snakes Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis feed frequently but also tolerate extended periods of fasting when food is unavailable. We studied the dynamics, reversibility and repeatability of size changes of the small intestine and liver using ultrasonography. We employed light and transmission electron microscopy and flow cytometry to study the tissue mechanism that drives this flexibility. We compared garter snakes that fed every other day,snakes that fed once a week and fasting snakes. In all feeding trials, the size of the small intestine and the liver increased rapidly after feeding. Constantly feeding snakes maintained an elevated level of organ size, while snakes that were fed only once a week showed a marked up- and downregulation of organ size. Histology revealed the mucosal epithelium to be a transitional epithelium that can change cell configuration considerably to accommodate organ size changes. Upregulation of small intestine and liver size was always associated with the incorporation of lipid droplets into enterocytes and hepatocytes. Cell proliferation was not involved in upregulation of organ size. In contrast, cell proliferation increased during downregulation of organ size, indicating that cells worn out during digestion were replaced. The dynamics of flexibility and the functional features of the tissue were the same as described for the Burmese python Python molurus bivittatus. We suggest that garter snakes employ the same energetically cheap mechanism of organ size regulation as pythons, which allows for rapid, repeated and reversible size changes with no cell proliferation involved. Comparative evidence suggests that the transitional mucosal epithelium is an ancestral character of snakes and that feeding ecology is not directly related to the cytological features of the mucosal epithelium.