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Yıldırım Şahan T, Aydoğan Arslan S, Söyler O. Investigation of the validity and reliability of the 3-meter backward walk test in high functional level adults with lower limb amputation. Prosthet Orthot Int 2024; 48:190-195. [PMID: 38091353 DOI: 10.1097/pxr.0000000000000310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Backward walk training has an important place in the rehabilitation programs of lower extremity amputees. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to investigate the test-retest validity and reliability of the 3-meter backward walk test (3MBWT), minimal detectable change, and the cutoff time in high functional level adults with lower limb amputations (LLAs). Adults with LLA (n = 30) and healthy adults (n = 29) were included in the study. STUDY DESIGN This is a randomized cross-sectional study. METHODS The Modified Fall Efficacy Score, Rivermead Mobility Index, and Timed Up and Go test with the 3MBWT were used to evaluate the concurrent validity of the test. The second evaluation (retest) was performed by the same physiotherapist 1 week following the first evaluation (test). The validity was assessed by correlating the 3MBWT times with the scores of other measures and by comparing the 3MBWT times between adults with LLA and healthy adults. RESULTS Test-retest reliability of the 3MBWT was excellent. The intraclass correlation coefficient for the 3MBWT was 0.950. The standard error of measurement and minimal detectable change values were 0.38 and 0.53, respectively. A moderate correlation was found between the 3MBWT, Modified Fall Efficacy Score, Timed Up and Go test, and Rivermead Mobility Index ( p < 0.001). Significant differences in the 3MBWT times were found between adults with LLA and healthy controls ( p < 0.001). The cutoff time of 3.11 s discriminates healthy adults from high functional level adults with LLA. CONCLUSIONS The 3MBWT was determined to be valid, reliable, and easy-to-apply tool in high functional level adults with LLA. This assessment is a useful and practical measurement for dynamic balance in high functional level adults with LLA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tezel Yıldırım Şahan
- Gulhane Faculty of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, University of Health Science Turkey, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Saniye Aydoğan Arslan
- Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation Department, Faculty of Health Sciences, Kırıkkale University, Kırıkkale, Turkey
| | - Osman Söyler
- Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation Department, Institute of Health Science, Lokman Hekim University, Ankara, Turkey
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Kocer B, Soke F, Ataoglu NEE, Ersoy N, Gulsen C, Gulsen EO, Yasa ME, Uysal I, Comoglu SS, Bora HAT. The reliability and validity of the 3-m backward walk test in people with Parkinson's disease. Ir J Med Sci 2023; 192:3063-3071. [PMID: 37160569 DOI: 10.1007/s11845-023-03384-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND People with Parkinson's disease (PwPD) lose the ability in backward walking which is an important part of mobility in daily life. The 3-m backward walk test (3MBWT) evaluates backward walking; however, its reliability and validity have not been examined in PwPD yet. AIMS To examine (1) the test-retest reliability of the 3MBWT in PwPD; (2) the minimum detectable change in the 3MBWT times; (3) the concurrent and known-groups validity of the 3MBWT; and (4) the optimum cutoff time which best discriminates fallers from non-fallers with Parkinson's disease (PD). METHODS This cross-sectional study included 36 PwPD and 33 healthy people. The 3MBWT was conducted with the 10-m walk test, timed up and go test, Berg Balance Scale, four square step test, activity-specific balance confidence scale, Movement Disorders Society Sponsored Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale, and Hoehn and Yahr Scale. RESULTS The 3MBWT demonstrated excellent test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.965). The MDC of 2.13 s was determined. The 3MBWT had moderate to high correlations with the other outcome measures (correlation coefficient ranged from -0.592 to 0.858). On the 3MBWT times, there were significant differences between PwPD and healthy people, and between fallers and non-fallers with PD (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively). A 3MBWT time of 10.31 s was found to best discriminate fallers from non-fallers with PD. CONCLUSIONS The 3MBWT is a reliable, valid, and easy to administer outcome measure to assess backward walking performance in PwPD, indicating it to be used in practice and research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilge Kocer
- Ankara Etlik City Hospital, Department of Neurology, University of Health Sciences, Varlik Neighborhood, Halil Sezai Erkut Street, Yenimahalle, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Fatih Soke
- Gulhane Faculty of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Department of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, University of Health Sciences, Ankara, Turkey
| | | | - Nursena Ersoy
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Nutrition and Dietetic, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Cagri Gulsen
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Elvan Ozcan Gulsen
- Vocational School of Health Services, Elderly Care Program, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Ertugrul Yasa
- Gulhane Faculty of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Department of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, University of Health Sciences, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Ismail Uysal
- Fethiye Vocational School of Health Services, Department of Health Care Services, Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Selim Selcuk Comoglu
- Ankara Etlik City Hospital, Department of Neurology, University of Health Sciences, Varlik Neighborhood, Halil Sezai Erkut Street, Yenimahalle, Ankara, Turkey
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Musienko PE, Lyalka VF, Gorskii OV, Zelenin PV, Deliagina TG. Activity of Spinal Interneurons during Forward and Backward Locomotion. J Neurosci 2022; 42:3570-3586. [PMID: 35296546 PMCID: PMC9053856 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1884-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Higher vertebrates are capable not only of forward but also backward and sideways locomotion. Also, single steps in different directions are generated for postural corrections. While the networks responsible for the control of forward walking (FW) have been studied in considerable detail, the networks controlling steps in other directions are mostly unknown. Here, to characterize the operation of the spinal locomotor network during FW and backward walking (BW), we recorded the activity of individual spinal interneurons from L4 to L6 during both FW and BW evoked by epidural stimulation (ES) of the spinal cord at L5-L6 in decerebrate cats of either sex. Three groups of neurons were revealed. Group 1 (45%) had a similar phase of modulation during both FW and BW. Group 2 (27%) changed the phase of modulation in the locomotor cycle depending on the direction of locomotion. Group 3 neurons were modulated during FW only (Group 3a, 21%) or during BW only (Group 3b, 7%). We suggest that Group 1 neurons belong to the network generating the vertical component of steps (the limb elevation and lowering) because it should operate similarly during locomotion in any direction, while Groups 2 and 3 neurons belong to the networks controlling the direction of stepping. Results of this study provide new insights into the organization of the spinal locomotor circuits, advance our understanding of ES therapeutic effects, and can potentially be used for the development of novel strategies for recuperation of impaired balance control, which requires the generation of corrective steps in different directions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Animals and humans can perform locomotion in different directions in relation to the body axis (forward, backward, sideways). While the networks that control forward walking have been studied in considerable detail, the networks controlling steps in other directions are unknown. Here, by recording the activity of the same spinal neurons during forward and backward walking, we revealed three groups of neurons forming, respectively, the network operating similarly during stepping in different directions, the network changing its operation with a change in the direction of stepping, and the network operating only during locomotion in a specific direction. These networks presumably control different aspects of the step. The obtained results provide new insights into the organization of the spinal locomotor networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel E Musienko
- Laboratory of Neuroprosthetics, Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
- Laboratory of Motor and Visceral Functions Neuromodulation, Pavlov Institute of Physiology, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
- Sirius National Technical University, Sochi 354340, Russia
| | - Vladimir F Lyalka
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, SE-17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Oleg V Gorskii
- Laboratory of Neuroprosthetics, Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
- Laboratory of Motor and Visceral Functions Neuromodulation, Pavlov Institute of Physiology, St. Petersburg 199034, Russia
| | - Pavel V Zelenin
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, SE-17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tatiana G Deliagina
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, SE-17177 Stockholm, Sweden
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Forward and backward walking share the same motor modules and locomotor adaptation strategies. Heliyon 2021; 7:e07864. [PMID: 34485742 PMCID: PMC8405989 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Forward and backward walking are remarkably similar motor behaviors to the extent that backward walking has been described as a time-reversed version of forward walking. However, because they display different muscle activity patterns, it has been questioned if forward and backward walking share common control strategies. To investigate this point, we used a split-belt treadmill experimental paradigm designed to elicit healthy individuals' motor adaptation by changing the speed of one of the treadmill belts, while keeping the speed of the other belt constant. We applied this experimental paradigm to both forward and backward walking. We analyzed several adaptation parameters including step symmetry, stability, and energy expenditure as well as the characteristics of the synergies of lower-limb muscles. We found that forward and backward walking share the same muscle synergy modules. We showed that these modules are marked by similar patterns of adaptation driven by stability and energy consumption minimization criteria, both relying on modulating the temporal activation of the muscle synergies. Our results provide evidence that forward and backward walking are governed by the same control and adaptation mechanisms.
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Backward Running on a Negative Slope as a Treatment for Achilles Tendinopathy in Runners: A Feasibility Pilot Study. J Sport Rehabil 2021; 30:1197-1202. [PMID: 34438365 DOI: 10.1123/jsr.2020-0500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Achilles tendinopathy (AT) is a common musculoskeletal injury among runners. Eccentric exercises are considered first-line treatment. However, during the early stages of rehabilitation, patients are usually instructed to stop running. Backward running (BR) on a negative slope provides a similar eccentric load while enabling ongoing physical activity; thus, it may be suggested as an alternative treatment. OBJECTIVES To determine the feasibility of a BR program as a treatment option for AT in runners. DESIGN Prospective, single-arm feasibility study. SETTING Outpatient clinic. PATIENTS Recreational runners diagnosed with AT and referred to the Meuhedet Health Services Physical Therapy Clinic in Jerusalem, Israel, from September 2019 to February 2020. INTERVENTION The patients completed a 5-week (9 sessions) rehabilitation program of supervised BR on a negatively inclined treadmill. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Compliance with the program was evaluated by calculating the percentage of patients who completed the full protocol with no adverse events. Personal running-related goals were set before the program and were assessed following rehabilitation using the goal attainment scaling method. Forward-running time until the onset of relevant Achilles tendon pain, and the Victorian Institute of Sports Assessment Scale-Achilles were measured at baseline (T0), before treatment session 6 (T1), and after the last session (T2). RESULTS Among the 15 patients recruited, 14 (93%), average age 48.8 (10.4) years (86% males), completed the full protocol with no adverse events. Almost all participants (85.7%) achieved their running-related functional goals. Postintervention, the median forward-running time increased from 52.5 (92.5) to 900 (522.5) seconds (P = .008, effect size = .858), and the median Victorian Institute of Sports Assessment Scale-Achilles score improved by 28 points (P = .003, effect size = .881). CONCLUSIONS BR on a negative slope may be a feasible treatment method for runners suffering from AT. Future randomized control trials are required to further validate the efficacy of this method.
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Dewolf AH, Sylos-Labini F, Cappellini G, Ivanenko Y, Lacquaniti F. Age-related changes in the neuromuscular control of forward and backward locomotion. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246372. [PMID: 33596223 PMCID: PMC7888655 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies found significant modification in spatiotemporal parameters of backward walking in healthy older adults, but the age-related changes in the neuromuscular control have been considered to a lesser extent. The present study compared the intersegmental coordination, muscle activity and corresponding modifications of spinal montoneuronal output during both forward and backward walking in young and older adults. Ten older and ten young adults walked forward and backward on a treadmill at different speeds. Gait kinematics and EMG activity of 14 unilateral lower-limb muscles were recorded. As compared to young adults, the older ones used shorter steps, a more in-phase shank and foot motion, and the activity profiles of muscles innervated from the sacral segments were significantly wider in each walking condition. These findings highlight age-related changes in the neuromuscular control of both forward and backward walking. A striking feature of backward walking was the differential organization of the spinal output as compared to forward gait. In addition, the resulting spatiotemporal map patterns also characterized age-related changes of gait. Finally, modifications of the intersegmental coordination with aging were greater during backward walking. On the whole, the assessment of backward walk in addition to routine forward walk may help identifying or unmasking neuromuscular adjustments of gait to aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur H. Dewolf
- Department of Systems Medicine and Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Germana Cappellini
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
- Department of Pediatric Neurorehabilitation, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Yury Ivanenko
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Lacquaniti
- Department of Systems Medicine and Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
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Merkulyeva N, Lyakhovetskii V, Veshchitskii A, Gorskii O, Musienko P. Rostrocaudal Distribution of the C-Fos-Immunopositive Spinal Network Defined by Muscle Activity during Locomotion. Brain Sci 2021; 11:69. [PMID: 33430215 PMCID: PMC7825657 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11010069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The optimization of multisystem neurorehabilitation protocols including electrical spinal cord stimulation and multi-directional tasks training require understanding of underlying circuits mechanisms and distribution of the neuronal network over the spinal cord. In this study we compared the locomotor activity during forward and backward stepping in eighteen adult decerebrated cats. Interneuronal spinal networks responsible for forward and backward stepping were visualized using the C-Fos technique. A bi-modal rostrocaudal distribution of C-Fos-immunopositive neurons over the lumbosacral spinal cord (peaks in the L4/L5 and L6/S1 segments) was revealed. These patterns were compared with motoneuronal pools using Vanderhorst and Holstege scheme; the location of the first peak was correspondent to the motoneurons of the hip flexors and knee extensors, an inter-peak drop was presumably attributed to the motoneurons controlling the adductor muscles. Both were better expressed in cats stepping forward and in parallel, electromyographic (EMG) activity of the hip flexor and knee extensors was higher, while EMG activity of the adductor was lower, during this locomotor mode. On the basis of the present data, which showed greater activity of the adductor muscles and the attributed interneuronal spinal network during backward stepping and according with data about greater demands on postural control systems during backward locomotion, we suppose that the locomotor networks for movements in opposite directions are at least partially different.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Merkulyeva
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, Saint-Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya emb., 7-9, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia;
- Pavlov Institute of Physiology RAS, Makarov emb., 6, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia; (V.L.); (A.V.)
| | - Vsevolod Lyakhovetskii
- Pavlov Institute of Physiology RAS, Makarov emb., 6, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia; (V.L.); (A.V.)
| | - Aleksandr Veshchitskii
- Pavlov Institute of Physiology RAS, Makarov emb., 6, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia; (V.L.); (A.V.)
| | - Oleg Gorskii
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, Saint-Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya emb., 7-9, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia;
- Pavlov Institute of Physiology RAS, Makarov emb., 6, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia; (V.L.); (A.V.)
| | - Pavel Musienko
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, Saint-Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya emb., 7-9, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia;
- Pavlov Institute of Physiology RAS, Makarov emb., 6, 199034 Saint-Petersburg, Russia; (V.L.); (A.V.)
- Children’s Surgery and Orthopedic Clinic, Department of Nonpulmonary Tuberculosis, Institute of Physiopulmonology, Politekhnicheskaya ul. 32, 194064 Saint-Petersburg, Russia
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Balasukumaran T, Gottlieb U, Springer S. Muscle activation patterns during backward walking in people with chronic ankle instability. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2020; 21:489. [PMID: 32711488 PMCID: PMC7382804 DOI: 10.1186/s12891-020-03512-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Altered walking patterns are often described in individuals with chronic ankle instability (CAI). Contemporary treatment paradigms recommend backward walking (BW) to improve locomotion in people with musculoskeletal disorders. The purpose of this study was to determine whether muscle activity and activation variability during BW differs between subjects with and without CAI. Methods Sixteen participants with CAI and 16 healthy controls walked on a treadmill at their self-selected speed under BW and forward walking (FW) conditions. Surface electromyography (EMG) data for the peroneus longus, tibialis anterior, medial gastrocnemius and gluteus medius muscles were collected. EMG amplitude normalized to maximum voluntary isometric contraction (%MVIC) and the standard deviation (SD) of the %MVIC EMG amplitude was calculated throughout the gait cycle. In addition, the area under the curve (AUC) of the %MVIC EMG amplitude was calculated before and after initial contact (pre-IC: 90–100% of stride; post-IC: 0–10% of stride). Results No differences between groups were noted in the %MVIC amplitude or activation variability (SD of %MVIC EMG) under BW or FW. In both groups, decreased tibialis anterior (p < 0.001) and gluteus medius (p = 0.01), and increased medial gastrocnemius (p < 0.001) activation were observed during pre- and post-IC under BW condition. Conclusion Participants with CAI and healthy controls have similar muscle activity patterns during BW. Yet, the results should be interpreted with caution due to the heterogeneity of the CAI population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tharani Balasukumaran
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Physical Therapy, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Uri Gottlieb
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Physical Therapy, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Shmuel Springer
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Physical Therapy, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel.
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Spatiotemporal gait characteristics and ankle kinematics of backward walking in people with chronic ankle instability. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11515. [PMID: 32661274 PMCID: PMC7359031 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-68385-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Backward walking offers a unique challenge to balance and ambulation. This study investigated the characteristics of spatiotemporal gait factors and ankle kinematics during backward walking in people with chronic ankle instability. Sixteen subjects with chronic ankle instability and 16 able-bodied controls walked on a treadmill at their self-selected speed under backward and forward walking conditions. Gait speed, cadence, double limb support percentage, stride time variability, and three-dimensional ankle kinematics were compared between groups and conditions. During backward walking, both groups had significantly slower gait speed, lower cadence, and greater stride time variability. In addition, under backward walking condition, subjects in both groups demonstrated significant sagittal and frontal kinematic alternations, such as greater dorsiflexion and inversion following initial contact (0–27.7%, 0–25.0% of gait cycle respectively, p < 0.001). However, there were no significant differences between groups in any of the measured outcomes. This indicates that subjects with chronic ankle instability adapt to self-selected speed backward walking similarly to healthy controls. Assessments with more challenging tasks, such as backward walking with dual task and backward walking at fast speed, may be more appropriate for testing gait impairments related to chronic ankle instability.
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Awosika OO, Matthews S, Staggs EJ, Boyne P, Song X, Rizik BA, Sucharew HJ, Zhang C, Mungcal G, Moudgal R, Bhattacharya A, Dunning K, Woo D, Kissela BM. Backward locomotor treadmill training combined with transcutaneous spinal direct current stimulation in stroke: a randomized pilot feasibility and safety study. Brain Commun 2020; 2:fcaa045. [PMID: 32954299 PMCID: PMC7425394 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcaa045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Walking impairment impacts nearly 66% of stroke survivors and is a rising cause of morbidity worldwide. Despite conventional post-stroke rehabilitative care, the majority of stroke survivors experience continued limitations in their walking speed, temporospatial dynamics and walking capacity. Hence, novel and comprehensive approaches are needed to improve the trajectory of walking recovery in stroke survivors. Herein, we test the safety, feasibility and preliminary efficacy of two approaches for post-stroke walking recovery: backward locomotor treadmill training and transcutaneous spinal direct current stimulation. In this double-blinded study, 30 chronic stroke survivors (>6 months post-stroke) with mild-severe residual walking impairment underwent six 30-min sessions (three sessions/week) of backward locomotor treadmill training, with concurrent anodal (N = 19) or sham transcutaneous spinal direct current stimulation (N = 11) over the thoracolumbar spine, in a 2:1 stratified randomized fashion. The primary outcomes were: per cent participant completion, safety and tolerability of these two approaches. In addition, we collected data on training-related changes in overground walking speed, cadence, stride length (baseline, daily, 24-h post-intervention, 2 weeks post-intervention) and walking capacity (baseline, 24-h post-intervention, 2 weeks post-intervention), as secondary exploratory aims testing the preliminary efficacy of these interventions. Eighty-seven per cent (N = 26) of randomized participants completed the study protocol. The majority of the study attrition involved participants with severe baseline walking impairment. There were no serious adverse events in either the backward locomotor treadmill training or transcutaneous spinal direct current stimulation approaches. Also, both groups experienced a clinically meaningful improvement in walking speed immediately post-intervention that persisted at the 2-week follow-up. However, in contrast to our working hypothesis, anodal-transcutaneous spinal direct current stimulation did not enhance the degree of improvement in walking speed and capacity, relative to backward locomotor treadmill training + sham, in our sample. Backward locomotor treadmill training and transcutaneous spinal direct current stimulation are safe and feasible approaches for walking recovery in chronic stroke survivors. Definitive efficacy studies are needed to validate our findings on backward locomotor treadmill training-related changes in walking performance. The results raise interesting questions about mechanisms of locomotor learning in stroke, and well-powered transcutaneous spinal direct current stimulation dosing studies are needed to understand better its potential role as a neuromodulatory adjunct for walking rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwole O Awosika
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Saira Matthews
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Emily J Staggs
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Pierce Boyne
- College of Allied Health and Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Xiao Song
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Bridget A Rizik
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Heidi J Sucharew
- Division of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Christina Zhang
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Gabrielle Mungcal
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Rohitha Moudgal
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Amit Bhattacharya
- Biomechanics-Ergonomics Research Laboratories, Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati Medical College, USA
| | - Kari Dunning
- College of Allied Health and Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Daniel Woo
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
| | - Brett M Kissela
- Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
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Walsh GS, Taylor Z. Complexity, symmetry and variability of forward and backward walking at different speeds and transfer effects on forward walking: Implications for neural control. J Biomech 2019; 97:109377. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2019.109377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the differences between walking on an advanced robotic locomotion interface called the Treadport and walking overground with healthy subjects. BACKGROUND Previous studies have compared treadmill-based and overground walking in terms of gait parameters. The Treadport's unique features including self-selected speed capability, large belt, kinesthetic force feedback, and virtual reality environment distinguish it from other locomotion interfaces and could provide a natural walking experience for the users. METHOD Young, healthy subjects (N = 17) walked 10 meters 10 times each for both overground and the Treadport environments. Comparison between walking conditions used spatiotemporal and kinematic parameters. In addition, electromyographic data was collected for five of the 17 subjects to compare muscle activity between the two conditions. RESULTS Gait on the Treadport was found to have no significant differences (p > .05) with overground walking in terms of hip and knee joint angles, cadence and stride length and stride speed, and muscle activation of the four muscle groups measured. Differences (p < .05) were observed in ankle dorsiflexion which was reduced by 2.47 ± 0.01 degrees on the Treadport. CONCLUSION Walking overground and on the Treadport is highly correlated and not significantly different in 13 of 14 parameters. APPLICATION This study suggests that the Treadport creates an environment for natural walking experience, where natural gait of users is almost preserved, with great potential to be useful for other applications, such as gait rehabilitation of individuals with walking impairments.
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Hawkins KA, Balasubramanian CK, Vistamehr A, Conroy C, Rose DK, Clark DJ, Fox EJ. Assessment of backward walking unmasks mobility impairments in post-stroke community ambulators. Top Stroke Rehabil 2019; 26:382-388. [PMID: 31081491 DOI: 10.1080/10749357.2019.1609182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Background: While over half of stroke survivors recover the ability to walk without assistance, deficits persist in the performance of walking adaptations necessary for safe home and community mobility. One such adaptation is the ability to walk or step backward. Post-stroke rehabilitation rarely includes backward walking (BW) assessment and BW deficits have not been quantified in post-stroke community ambulators. Objective: To quantify spatiotemporal and kinematic BW characteristics in post-stroke community ambulators and compare their performance to controls. Methods: Individuals post-stroke (n = 15, 60.1 ± 12.9 years, forward speed: 1.13 ± 0.23 m/s) and healthy adults (n = 12, 61.2 ± 16.2 years, forward speed: 1.40 ± 0.13 m/s) performed forward walking (FW) and BW during a single session. Step characteristics and peak lower extremity joint angles were extracted using 3D motion analysis and analyzed with mixed-method ANOVAs (group, walking condition). Results: The stroke group demonstrated greater reductions in speed, step length and cadence and a greater increase in double-support time during BW compared to FW (p < .01). Compared to FW, the post-stroke group demonstrated greater reductions in hip extension and knee flexion during BW (p < .05). The control group demonstrated decreased plantarflexion and increased dorsiflexion during BW, but these increases were attenuated in the post-stroke group (p < .05). Conclusions: Assessment of BW can unmask post-stroke walking impairments not detected during typical FW. BW impairments may contribute to the mobility difficulties reported by adults post-stroke. Therefore, BW should be assessed when determining readiness for home and community ambulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly A Hawkins
- a Department of Physical Therapy , University of Florida , Gainesville , FL , USA.,b Brooks Rehabilitation , Jacksonville , FL , USA
| | | | | | | | - Dorian K Rose
- a Department of Physical Therapy , University of Florida , Gainesville , FL , USA.,b Brooks Rehabilitation , Jacksonville , FL , USA.,d Brain Rehabilitation Research Center of Excellence, North FL/South GA Veterans Health System , Gainesville , FL , USA
| | - David J Clark
- d Brain Rehabilitation Research Center of Excellence, North FL/South GA Veterans Health System , Gainesville , FL , USA.,e Department of Aging and Geriatric Research , University of Florida , Gainesville , FL , USA
| | - Emily J Fox
- a Department of Physical Therapy , University of Florida , Gainesville , FL , USA.,b Brooks Rehabilitation , Jacksonville , FL , USA
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14
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Sun D, Fekete G, Baker JS, Gu Y. Foot Motion Character During Forward and Backward Walking With Shoes and Barefoot. J Mot Behav 2019; 52:214-225. [PMID: 31023152 DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2019.1605972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Backward walking (BW) has been extensively used in athletic training and orthopedic rehabilitation as it may have value for enhancing balance. This study identified the differences in foot intersegment kinematics (forward walking (FW) vs. time-reversed BW) and plantar pressure parameters of 16 healthy habitually shod individuals walking FW and BW using flexible shoes (SH) and under barefoot conditions (BF). BW was found to have shorter stride length (SL) and higher stride frequency (SF) under BF conditions compared with SH, which indicates a better BW gait stability under BF conditions. Decreased HX/FF dorsiflexion at HO in BW induces less plantar aponeurosis tension which may inhibit the windlass mechanism compared to FW walking. Increased forefoot relative to hindfoot (FF/HF) pronation and sequentially hindfoot relative to tibia (HF/TB) eversion combined with medially distributed plantar pressure and a higher plantar contact area in the medial side in BW-BF maybe beneficial in maintaining balance. These results indicate that BW training may be more reliable under BF conditions compared to the SH conditions based on greater sensory information feedback from the plantar area resulting in better biomechanical behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Sun
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.,Savaria Institute of Technology, Eötvös Loránd University, Szombathely, Hungary.,Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Veszprem, Hungary
| | - Gusztáv Fekete
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.,Savaria Institute of Technology, Eötvös Loránd University, Szombathely, Hungary
| | - Julien S Baker
- Institute for Clinical Exercise and Health Science, University of the West of Scotland, Lanarkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Yaodong Gu
- Faculty of Sports Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
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15
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Abdelraouf OR, Abdel-Aziem AA, Ahmed AA, Nassif NS, Matar AG. Backward walking effects on activation pattern of leg muscles in young females with patellofemoral pain syndrome. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THERAPY AND REHABILITATION 2019. [DOI: 10.12968/ijtr.2017.0160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Background/Aims: Little is known regarding the activation of knee and hip muscles during backward walking in patellofemoral pain syndrome. This study examineD the effects of backward walking and forward walking on the activation of knee extensors, hip abductors, and adductors in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome. Methods: A total of 20 females with patellofemoral pain syndrome and 20 age-matched typically healthy female controls participated in this study. Surface electromyography from vastus medialis obliquus, vastus lateralis, gluteus medius, and adductor longus muscles were collected during forward walking and backward walking. Findings: The patellofemoral pain syndrome group had a significantly higher normalised root mean square of the vastus medialis obliquus, vastus lateralis and gluteus medius muscles (P=0.001), without significant difference in adductor longus muscle activity during backward walking versus forward walking (P=0.098). During forward walking, the patellofemoral pain syndrome group showed significantly higher activation of adductor longus muscle (P=0.001) and significantly lower activation of the gluteus medius muscle (P=0.002) compared to the healthy group. During backward walking there was a significant increase in the vastus medialis obliquus and adductor longus muscle activity of the patellofemoral pain syndrome group compared to the control group (P=0.003, 0.001) respectively. Conclusions: Clinicians should consider backward walking training to increase the muscle strength of knee extensors and hip abductors when developing rehabilitation programmes for patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osama R Abdelraouf
- Assistant professor, Department of Biomechanics, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Amr A Abdel-Aziem
- Professor, Department of Biomechanics, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Alaa A Ahmed
- Assistant Lecturer, Department of Biomechanics, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Nagui S Nassif
- Professor, Department of Biomechanics, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Ayman G Matar
- Lecturer, Department of Biomechanics, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
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16
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Deliagina TG, Musienko PE, Zelenin PV. Nervous mechanisms of locomotion in different directions. CURRENT OPINION IN PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 8:7-13. [PMID: 31468024 DOI: 10.1016/j.cophys.2018.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Locomotion, that is active propulsive movement of the body in space, is a vital motor function. Intensive studies of the main, for the majority of living beings, form of locomotion, forward locomotion, have revealed essential features of the organization and operation of underlying neural mechanisms. However, animals and humans are capable to locomote not only forward but also in other directions in relation to the body axis, e.g. backward, sideways, etc. Single steps in different directions are also used for postural corrections during locomotion and during standing. Recent studies of mechanisms underlying control of locomotion in different directions have greatly expanded our knowledge about locomotor system and can contribute to improvement of rehabilitation strategies aimed at restoration of locomotion and balance control in patients. This review outlines recent advances in the studies of locomotion in different directions in lower and higher vertebrates, with special attention given to the neuronal locomotor mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana G Deliagina
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, SE-17177, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pavel E Musienko
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia
- Pavlov Institute of Physiology, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia
- Russian Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies, Ministry of Healthcare of the RF, 197758 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Pavel V Zelenin
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, SE-17177, Stockholm, Sweden
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17
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Balasukumaran T, Olivier B, Ntsiea MV. The effectiveness of backward walking as a treatment for people with gait impairments: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Rehabil 2018; 33:171-182. [PMID: 30229667 DOI: 10.1177/0269215518801430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effectiveness of backward walking in the treatment of people with gait impairments related to neurological and musculoskeletal disorders. DESIGN: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized and quasi-randomized control studies. DATA SOURCES: Searched from the date of inception to March 2018, and included PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, PEDro, CINAHL, and the MEDLINE databases. METHODS: Investigating the effects of backward walking on pain, functional disability, muscle strength, gait parameters, balance, stability, and plantar pressure in people with gait impairments. The PEDro scale was used to assess the quality. Similar outcomes were pooled by calculating the standardized mean difference. RESULTS: Of the 21 studies (neurological 11 and musculoskeletal 10), 635 participants were included. The average PEDro score was 5.4/10. The meta-analysis demonstrated significant standardized mean difference values in favour of backward walking, with conventional physiotherapy treatment for two to four weeks to reduce pain (-0.87) and functional disability (-1.19) and to improve quadriceps strength (1.22) in patients suffering from knee osteoarthritis. The balance and stability in cases of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, and gait parameters and muscle strength in anterior cruciate ligament injury improved significantly when backward walking was included as an exercise. There was no significant evidence in favour of backward walking in any of the other conditions. CONCLUSION: The systematic review and meta-analysis suggests that backward walking with conventional physiotherapy treatment is effective and clinically worthwhile in patients with knee osteoarthritis. Insufficient evidence was available for the remaining gait impairment conditions and no conclusions could be drawn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tharani Balasukumaran
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Benita Olivier
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Mokgobadibe Veronica Ntsiea
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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18
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Graded forward and backward walking at a matched intensity on cardiorespiratory responses and postural control. Gait Posture 2018; 65:20-25. [PMID: 30558931 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2018.06.168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND While several studies compare backward walking (BW) and forward walking (FW) in terms of heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE), workload (VO2) was not matched to control for intensity levels (Hooper et al. [1]). Moreover, acute effects of inclined BW on postural control and ankle musculature has not been investigated. This study was designed to compare cardiovascular, metabolic and perceptual responses, changes in center of pressure (COP) motion, and muscle activation of tibialis anterior (TA) and gastrocnemius (GM) to control quiet stance posture immediately following inclined BW and FW at a matched intensity. METHODS Seventeen healthy young adults completed three lab sessions 7-14 days apart. Session one, maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) was measured using open-circuit spirometry for each participant. Session two, participants performed BW for 15-min. Session three, participants performed FW for 15-min at matched intensity of BW. Surface electromyography (SEMG) measured the muscular activity of the TA and GM during bilateral stance on a force plate for 30 s prior to and immediately following BW and FW under both eyes open (EO), and eyes closed (EC) conditions. RESULTS HR, VCO2, RER and RPE were significantly greater during BW compared to FW. Increased muscle activation and COP motion was elicited immediately following BW compared to FW under EO and EC. CONCLUSION Results of this study indicate BW requires greater cardiovascular, metabolic, perceptual and neuromuscular demands than FW, which may cause postural instability particularly to those with compromised balance. While there are benefits to BW in rehabilitation settings, these factors should be considered when prescribing BW for training and/or rehabilitation exercise program (Duffell et al. [2], Warnica et al. [3]).
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19
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Lin YC, Pandy MG. Three-dimensional data-tracking dynamic optimization simulations of human locomotion generated by direct collocation. J Biomech 2017; 59:1-8. [PMID: 28583674 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2017.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to perform full-body three-dimensional (3D) dynamic optimization simulations of human locomotion by driving a neuromusculoskeletal model toward in vivo measurements of body-segmental kinematics and ground reaction forces. Gait data were recorded from 5 healthy participants who walked at their preferred speeds and ran at 2m/s. Participant-specific data-tracking dynamic optimization solutions were generated for one stride cycle using direct collocation in tandem with an OpenSim-MATLAB interface. The body was represented as a 12-segment, 21-degree-of-freedom skeleton actuated by 66 muscle-tendon units. Foot-ground interaction was simulated using six contact spheres under each foot. The dynamic optimization problem was to find the set of muscle excitations needed to reproduce 3D measurements of body-segmental motions and ground reaction forces while minimizing the time integral of muscle activations squared. Direct collocation took on average 2.7±1.0h and 2.2±1.6h of CPU time, respectively, to solve the optimization problems for walking and running. Model-computed kinematics and foot-ground forces were in good agreement with corresponding experimental data while the calculated muscle excitation patterns were consistent with measured EMG activity. The results demonstrate the feasibility of implementing direct collocation on a detailed neuromusculoskeletal model with foot-ground contact to accurately and efficiently generate 3D data-tracking dynamic optimization simulations of human locomotion. The proposed method offers a viable tool for creating feasible initial guesses needed to perform predictive simulations of movement using dynamic optimization theory. The source code for implementing the model and computational algorithm may be downloaded at http://simtk.org/home/datatracking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chung Lin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Marcus G Pandy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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20
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Murata K, Asai H, Inaoka PT, Nakaizumi D. Walking gait changes after stepping-in-place training using a foot lifting device in chronic stroke patients. J Phys Ther Sci 2016; 28:1170-7. [PMID: 27190449 PMCID: PMC4868209 DOI: 10.1589/jpts.28.1170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
[Purpose] The goal of this study was to investigate the efficacy of stepping-in-place
training using a foot lifting assist device on the walking gait of chronic hemiparetic
stroke patients. [Subjects] Seven patients with chronic hemiplegic stroke (age
80.9±4.9 years) who were attending a local adult daycare facility participated in this
study. [Methods] The participants had 2 or 16 weeks of intervention after a baseline
period of 2 weeks. Evaluations were performed before the baseline period and before and
after the intervention period. The evaluation consisted of a two-dimensional motion
analysis of walking and stepping-in-place exercises and a clinical evaluation. [Results]
Walking speed increased in three participants after 2 or 16 weeks of intervention. The
swing phase percentage increased in the paretic gait cycle, and the time from non-paretic
heel contact to paretic heel off decreased during stepping-in-place in these participants.
[Conclusion] Given that the transition from the support phase support to the swing phase
was shortened after the intervention, the stepping-in-place exercise using the device
designed for this study may improve the muscle strength of the lower limb and coordination
in the pre-swing phase of the paretic limb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanichirou Murata
- Physical Therapy Course, Department of Rehabilitation, Fukui College of Health Sciences, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Asai
- Department of Physical Therapy, Graduate Course of Rehabilitation Science, Kanazawa University, Japan
| | - Pleiades Tiharu Inaoka
- Department of Physical Therapy, Graduate Course of Rehabilitation Science, Kanazawa University, Japan
| | - Dai Nakaizumi
- Division of Health Sciences, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa University, Japan
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21
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Sterzing T, Frommhold C, Rosenbaum D. In-shoe plantar pressure distribution and lower extremity muscle activity patterns of backward compared to forward running on a treadmill. Gait Posture 2016; 46:135-41. [PMID: 27131191 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2016.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Backward locomotion in humans occurs during leisure, rehabilitation, and competitive sports. Little is known about its general biomechanical characteristics and how it affects lower extremity loading as well as muscle coordination. Thus, the purpose of this research was to analyze in-shoe plantar pressure patterns and lower extremity muscle activity patterns for backward compared to forward running. METHODS On a treadmill, nineteen runners performed forward running at their individually preferred speed, followed by backward running at 70% of their self-selected forward speed. In-shoe plantar pressures of nine foot regions and muscular activity of nine lower extremity muscles were recorded simultaneously over a one-minute interval. Backward and forward running variables were averaged over the accumulated steps and compared with Wilcoxon-signed rank tests (p<.05). RESULTS For backward compared to forward running, in-shoe plantar pressure distribution showed a load increase under metatarsal heads I and II, as well as under the medial midfoot. This was indicated by higher maximum forces and peak pressures, and by longer contact times. Muscle activity showed significantly higher mean amplitudes during backward running in the semitendinosus, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and gluteus medius during stance, and in the rectus femoris during swing phase, while significantly lower mean amplitudes were observed in the tibialis anterior during swing phase. CONCLUSION Observations indicate plantar foot loading and muscle activity characteristics that are specific for the running direction. Thus, backward running may be used on purpose for certain rehabilitation tasks, aiming to strengthen respective lower extremity muscles. Furthermore, the findings are relevant for sport specific backward locomotion training. Finally, results provide an initial baseline for innovative athletic footwear development aiming to increase comfort and performance during backward running.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsten Sterzing
- Li Ning Sports Science Research Centre, Beijing, China; Department of Human Locomotion, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Clivia Frommhold
- Department Medical Affairs, Bauerfeind AG, Zeulenroda, Germany; Department of Human Locomotion, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Dieter Rosenbaum
- Movement Analysis Lab, Institute for Experimental Musculoskeletal Medicine, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany.
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22
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Joseph CW, Bradshaw EJ, Furness TP, Kemp J, Clark RA. Early changes in Achilles tendon behaviour in vivo following downhill backwards walking. J Sports Sci 2015; 34:1215-21. [PMID: 26512914 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1102955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Downhill backwards walking causes repeated, cyclical loading of the muscle-tendon unit. The effect this type of repeated loading has on the mechanical behaviour of the Achilles tendon is presently unknown. This study aimed to investigate the biomechanical response of the Achilles tendon aponeurosis complex following a downhill backwards walking protocol. Twenty active males (age: 22.3 ± 3.0 years; mass: 74.7 ± 5.6 kg; height: 1.8 ± 0.7 m) performed 60 min of downhill (8.5°), backwards walking on a treadmill at -0.67 m · s(-1). Data were collected before, immediately post, and 24-, 48- and 168-h post-downhill backwards walking. Achilles tendon aponeurosis elongation, strain and stiffness were measured using ultrasonography. Muscle force decreased immediately post-downhill backward walking (P = 0.019). There were increases in Achilles tendon aponeurosis stiffness at 24-h post-downhill backward walking (307 ± 179.6 N · mm(-1), P = 0.004), and decreases in Achilles tendon aponeurosis strain during maximum voluntary contraction at 24 (3.8 ± 1.7%, P = 0.008) and 48 h (3.9 ± 1.8%, P = 0.002) post. Repeated cyclical loading of downhill backwards walking affects the behaviour of the muscle-tendon unit, most likely by altering muscle compliance, and these changes result in tendon stiffness increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- C W Joseph
- a Clinical Research Centre for Movement Disorders and Gait , Monash Health , Kingston , Australia.,b Australian Centre for Research into Injury in Sport and its Prevention (ACRISP) , Federation University Australia , Ballarat , Australia
| | - E J Bradshaw
- c School of Exercise Science , Australian Catholic University , Fitzroy , Australia
| | - T P Furness
- d School of Nursing, Midwifery & Paramedicine , Australian Catholic University , Fitzroy , Australia
| | - J Kemp
- c School of Exercise Science , Australian Catholic University , Fitzroy , Australia
| | - R A Clark
- c School of Exercise Science , Australian Catholic University , Fitzroy , Australia
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Bosmans L, Valente G, Wesseling M, Van Campen A, De Groote F, De Schutter J, Jonkers I. Sensitivity of predicted muscle forces during gait to anatomical variability in musculotendon geometry. J Biomech 2015; 48:2116-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.02.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Debaere S, Delecluse C, Aerenhouts D, Hagman F, Jonkers I. Control of propulsion and body lift during the first two stances of sprint running: a simulation study. J Sports Sci 2015; 33:2016-24. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2015.1026375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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25
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Hoffman BW, Cresswell AG, Carroll TJ, Lichtwark GA. Muscle fascicle strains in human gastrocnemius during backward downhill walking. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014; 116:1455-62. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01431.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Extensive muscle damage can be induced in isolated muscle preparations by performing a small number of stretches during muscle activation. While typically these fiber strains are large and occur over long lengths, the extent of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) observed in humans is normally less even when multiple high-force lengthening actions are performed. This apparent discrepancy may be due to differences in muscle fiber and tendon dynamics in vivo; however, muscle and tendon strains have not been quantified during muscle-damaging exercise in humans. Ultrasound and an infrared motion analysis system were used to measure medial gastrocnemius fascicle length and lower limb kinematics while humans walked backward, downhill for 1 h (inducing muscle damage), and while they walked briefly forward on the flat (inducing no damage). Supramaximal tibial nerve stimulation, ultrasound, and an isokinetic dynamometer were used to quantify the fascicle length-torque relationship pre- and 2 h postexercise. Torque decreased ∼23%, and optimal fascicle length shifted rightward ∼10%, indicating that EIMD occurred during the damage protocol even though medial gastrocnemius fascicle stretch amplitude was relatively small (∼18% of optimal fascicle length) and occurred predominantly within the ascending limb and plateau region of the length-torque curve. Furthermore, tendon contribution to overall muscle-tendon unit stretch was ∼91%. The data suggest the compliant tendon plays a role in attenuating muscle fascicle strain during backward walking in humans, thus minimizing the extent of EIMD. As such, in situ or in vitro mechanisms of muscle damage may not be applicable to EIMD of the human gastrocnemius muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. W. Hoffman
- Centre for Sensorimotor Neuroscience, School of Human Movement Studies, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - A. G. Cresswell
- Centre for Sensorimotor Neuroscience, School of Human Movement Studies, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - T. J. Carroll
- Centre for Sensorimotor Neuroscience, School of Human Movement Studies, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - G. A. Lichtwark
- Centre for Sensorimotor Neuroscience, School of Human Movement Studies, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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26
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Earhart GM. Dynamic control of posture across locomotor tasks. Mov Disord 2014; 28:1501-8. [PMID: 24132838 DOI: 10.1002/mds.25592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2013] [Revised: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful locomotion depends on postural control to establish and maintain appropriate postural orientation of body segments relative to one another and to the environment and to ensure dynamic stability of the moving body. This article provides a framework for considering dynamic postural control, highlighting the importance of coordination, consistency, and challenges to postural control posed by various locomotor tasks, such as turning and backward walking. The impacts of aging and various movement disorders on postural control are discussed broadly in an effort to provide a general overview of the field and recommendations for assessment of dynamic postural control across different populations in both clinical and research settings. Suggestions for future research on dynamic postural control during locomotion also are provided and include discussion of opportunities afforded by new and developing technologies, the need for long-term monitoring of locomotor performance in everyday activities, gaps in our knowledge of how targeted intervention approaches modify dynamic postural control, and the relative paucity of literature regarding dynamic postural control in movement disorder populations other than Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gammon M Earhart
- Program in Physical Therapy, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri; Department of Neurology, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
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27
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Jansen K, De Groote F, Aerts W, De Schutter J, Duysens J, Jonkers I. Altering length and velocity feedback during a neuro-musculoskeletal simulation of normal gait contributes to hemiparetic gait characteristics. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2014; 11:78. [PMID: 24885302 PMCID: PMC4030738 DOI: 10.1186/1743-0003-11-78] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2013] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Spasticity is an important complication after stroke, especially in the anti-gravity muscles, i.e. lower limb extensors. However the contribution of hyperexcitable muscle spindle reflex loops to gait impairments after stroke is often disputed. In this study a neuro-musculoskeletal model was developed to investigate the contribution of an increased length and velocity feedback and altered reflex modulation patterns to hemiparetic gait deficits. Methods A musculoskeletal model was extended with a muscle spindle model providing real-time length and velocity feedback of gastrocnemius, soleus, vasti and rectus femoris during a forward dynamic simulation (neural control model). By using a healthy subject’s base muscle excitations, in combination with increased feedback gains and altered reflex modulation patterns, the effect on kinematics was simulated. A foot-ground contact model was added to account for the interaction effect between the changed kinematics and the ground. The qualitative effect i.e. the directional effect and the specific gait phases where the effect is present, on the joint kinematics was then compared with hemiparetic gait deviations reported in the literature. Results Our results show that increased feedback in combination with altered reflex modulation patterns of soleus, vasti and rectus femoris muscle can contribute to excessive ankle plantarflexion/inadequate dorsiflexion, knee hyperextension/inadequate flexion and increased hip extension/inadequate flexion during dedicated gait cycle phases. Increased feedback of gastrocnemius can also contribute to excessive plantarflexion/inadequate dorsiflexion, however in combination with excessive knee and hip flexion. Increased length/velocity feedback can therefore contribute to two types of gait deviations, which are both in accordance with previously reported gait deviations in hemiparetic patients. Furthermore altered modulation patterns, in particular the reduced suppression of the muscle spindle feedback during swing, can contribute largely to an increased plantarflexion and knee extension during the swing phase and consequently to hampered toe clearance. Conclusions Our results support the idea that hyperexcitability of length and velocity feedback pathways, especially in combination with altered reflex modulation patterns, can contribute to deviations in hemiparetic gait. Surprisingly, our results showed only subtle temporal differences between length and velocity feedback. Therefore, we cannot attribute the effects seen in kinematics to one specific type of feedback.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Jansen
- Department of Kinesiology, Human Movement Biomechanics Research Group, KU Leuven, Tervuursevest 101 - box 1501, 3001 Leuven, Belgium.
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Zhang X, Zhang Y, Gao X, Wu J, Jiao X, Zhao J, Lv X. Investigating the role of backward walking therapy in alleviating plantar pressure of patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2014; 95:832-9. [PMID: 24445089 DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2014.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of combination therapy of backward walking training and alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) treatment on the distribution of plantar pressure in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). DESIGN This study is a double-blinded, randomized controlled trial. The test group was treated with combination therapy of backward walking exercise and ALA (ALA for 2wk, backward walking exercise for 12wk), and the control group only received ALA treatment. SETTING Clinical and laboratory setting. PARTICIPANTS Patients with DPN (N=60) were divided into the test group (n=30) or control group (n=30). INTERVENTIONS Backward walking exercise with ALA treatment for the test group; lipoic acid treatment for the control group. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Plantar pressure before and after treatment was tested and analyzed with the flatbed plantar pressure measurement system. RESULTS After treatment, peak plantar pressure in the forefoot dropped for both the test and control groups; peak plantar pressure for the test group dropped significantly. Peak plantar pressure in the medial foot slightly increased for the test group, suggesting a more even distribution of plantar pressure in the test group after treatment. CONCLUSIONS The combination therapy of ALA and backward walking proved to be more effective than ALA monotherapy. Backward walking also proved to have an ameliorating effect on balance ability and muscle strength of patients with DPN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingguang Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Military General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yanqi Zhang
- China National Institute of Standardization, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Gao
- Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Military General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jinxiao Wu
- Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Military General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiumin Jiao
- Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Military General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Zhao
- Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Military General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaofeng Lv
- Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Military General Hospital, Beijing, China.
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Jansen K, De Groote F, Duysens J, Jonkers I. How gravity and muscle action control mediolateral center of mass excursion during slow walking: a simulation study. Gait Posture 2014; 39:91-7. [PMID: 23816462 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2013.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Revised: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Maintaining mediolateral (ML) balance is very important to prevent falling during walking, especially at very slow speeds. The effect of walking speed on support and propulsion of the center of mass (COM) has been focus of previous studies. However, the influence of speed on ML COM control and the associated coupling with sagittal plane control remains unclear. Simulations of walking at very slow and normal speeds were generated for twelve healthy subjects. Our results show that gluteus medius (GMED) contributions to ML stability decrease, while its contributions to sagittal plane accelerations increase during very slow compared to normal walking. Simultaneously the destabilizing influence of gravity increases in ML direction at a very slow walking speed. This emphasizes the need for a tight balance between gravity and gluteus medius action to ensure ML stability. When walking speed increases, GMED has a unique role in controlling ML acceleration and therefore stabilizing ML COM excursion. Contributions of other muscles decrease in all directions during very slow speed. Increased contributions of these muscles are therefore required to provide for both stability and propulsion when walking speed increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Jansen
- Human Movement Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Kinesiology, KU Leuven, Belgium.
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Variability of Human Gait: Effect of Backward Walking and Dual-Tasking on the Presence of Long-Range Autocorrelations. Ann Biomed Eng 2013; 42:742-50. [DOI: 10.1007/s10439-013-0961-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/07/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Ruff CR, Miller AB, Delva ML, Lajoie K, Marigold DS. Modification of cutaneous reflexes during visually guided walking. J Neurophysiol 2013; 111:379-93. [PMID: 24155011 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01076.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although it has become apparent that cutaneous reflexes can be adjusted based on the phase and context of the locomotor task, it is not clear to what extent these reflexes are regulated when locomotion is modified under visual guidance. To address this, we compared the amplitude of cutaneous reflexes while subjects performed walking tasks that required precise foot placement. In one experiment, subjects walked overground and across a horizontal ladder with narrow raised rungs. In another experiment, subjects walked and stepped onto a series of flat targets, which required different levels of precision (large vs. narrow targets). The superficial peroneal or tibial nerve was electrically stimulated in multiple phases of the gait cycle in each condition and experiment. Reflexes between 50 and 120 ms poststimulation were sorted into 10 equal phase bins, and the amplitudes were then averaged. In each experiment, differences in cutaneous reflexes between conditions occurred predominantly during swing phase when preparation for precise foot placement was necessary. For instance, large excitatory cutaneous reflexes in ipsilateral tibialis anterior were present in the ladder condition and when stepping on narrow targets compared with inhibitory responses in the other conditions, regardless of the nerve stimulated. In the ladder experiments, additional effects of walking condition were evident during stance phase when subjects had to balance on the narrow ladder rungs and may be related to threat and/or the unstable foot-surface interaction. Taken together, these results suggest that cutaneous reflexes are modified when visual feedback regarding the terrain is critical for successful walking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Casey R Ruff
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
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Jansen K, De Groote F, Duysens J, Jonkers I. Muscle contributions to center of mass acceleration adapt to asymmetric walking in healthy subjects. Gait Posture 2013; 38:739-44. [PMID: 23597940 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2013.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2012] [Revised: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/16/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Symmetrical limb movement requires complex muscle coordination patterns. Consequently, coordination impairments lead to asymmetric gait patterns, as often seen in stroke subjects. Split-belt walking has previously been used to induce limping-like walking in able-bodied adults. The goal of this study is to analyze how muscle coordination patterns that control the centre of mass are modulated during an asymmetric gait pattern imposed on healthy subjects. These modulations can be uniquely related to the biomechanics of limping as no pathology is present. Forward simulations of limping-like walking (split-belt) and corresponding symmetric conditions (tied-belt) were generated for twelve healthy subjects. Our results show that the differences between 'fast' and 'slow' leg contributions during split-belt walking are not attributable to simple differences in speed between the belts, because most split-belt muscle contributions differ from tied-belt walking. Different types of modulations, inducing increased, decreased or even reversed asymmetry (e.g. plantarflexors, biceps femoris short head, and quadriceps respectively), underlie limping-like walking in healthy subjects. In general, these patterns present large similarities with adaptations previously described in hemiplegic subjects. However, differences were found with gluteus medius and biceps femoris short head contributions in hemiplegic subjects, suggesting that the latter are not just related to limping, but to concomitant deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Jansen
- Human Movement Biomechanics Research Group, Department of Kinesiology, KU Leuven, Tervuursevest 101 - Box 1501, 3001 Leuven, Belgium.
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Van Campen A, De Groote F, Jonkers I, De Schutter J. An Extended Dynamometer Setup to Improve the Accuracy of Knee Joint Moment Assessment. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 2013. [DOI: 10.1109/tbme.2012.2228643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Interlimb coordination during forward and backward walking in primary school-aged children. PLoS One 2013; 8:e62747. [PMID: 23626852 PMCID: PMC3633828 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 03/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies comparing forward (FW) and backward (BW) walking suggested that the leg kinematics in BW were essentially those of FW in reverse. This led to the proposition that in adults the neural control of FW and BW originates from the same basic neural circuitry. One aspect that has not received much attention is to what extent development plays a role in the maturation of neural control of gait in different directions. BW has been examined either in adults or infants younger than one year. Therefore, we questioned which changes occur in the intermediate phases (i.e. in primary school-aged children). Furthermore, previous research focused on the lower limbs, thereby raising the question whether upper limb kinematics are also simply reversed from FW to BW. Therefore, in the current study the emphasis was put both on upper and lower limb movements, and the coordination between the limbs. Total body 3D gait analysis was performed in primary school-aged children (N = 24, aged five to twelve years) at a preferred walking speed to record angular displacements of upper arm, lower arm, upper leg, lower leg, and foot with respect to the vertical (i.e. elevation angle). Kinematics and interlimb coordination were compared between FW and BW. Additionally, elevation angle traces of BW were reversed in time (revBW) and correlated to FW traces. Results showed that upper and lower limb kinematics of FW correlated highly to revBW kinematics in children, which appears to be consistent with the proposal that control of FW and BW may be similar. In addition, age was found to mildly alter lower limb kinematic patterns. In contrast, interlimb coordination was similar across all children, but was different compared to adults, measured for comparison. It is concluded that development plays a role in the fine-tuning of neural control of FW and BW.
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Duysens J, De Groote F, Jonkers I. The flexion synergy, mother of all synergies and father of new models of gait. Front Comput Neurosci 2013; 7:14. [PMID: 23494365 PMCID: PMC3595503 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2013.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently there has been a growing interest in the modular organization of leg movements, in particular those related to locomotion. One of the basic modules involves the flexion of the leg during swing and it was shown that this module is already present in neonates (Dominici et al., 2011). In this paper, we question how these finding build upon the original work by Sherrington, who proposed that the flexor reflex is the basic building block of flexion during swing phase. Similarly, the relation between the flexor reflex and the withdrawal reflex modules of Schouenborg and Weng (1994) will be discussed. It will be argued that there is large overlap between these notions on modules and the older concepts of reflexes. In addition, it will be shown that there is a great flexibility in the expression of some of these modules during gait, thereby allowing for a phase-dependent modulation of the appropriate responses. In particular, the end of the stance phase is a period when the flexor synergy is facilitated. It is proposed that this is linked to the activation of circuitry that is responsible for the generation of locomotor patterns (CPG, “central pattern generator”). More specifically, it is suggested that the responses in that period relate to the activation of a flexor burst generator. The latter structure forms the core of a new asymmetric model of the CPG. This activation is controlled by afferent input (facilitation by a broad range of afferents, suppression by load afferent input). Meanwhile, many of these physiologic features have found their way in the control of very flexible walking bipedal robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Duysens
- Department of Kinesiology, KU Leuven Heverlee, Belgium ; Department of Research, Sint Maartenskliniek Nijmegen, Netherlands
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Hoogkamer W, Massaad F, Jansen K, Bruijn SM, Duysens J. Selective bilateral activation of leg muscles after cutaneous nerve stimulation during backward walking. J Neurophysiol 2012; 108:1933-41. [PMID: 22773779 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01159.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
During human locomotion, cutaneous reflexes have been suggested to function to preserve balance. Specifically, cutaneous reflexes in the contralateral leg's muscles (with respect to the stimulus) were suggested to play an important role in maintaining stability during locomotor tasks where stability is threatened. We used backward walking (BW) as a paradigm to induce unstable gait and analyzed the cutaneous reflex activity in both ipsilateral and contralateral lower limb muscles after stimulation of the sural nerve at different phases of the gait cycle. In BW, the tibialis anterior (TA) reflex activity in the contralateral leg was markedly higher than TA background EMG activity during its stance phase. In addition, in BW a substantial reflex suppression was observed in the ipsilateral biceps femoris during the stance-swing transition in some participants, while for medial gastrocnemius the reflex activity was equal to background activity in both legs. To test whether the pronounced crossed responses in TA could be related to instability, the responses were correlated with measures of stability (short-term maximum Lyapunov exponents and step width). These measures were higher for BW compared with forward walking, indicating that BW is less stable. However, there was no significant correlation between these measures and the amplitude of the crossed TA responses in BW. It is therefore proposed that these crossed responses are related to an attempt to briefly slow down (TA decelerates the center of mass in the single-stance period) in the light of unexpected perturbations, such as provided by the sural nerve stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter Hoogkamer
- Motor Control Laboratory, Research Center for Movement Control and Neuroplasticity, Department of Kinesiology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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