Central Resetting of Neuromuscular Steady States May Underlie Rhythmical Arm Movements

Exploring and Modeling Directional Effects on Steering Behavior in Virtual Reality

Steering is a fundamental task in interactive Virtual Reality (VR) systems. Prior work has demonstrated that movement direction can significantly influence user behavior in the steering task, and different interactive environments (VEs) can lead to various behavioral patterns, such as tablets and PCs. However, its impact on VR environments remains unexplored. Given the widespread use of steering tasks in VEs, including menu adjustment and object manipulation, this work seeks to understand and model the directional effect with a focus on barehand interaction, which is typical in VEs. This paper presents the results of two studies. The first study was conducted to collect behavioral data with four categories: movement time, average movement speed, success rate, and reenter times. According to the results, we examined the effect of movement direction and built the SθModel. We then empirically evaluated the model through the data collected from the first study. The results proved that our proposed model achieved the best performance across all the metrics (r2 > 0.95), with more than 15% improvement over the original Steering Law in terms of prediction accuracy. Next, we further validated the SθModel by another study with the change of device and steering direction. Consistent with previous assessments, the model continues to exhibit optimal performance in both predicting movement time and speed. Finally, based on the results, we formulated design recommendations for steering tasks in VEs to enhance user experience and interaction efficiency.

Age-related changes in mobility assessments correlate with repetitive goal-directed arm-movement performance

BACKGROUND

There is ample evidence that mobility abilities between healthy young and elderly people differ. However, we do not know whether these differences are based on different lower leg motor capacity or instead reveal a general motor condition that could be detected by monitoring upper-limb motor behavior. We therefore captured body movements during a standard mobility task, namely the Timed Up and Go test (TUG) with subjects following different instructions while performing a rapid, repetitive goal-directed arm-movement test (arm-movement test). We hypothesized that we would be able to predict gait-related parameters from arm motor behavior, even regardless of age.

METHODS

Sixty healthy individuals were assigned to three groups (young: mean 26 ± 3 years, middle-aged 48 ± 9, old 68 ± 7). They performed the arm-movement and TUG test under three conditions: preferred (at preferred movement speed), dual-task (while counting backwards), and fast (at fast movement speed). We recorded the number of contacts within 20 s and the TUG duration. We also extracted TUG walking sequences to analyze spatiotemporal gait parameters and evaluated the correlation between arm-movement and TUG results.

RESULTS

The TUG condition at preferred speed revealed differences in gait speed and step length only between young and old, while dual-task and fast execution increased performance differences significantly among all 3 groups. Our old group's gait speed decreased the most doing the dual-task, while the young group's gait speed increased the most during the fast condition. As in our TUG results, arm-movements were significant faster in young than in middle-aged and old. We observed significant correlations between arm movements and the fast TUG condition, and that the number of contacts closely predicts TUG timefast and gait speedfast. This prediction is more accurate when including age.

CONCLUSION

We found that the age-related decline in mobility performance that TUG reveals strongly depends on the test instruction: the dual-task and fast condition clearly strengthened group contrasts. Interestingly, a fast TUG performance was predictable by the performance in a fast repetitive goal-directed arm-movements test, even beyond the age effect. We assume that arm movements and the fast TUG condition reflect similarly reduced motor function.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS) number: DRKS00016999, prospectively registered on March, 26, 2019.

Participation of ipsilateral cortical descending influences in bimanual wrist movements in humans

There are contralateral and less studied ipsilateral (i), indirect cortical descending projections to motoneurons (MNs). We compared ipsilateral cortical descending influences on MNs of wrist flexors by applying transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the right primary motor cortex at actively maintained flexion and extension wrist positions in uni- and bimanual tasks in right-handed participants (n = 23). The iTMS response includes a short latency (~ 25 ms) motor evoked potential (iMEP), a silent period (iSP) and a long latency (~ 60 ms) facilitation called rebound (iRB). We also investigated whether the interaction between the two hands while holding an object in a bimanual task involves ipsilateral cortical descending influences. In the unimanual task, iTMS responses in the right wrist flexors were unaffected by changes in wrist position. In the bimanual task with an object, iMEPs in the right wrist flexors were larger when the ipsilateral wrist was in flexion compared to extension. Without the object, only iRB were larger when the ipsilateral wrist was extended. Thus, ipsilateral cortical descending influences on MNs were modulated only in bimanual tasks and depended on how the two hands interacted. It is concluded that the left and right cortices cooperate in bimanual tasks involving holding an object with both hands, with possible involvement of oligo- and poly-synaptic, as well as transcallosal projections to MNs. The possible involvement of spinal and transcortical stretch and cutaneous reflexes in bimanual tasks when holding an object is discussed in the context of the well-established notion that indirect, referent control underlies motor actions.

What do people match when they try to match force? Analysis at the level of hypothetical control variables

We used the theory of control with spatial referent coordinates (RC) to explore how young, healthy persons modify finger pressing force and match forces between the two hands. Three specific hypotheses were tested related to patterns of RC and apparent stiffness (defined as the slope of force-coordinate relation) used in the presence of visual feedback on the force and in its absence. The subjects used the right hand to produce accurate force under visual feedback; further the force could be increased or decreased, intentionally or unintentionally (induced by controlled lifting or lowering of the fingertips). The left hand was used to match force without visual feedback before and after the force change; the match hand consistently underestimated the actual force change in the task hand. The "inverse piano" device was used to compute RC and apparent stiffness. We found very high coefficients of determination for the inter-trial hyperbolic regressions between RC and apparent stiffness in the presence of visual feedback; the coefficients of determination dropped significantly without visual feedback. There were consistent preferred sharing patterns in the space of RC and apparent stiffness between the task and match hands across subjects. In contrast, there was much less consistency between the task and match hands in the magnitudes of RC and apparent stiffness observed in individual trials. Compared to the task hand, the match hand showed consistently lower magnitudes of apparent stiffness and, correspondingly, larger absolute magnitudes of RC. Involuntary force changes produced by lifting and lowering the force sensors led to significantly lower force changes compared to what could be expected based on the computed values of apparent stiffness and sensor movement amplitude. The results confirm the importance of visual feedback for stabilization of force in the space of hypothetical control variables. They suggest the existence of personal traits reflected in preferred ranges of RC and apparent stiffness across the two hands. They also show that subjects react to external perturbations, even when instructed "not to interfere": Such perturbations cause unintentional and unperceived drifts in both RC and apparent stiffness.

Principles of Motor Recovery After Neurological Injury Based on a Motor Control Theory

Problems of neurological rehabilitation are considered based on two levels of the International Classification of Functioning (ICF)-Body Structures and Function level and Activity level-and modulating factors related to the individual and the environment. Specifically, at the Body Structures and Function level, problems addressed include spasticity, muscle weakness, disordered muscle activation patterns and disruptions in coordinated movement. At the Activity level, deficits in multi-joint and multi-segment upper limb reaching movements are reviewed. We address how physiologically well established principles in the control of actions, Threshold Control and Referent Control as outlined in the Equilibrium-Point theory can help advance the understanding of underlying deficits that may limit recovery at each level.

Arm motion coupling during locomotion-like actions: an experimental study and a dynamic model

We studied the coordination of arm movements in standing persons who performed an out-of-phase arm-swinging task while stepping in place or while standing. The subjects were instructed to stop one of the arms in response to an auditory signal while trying to keep the rest of the movement pattern unchanged. A significant increase was observed in the amplitude of the arm that continued swinging under both the stepping and standing conditions. This increase was similar between the right and left arms. A dynamic model was developed including two coupled nonlinear van der Pol oscillators. We assumed that stopping an arm did not eliminate the coupling but introduced a new constraint. Within the model, superposition of two factors, a command to stop the ongoing movement of one arm and the coupling between the two oscillators, has been able to account for the observed effects. The model makes predictions for future experiments.

Joint coordination during bimanual transport of real and imaginary objects

We studied multi-joint coordination during tasks of transporting real and imaginary objects with two arms. One of the arms was unexpectedly arrested in one-third of trials performed. In the absence of perturbation, multi-joint synergies stabilizing the distance between the arms early and late in the movement were seen in both conditions and even were stronger in the imaginary object condition. However, quick adjustments in the non-perturbed arm were seen only in the real object condition, whereas the non-perturbed arm did not react to the perturbation in the imaginary object condition. We conclude that tactile information is important for the central nervous system to quickly respond to perturbations in bimanual tasks. The results underscore potential differences between stability in the absence of external perturbations that may be ensured by setting a reference aperture between the hands and stability that requires adjustments in this reference aperture following a major perturbation.

Threshold position control and the principle of minimal interaction in motor actions

The answer to the question of how the nervous system controls multiple muscles and body segments while solving the redundancy problem in choosing a unique action from the set of many possible actions is still a matter of controversy. In an attempt to clarify the answer, we review data showing that motor actions emerge from central resetting of the threshold position of appropriate body segments, i.e. the virtual position at which muscles are silent but deviations from it will elicit activity and resistive forces (threshold position control). The difference between the centrally-set threshold position and the sensory-signaled actual position is responsible for the activation of neuromuscular elements and interactions between them and the environment. These elements tend to diminish the evoked activity and interactions by minimizing the gap between the actual position and the threshold position (the principle of minimal interaction). Threshold control per se does not solve the redundancy problem: it only limits the set of possible actions. The principle of minimal interaction implies that the system relies on the natural capacity of neuromuscular elements to interact between themselves and with the environment to reduce this already restricted set to a unique action, thus solving the redundancy problem in motor control. This theoretical framework appears to be helpful in the explanation of the control and production of a variety of actions (reaching movements, specification of different hand configurations, grip force generation, and whole-body movements such as sit-to-stand or walking). Experimental tests of this theory are provided. The prediction that several types of neurons specify referent control variables for motor actions may be tested in future studies. The theory may also be advanced by applying the notion of threshold control to perception and cognition.