Properties of miniature glutamatergic EPSCs in neurons of the locomotor regions of the developing zebrafish

Whole-genome resequencing reveals genetic diversity and selection signals in warm temperate and subtropical Sillago sinica populations

BACKGROUND

Genetic diversity and heterogeneous genomic signatures in marine fish populations may result from selection pressures driven by the strong effects of environmental change. Nearshore fishes are often exposed to complex environments and human activities, especially those with small ranges. However, studies on genetic diversity and population selection signals in these species have mostly been based on a relatively small number of genetic markers. As a newly recorded species of Sillaginidae, the population genetics and genomic selection signals of Sillago sinica are fragmented or even absent.

RESULTS

To address this theoretical gap, we performed whole-genome resequencing of 43 S. sinica individuals from Dongying (DY), Qingdao (QD) and Wenzhou (WZ) populations and obtained 4,878,771 high-quality SNPs. Population genetic analysis showed that the genetic diversity of S. sinica populations was low, but the genetic diversity of the WZ population was higher than that of the other two populations. Interestingly, the three populations were not strictly clustered within the group defined by their sampling location but showed an obvious geographic structure signal from the warm temperate to the subtropics. With further analysis, warm-temperate populations exhibited strong selection signals in genomic regions related to nervous system development, sensory function and immune function. However, subtropical populations showed more selective signalling for environmental tolerance and stress signal transduction.

CONCLUSIONS

Genome-wide SNPs provide high-quality data to support genetic studies and localization of selection signals in S. sinica populations. The reduction in genetic diversity may be related to the bottleneck effect. Considering that low genetic diversity leads to reduced environmental adaptability, conservation efforts and genetic diversity monitoring of this species should be increased in the future. Differences in genomic selection signals between warm temperate and subtropical populations may be related to human activities and changes in environmental complexity. This study deepened the understanding of population genetics and genomic selection signatures in nearshore fishes and provided a theoretical basis for exploring the potential mechanisms of genomic variation in marine fishes driven by environmental selection pressures.

Modeling neuromuscular diseases in zebrafish

Neuromuscular diseases are a diverse group of conditions that affect the motor system and present some overlapping as well as distinct clinical manifestations. Although individually rare, the combined prevalence of NMDs is similar to Parkinson's. Over the past decade, new genetic mutations have been discovered through whole exome/genome sequencing, but the pathogenesis of most NMDs remains largely unexplored. Little information on the molecular mechanism governing the progression and development of NMDs accounts for the continual failure of therapies in clinical trials. Different aspects of the diseases are typically investigated using different models from cells to animals. Zebrafish emerges as an excellent model for studying genetics and pathogenesis and for developing therapeutic interventions for most NMDs. In this review, we describe the generation of different zebrafish genetic models mimicking NMDs and how they are used for drug discovery and therapy development.

Expression and Development of TARP γ-4 in Embryonic Zebrafish

Fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the CNS is mediated by the neurotransmitter glutamate, binding to and activating AMPA receptors (AMPARs). AMPARs are known to interact with auxiliary proteins that modulate their behavior. One such family of proteins is the transmembrane AMPAR-related proteins, known as TARPs. Little is known about the role of TARPs during development or about their function in nonmammalian organisms. Here, we report on the presence of TARP γ-4 in developing zebrafish. We find that zebrafish express 2 forms of TARP γ-4: γ-4a and γ-4b as early as 12 h post-fertilization. Sequence analysis shows that both γ-4a and γ-4b shows great level of variation particularly in the intracellular C-terminal domain compared to rat, mouse, and human γ-4. RT-qPCR showed a gradual increase in the expression of γ-4a throughout the first 5 days of development, whereas γ-4b levels were constant until day 5 when levels increased significantly. Knockdown of TARP γ-4a and γ-4b via either splice-blocking morpholinos or translation-blocking morpholinos resulted in embryos that exhibited deficits in C-start escape responses, showing reduced C-bend angles. Morphant larvae displayed reduced bouts of swimming. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of AMPAR-mediated currents from Mauthner cells showed a reduction in the frequency of mEPCs but no change in amplitude or kinetics. Together, these results suggest that γ-4a and γ-4b are required for proper neuronal development.

Pericardial Injection of Kainic Acid Induces a Chronic Epileptic State in Larval Zebrafish

Epilepsy is a common disorder of the brain characterized by spontaneous recurrent seizures, which develop gradually during a process called epileptogenesis. The mechanistic processes underlying the changes of brain tissue and networks toward increased seizure susceptibility are not fully understood. In rodents, injection of kainic acid (KA) ultimately leads to the development of spontaneous epileptic seizures, reflecting similar neuropathological characteristics as seen in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Although this model has significantly contributed to increased knowledge of epileptogenesis, it is technically demanding, costly to operate and hence not suitable for high-throughput screening of anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs). Zebrafish, a vertebrate with complementary advantages to rodents, is an established animal model for epilepsy research. Here, we generated a novel KA-induced epilepsy model in zebrafish larvae that we functionally and pharmacologically validated. KA was administered by pericardial injection at an early zebrafish larval stage. The epileptic phenotype induced was examined by quantification of seizure-like behavior using automated video recording, and of epileptiform brain activity measured via local field potential (LFP) recordings. We also assessed GFP-labeled GABAergic and RFP-labeled glutamatergic neurons in double transgenic KA-injected zebrafish larvae, and examined the GABA and glutamate levels in the larval heads by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry detection (LC-MS/MS). Finally, KA-injected larvae were exposed to five commonly used AEDs by immersion for pharmacological characterization of the model. Shortly after injection, KA induced a massive damage and inflammation in the zebrafish brain and seizure-like locomotor behavior. An abnormal reorganization of brain circuits was observed, a decrease in both GABAergic and glutamatergic neuronal population and their associated neurotransmitters. Importantly, these changes were accompanied by spontaneous and continuous epileptiform brain discharges starting after a short latency period, as seen in KA rodent models and reminiscent of human pathology. Three out of five AEDs tested rescued LFP abnormalities but did not affect the seizure-like behavior. Taken together, for the first time we describe a chemically-induced larval zebrafish epilepsy model offering unique insights into studying epileptogenic processes in vivo and suitable for high-throughput AED screening purposes and rapid genetic investigations.

Augmentation of spinal cord glutamatergic synaptic currents in zebrafish primary motoneurons expressing mutant human TARDBP (TDP-43)

Though there is compelling evidence that de-innervation of neuromuscular junctions (NMJ) occurs early in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), defects arising at synapses in the spinal cord remain incompletely understood. To investigate spinal cord synaptic dysfunction, we took advantage of a zebrafish larval model and expressed either wild type human TARDBP (wtTARDBP) or the ALS-causing G348C variant (mutTARDBP). The larval zebrafish is ideally suited to examine synaptic connectivity between descending populations of neurons and spinal cord motoneurons as a fully intact spinal cord is preserved during experimentation. Here we provide evidence that the tail-beat motor pattern is reduced in both frequency and duration in larvae expressing mutTARDBP. In addition, we report that motor-related synaptic depolarizations in primary motoneurons of the spinal cord are shorter in duration and fewer action potentials are evoked in larvae expressing mutTARDBP. To more thoroughly examine spinal cord synaptic dysfunction in our ALS model, we isolated AMPA/kainate-mediated glutamatergic miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents in primary motoneurons and found that in addition to displaying a larger amplitude, the frequency of quantal events was higher in larvae expressing mutTARDBP when compared to larvae expressing wtTARDBP. In a final series of experiments, we optogenetically drove neuronal activity in the hindbrain and spinal cord population of descending ipsilateral glutamatergic interneurons (expressing Chx10) using the Gal4-UAS system and found that larvae expressing mutTARDBP displayed abnormal tail-beat patterns in response to optogenetic stimuli and augmented synaptic connectivity with motoneurons. These findings indicate that expression of mutTARDBP results in functionally altered glutamatergic synapses in the spinal cord.

Effects of acute waterborne exposure to harmful algal toxin domoic acid on foraging and swimming behaviours of fish early stages

Domoic acid (DA) is a neurotoxin naturally produced by Pseudo-nitzschia diatoms that may be transferred through the marine food web and cause mass mortality events at higher trophic levels. Yet, the effects of the dissolved marine toxin on foraging responses and swimming performances of fish early stages are poorly known. Here we evaluated the effects of short-term exposure (24 h) to a single dose of domoic acid (136 μg DA L^-1) on larvae (15-20 days post-hatch) of three commercially important fish species (the sea breams Diplodus sargus and Sparus aurata and the meagre Argyrosomus regius). Although DA exposure did not elicit significant effects on larval survival (p > 0.05) and swimming performance (p > 0.05), the toxin significantly affected the fish capture success (p < 0.001). Our findings suggest that toxigenic Pseudo-nitzschia blooms may compromise fish early stages, in particular larvae feeding behaviours, leading to complications in the development and increasing fish vulnerability and mortality.

Zebrafish TARP Cacng2 is required for the expression and normal development of AMPA receptors at excitatory synapses

Fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the CNS is mediated by the neurotransmitter glutamate, binding to and activating AMPA receptors (AMPARs). AMPARs are known to interact with auxiliary proteins that modulate their behavior. One such family of proteins is the transmembrane AMPA receptor-related proteins, known as TARPs. Little is known about the role of TARPs during development, or about their function in non-mammalian organisms. Here we report the presence of TARPs, specifically the prototypical TARP, stargazin, in developing zebrafish. We find that zebrafish express two forms of stargazin, Cacng2a and Cacng2b from as early as 12-h post fertilization (hpf). Knockdown of Cacng2a and Cacng2b via splice-blocking morpholinos resulted in embryos that exhibited deficits in C-start escape responses, showing reduced C-bend angles, smaller tail velocities and aberrant C-bend turning directions. Injection of the morphants with Cacng2a or 2b mRNA rescued the morphological phenotype and the synaptic deficits. To investigate the effect of reduced Cacng2a and 2b levels on synaptic physiology, we performed whole cell patch clamp recordings of AMPA mEPSCs from zebrafish Mauthner cells. Knockdown of Cacng2a results in reduced AMPA currents and lower mEPSC frequencies, whereas knockdown of Cacng2b displayed no significant change in mEPSC amplitude or frequency. Non-stationary fluctuation analysis confirmed a reduction in the number of active synaptic receptors in the Cacng2a but not in the Cacng2b morphants. Together, these results suggest that Cacng2a is required for normal trafficking and function of synaptic AMPARs, while Cacng2b is largely non-functional with respect to the development of AMPA synaptic transmission.

Ethanol exposure during gastrulation alters neuronal morphology and behavior in zebrafish

Ethanol (EtOH) exposure during development has been shown to lead to deficits in fine and gross motor control. In this study we used zebrafish embryos to determine the effects of EtOH treatment during gastrulation. We treated embryos in the gastrulation stage (5.25 hours post fertilization (hpf) to 10.75 hpf) with 10 mM, 50 mM or 100 mM EtOH and examined the effects on general animal morphology, the c-start reflex behavior, Mauthner cell (M-cell) morphology and motor neuron morphology. EtOH treated fish exhibited a minor but significant increase in gross morphological deformities compared with untreated fish. Behavioral studies showed that EtOH treatment resulted in an increase in the peak speed of the tail during the escape response. Furthermore, there was a marked increase in abnormally directed c-starts, with treated fish showing greater incidences of c-starts in inappropriate directions. Immunolabeling of the M-cells, which are born during gastrulation, revealed that they were significantly smaller in fish treated with 100 mM EtOH compared with controls. Immunolabeling of primary motor neurons using anti-znp1, showed no significant effect on axonal branching, whereas secondary motor axons had a greater number of branches in ethanol treated fish compared with controls. Together these findings indicate that ethanol exposure during gastrulation can lead to alterations in behavior, neuronal morphology and possibly function.

Sensory gating of an embryonic zebrafish interneuron during spontaneous motor behaviors

In all but the simplest monosynaptic reflex arcs, sensory stimuli are encoded by sensory neurons that transmit a signal via sensory interneurons to downstream partners in order to elicit a response. In the embryonic zebrafish (Danio rerio), cutaneous Rohon-Beard (RB) sensory neurons fire in response to mechanical stimuli and excite downstream glutamatergic commissural primary ascending (CoPA) interneurons to produce a flexion response contralateral to the site of stimulus. In the absence of sensory stimuli, zebrafish spinal locomotor circuits are spontaneously active during development due to pacemaker activity resulting in repetitive coiling of the trunk. Self-generated movement must therefore be distinguishable from external stimuli in order to ensure the appropriate activation of touch reflexes. Here, we recorded from CoPAs during spontaneous and evoked fictive motor behaviors in order to examine how responses to self-movement are gated in sensory interneurons. During spontaneous coiling, CoPAs received glycinergic inputs coincident with contralateral flexions that shunted firing for the duration of the coiling event. Shunting inactivation of CoPAs was caused by a slowly deactivating chloride conductance that resulted in lowered membrane resistance and increased action potential threshold. During spontaneous burst swimming, which develops later, CoPAs received glycinergic inputs that arrived in phase with excitation to ipsilateral motoneurons and provided persistent shunting. During a touch stimulus, short latency glutamatergic inputs produced cationic currents through AMPA receptors that drove a single, large amplitude action potential in the CoPA before shunting inhibition began, providing a brief window for the activation of downstream neurons. We compared the properties of CoPAs to those of other spinal neurons and propose that glycinergic signaling onto CoPAs acts as a corollary discharge signal for reflex inhibition during movement.

NMDA receptors on zebrafish Mauthner cells require CaMKII-α for normal development

Calcium/calmodulin dependent protein kinase 2 (CaMKII) is a multifunctional protein that is highly enriched in the synapse. It plays important roles in neuronal functions such as synaptic plasticity, synaptogenesis, and neural development. Gene duplication in zebrafish has resulted in the occurrence of seven CaMKII genes (camk2a, camk2b1, camk2b2, camk2g1, camk2g2, camk2d1, and camk2d2) that are developmentally expressed. In this study, we used single cell, real-time quantitative PCR to investigate the expression of CaMKII genes in individual Mauthner cells (M-cells) of 2 days post fertilization (dpf) zebrafish embryos. We found that out of seven different CaMKII genes, only the mRNA for CaMKII-α was expressed in the M-cell at detectable levels, while all other isoforms were undetectable. Morpholino knockdown of CaMKII-α had no significant effect on AMPA synaptic currents (mEPSCs) but decreased the amplitude of NMDA mEPSCs. NMDA events exhibited a biexponential decay with τfast ≈ 30 ms and τslow ≈ 300 ms. Knockdown of CaMKII-α specifically reduced the amplitude of the slow component of the NMDA-mediated currents (mEPSCs), without affecting the fast component, the frequency, or the kinetics of the mEPSCs. Immunolabelling of the M-cell showed increased dendritic arborizations in the morphants compared with controls, and knockdown of CaMKII-α altered locomotor behaviors of touch responses. These results suggest that CaMKII-α is present in embryonic M-cells and that it plays a role in the normal development of excitatory synapses. Our findings pave the way for determining the function of specific CaMKII isoforms during the early stages of M-cell development.

Patch clamp recordings from embryonic zebrafish Mauthner cells

Mauthner cells (M-cells) are large reticulospinal neurons located in the hindbrain of teleost fish. They are key neurons involved in a characteristic behavior known as the C-start or escape response that occurs when the organism perceives a threat. The M-cell has been extensively studied in adult goldfish where it has been shown to receive a wide range of excitatory, inhibitory and neuromodulatory signals¹. We have been examining M-cell activity in embryonic zebrafish in order to study aspects of synaptic development in a vertebrate preparation. In the late 1990s Ali and colleagues developed a preparation for patch clamp recording from M-cells in zebrafish embryos, in which the CNS was largely intact^2,3,4. The objective at that time was to record synaptic activity from hindbrain neurons, spinal cord neurons and trunk skeletal muscle while maintaining functional synaptic connections within an intact brain-spinal cord preparation. This preparation is still used in our laboratory today. To examine the mechanisms underlying developmental synaptic plasticity, we record excitatory (AMPA and NMDA-mediated)^5,6 and inhibitory (GABA and glycine) synaptic currents from developing M-cells. Importantly, this unique preparation allows us to return to the same cell (M-cell) from preparation to preparation to carefully examine synaptic plasticity and neuro-development in an embryonic organism. The benefits provided by this preparation include 1) intact, functional synaptic connections onto the M-cell, 2) relatively inexpensive preparations, 3) a large supply of readily available embryos 4) the ability to return to the same cell type (i.e. M-cell) in every preparation, so that synaptic development at the level of an individual cell can be examined from fish to fish, and 5) imaging of whole preparations due to the transparent nature of the embryos.

Mapping Functional Connectivity between Neuronal Ensembles with Larval Zebrafish Transgenic for a Ratiometric Calcium Indicator

The ability to map functional connectivity is necessary for the study of the flow of activity in neuronal circuits. Optical imaging of calcium indicators, including FRET-based genetically encoded indicators and extrinsic dyes, is an important adjunct to electrophysiology and is widely used to visualize neuronal activity. However, techniques for mapping functional connectivities with calcium imaging data have been lacking. We present a procedure to compute reduced functional couplings between neuronal ensembles undergoing seizure activity from ratiometric calcium imaging data in three steps: (1) calculation of calcium concentrations and neuronal firing rates from ratiometric data; (2) identification of putative neuronal populations from spatio-temporal time-series of neural bursting activity; and then, (3) derivation of reduced connectivity matrices that represent neuronal population interactions. We apply our method to the larval zebrafish central nervous system undergoing chemoconvulsant-induced seizures. These seizures generate propagating, central nervous system-wide neural activity from which population connectivities may be calculated. This automatic functional connectivity mapping procedure provides a practical and user-independent means for summarizing the flow of activity between neuronal ensembles.

Protein kinase Cgamma is a signaling molecule required for the developmental speeding of alpha-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate receptor kinetics

A key step in the maturation of glutamate synapses is the developmental speeding of alpha-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate receptor (AMPA-R) kinetics, which occurs via a switch in receptor subtypes. However, the molecular components required for the switch in receptors are unknown. Here, we used the zebrafish preparation to show that activation of protein kinase C (PKC)gamma is necessary for the developmental speeding of AMPA-R kinetics. Targeted knockdown of PKCgamma with an antisense morpholino oligonucleotide [PKCgamma-morpholino (PKCgamma-MO)], prevents the normal speeding up of AMPA-R kinetics in Mauthner cells. PKCgamma-MO-injected embryos are incapable of trafficking AMPA-Rs following application of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate or PKCgamma. PKCgamma-MO-injected embryos do not hatch or exhibit the C-start escape response. Increasing synaptic activity (33 h post-fertilization embryos) by application of an elevated K(+) medium or by application of N-methyl-D-aspartate induces rapid PKCgamma-dependent trafficking of fast AMPA-Rs to synapses. Our findings reveal that PKCgamma is a molecular link underlying the developmental speeding of AMPA-Rs in zebrafish Mauthner cells.

Glutamate drives the touch response through a rostral loop in the spinal cord of zebrafish embryos

Characterizing connectivity in the spinal cord of zebrafish embryos is not only prerequisite to understanding the development of locomotion, but is also necessary for maximizing the potential of genetic studies of circuit formation in this model system. During their first day of development, zebrafish embryos show two simple motor behaviors. First, they coil their trunks spontaneously, and a few hours later they start responding to touch with contralateral coils. These behaviors are contemporaneous until spontaneous coils become infrequent by 30 h. Glutamatergic neurons are distributed throughout the embryonic spinal cord, but their contribution to these early motor behaviors in immature zebrafish is still unclear. We demonstrate that the kinetics of spontaneous coiling and touch-evoked responses show distinct developmental time courses and that the touch response is dependent on AMPA-type glutamate receptor activation. Transection experiments suggest that the circuits required for touch-evoked responses are confined to the spinal cord and that only the most rostral part of the spinal cord is sufficient for triggering the full response. This rostral sensory connection is presumably established via CoPA interneurons, as they project to the rostral spinal cord. Electrophysiological analysis demonstrates that these neurons receive short latency AMPA-type glutamatergic inputs in response to ipsilateral tactile stimuli. We conclude that touch responses in early embryonic zebrafish arise only after glutamatergic synapses connect sensory neurons and interneurons to the contralateral motor network via a rostral loop. This helps define an elementary circuit that is modified by the addition of sensory inputs, resulting in behavioral transformation.

PKCgamma-induced trafficking of AMPA receptors in embryonic zebrafish depends on NSF and PICK1

The trafficking of AMPA receptors (Rs) to and from synaptic membranes is a key component underlying synaptic plasticity mechanisms such as long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), and is likely important for synaptic development in embryonic organisms. However, some of the key biochemical components required for receptor trafficking in embryos are still unknown. Here, we report that in embryonic zebrafish, the activation of PKCgamma by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, strongly potentiates the amplitude of AMPAR-mediated miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (AMPA-mEPSCs) via a N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion (NSF) and protein interacting with C-kinase-1 (PICK1)-dependent process. We found that the mEPSC potentiation is DAG- and Ca(2+)-dependent, and occurs on application of active PKCgamma. Peptides that prevent the association of NSF and PICK1 with the GluR2 subunit, and the actin-polymerization blocker, latrunculin B, prevented the increase in mEPSC amplitude. Also, application of tetanus toxin (TeTx), which cleaves SNARE proteins, also blocked the increase in mEPSC amplitude. Last, application of a 5 mM K(+) medium led to an enhancement in mEPSC amplitude that was prevented by addition of the PKCgamma and NSF-blocking peptides, and the NMDA receptor blocker, 2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV). Thus, activation of PKCgamma is necessary for the activity-dependent trafficking of AMPARs in embryonic zebrafish. This process is NMDA and SNARE-dependent and requires AMPARs to associate with both NSF and PICK1. The present data further our understanding of AMPAR trafficking, and have important implications for synaptic development and synaptic plasticity.

Expression of the eight AMPA receptor subunit genes in the developing central nervous system and sensory organs of zebrafish

The AMPA type glutamate receptors mediate the majority of fast synaptic transmission in the vertebrate nervous system. Whereas mammals have four subunit genes, Gria1-4, zebrafish has retained a duplicated set of eight genes named gria1-4a and b. We give here a detailed overview of the expression patterns of all eight zebrafish subunits within the developing central nervous system and sensory organs at 24, 48, and 72 hr after fertilization. Expression domains include distinct neuronal subsets in the developing forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord, as well as in the ganglion- and inner nuclear layers of the retina. As a general rule, each pair of duplicated gria genes is differentially expressed, indicating subfunctionalization of AMPA receptor subunit expression in the teleost lineage. Our findings suggest that zebrafish can serve as a useful model system to investigate the role of AMPA receptors and their differential expression in the vertebrate nervous system.

Zebrafish: An in vivo model for the study of neurological diseases

As the population ages, there is a growing need for effective therapies for the treatment of neurological diseases. A limited number of therapeutics are currently available to improve cognitive function and research is limited by the need for in vivo models. Zebrafish have recently become a focus of neurobehavioral studies since larvae display neuropathological and behavioral phenotypes that are quantifiable and relate to those seen in man. Due to the small size of Zebrafish larvae, assays can be undertaken in 96 well plates and as the larvae can live in as little as 200 mul of fluid, only a few milligrams of compound are needed for screening. Thus in vivo analysis of the effects of compounds can be undertaken at much earlier stages in the drug discovery process. This review will look at the utility of the zebrafish in the study of neurological diseases and its role in improving the throughput of candidate compounds in in vivo screens.

Zebrafish: a predictive model for assessing drug-induced toxicity

The zebrafish model organism is increasingly used for assessing drug toxicity and safety and numerous studies confirm that mammalian and zebrafish toxicity profiles are strikingly similar. This transparent vertebrate offers several compelling experimental advantages, including convenient drug delivery and low cost. Although full validation will require assessment of a large number of compounds from diverse classes, zebrafish can be used to eliminate potentially unsafe compounds rapidly in the early stages of drug development and to prioritize compounds for further preclinical and clinical studies. Adaptation of conventional instrumentation combined with new nanotechnology developments will continue to expand use of zebrafish for drug screening.

AMPA receptors associated with zebrafish Mauthner cells switch subunits during development

Glutamate AMPA receptors (AMPARs) are major excitatory receptors in the vertebrate CNS. In many biological systems there is a developmental speeding in AMPAR kinetics, which occurs either because of a switch in AMPAR subunits or a change in synaptic morphology. We studied the development of AMPAR-mediated miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (AMPAR-mEPSCs) in zebrafish Mauthner cells (M-cells) to determine the reasons underlying the speeding of AMPA mEPSCs in this preparation. We recorded AMPAR-mEPSCs in zebrafish ranging in age from 33 h postfertilization (hpf) to 72 hpf. We found that the glutamate waveform in the synaptic cleft did not change during development, suggesting that synaptic morphology played little role in shaping the mEPSC. The current-voltage (I-V) relationship was linear at 33 hpf and outwardly rectified in older animals, while AMPAR decay kinetics were slower at positive potentials, compared with negative potentials. The relative change in tau with depolarization was found to be greater at 48 hpf than at 33 hpf. AMPARs in 33 hpf fish had a conductance of approximately 9 pS, and in older fish approximately 15 pS. Finally, the desensitization blocker, cyclothiazide, increased tau by approximately 4-fold in 48 hpf preparations, but only 1.5-fold in 33 hpf fish. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the major mechanism underlying the developmental speeding in AMPAR kinetics in zebrafish CNS is a switch in receptor subunits. To our knowledge this is the first study to suggest that AMPARs change subunits during development in fish.

Neurotoxicity assessment using zebrafish

INTRODUCTION

Transparency is a unique attribute of zebrafish that permits direct assessment of drug effects on the nervous system using whole mount antibody immunostaining and histochemistry.

METHODS

To assess pharmacological effects of drugs on the optic nerves, motor neurons, and dopaminergic neurons, we performed whole mount immunostaining and visualized different neuronal cell types in vivo. In addition, we assessed neuronal apoptosis, proliferation, oxidation and the integrity of the myelin sheath using TUNEL staining, immunostaining and in situ hybridization. The number of dopaminergic neurons was examined and morphometric analysis was performed to quantify the staining signals for myelin basic protein and apoptosis.

RESULTS

We showed that compounds that induce neurotoxicity in humans caused similar neurotoxicity in zebrafish. For example, ethanol induced defects in optic nerves and motor neurons and affected neuronal proliferation; 6-hydroxydopamine caused neuronal oxidation and dopaminergic neuron loss; acrylamide induced demyelination; taxol, neomycin, TCDD and retinoic acid induced neuronal apoptosis.

DISCUSSION

Effects of drug treatment on different neurons can easily be visually assessed and quantified in intact animals. These results support the use of zebrafish as a predictive model for assessing neurotoxicity.

Embryonic expression of zebrafish AMPA receptor genes: Zygotic gria2α expression initiates at the midblastula transition

The AMPA-preferring receptors (AMPARs) mediate rapid excitatory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system of vertebrates. Expression profiles of 8 AMPAR genes were studied by RT-PCR analyses to elucidate the properties of AMPARs during early zebrafish development. Transcripts of all AMPAR genes are detected at the time of fertilization, suggesting maternal transcriptions of zebrafish AMPAR genes. The amounts of gria1 and gria2 transcripts are several-fold higher than that of gria3 and gria4 between 10 and 72 hpf (hour postfertilization). The edited gria2alpha transcript decreases during gastrulation period, suggesting that zygotic expression of gria2alpha begins around the time of midblastula transition. Relative to the amount of beta-actin, the amounts of AMPAR transcripts increase significantly after the completion of neurulation. The amounts of gria2 transcripts exceed the total amounts of the remaining AMPAR transcripts after 36 hpf, suggesting increases in the representation of low Ca2+ permeable AMPARs during neuronal maturation. Many but not all of the known mammalian protein-protein interaction motifs are preserved in the C-terminal domains (CTD) of zebrafish AMPARs. Before 16 hpf, the embryos express predominantly the alternative splice forms encoding longer CTD. Representations of the short CTD splice forms of gria2 and gria4alpha increase after 24 hpf, when neurulation is nearly completed.

Development of ionic currents of zebrafish slow and fast skeletal muscle fibers

Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels play key roles in the excitability of skeletal muscle fibers. In this study we investigated the steady-state and kinetic properties of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ currents of slow and fast skeletal muscle fibers in zebrafish ranging in age from 1 day postfertilization (dpf) to 4-6 dpf. The inner white (fast) fibers possess an A-type inactivating K+ current that increases in peak current density and accelerates its rise and decay times during development. As the muscle matured, the V50s of activation and inactivation of the A-type current became more depolarized, and then hyperpolarized again in older animals. The activation kinetics of the delayed outward K+ current in red (slow) fibers accelerated within the first week of development. The tail currents of the outward K+ currents were too small to allow an accurate determination of the V50s of activation. Red fibers did not show any evidence of inward Na+ currents; however, white fibers expressed Na+ currents that increased their peak current density, accelerated their inactivation kinetics, and hyperpolarized their V50 of inactivation during development. The action potentials of white fibers exhibited significant changes in the threshold voltage and the half width. These findings indicate that there are significant differences in the ionic current profiles between the red and white fibers and that a number of changes occur in the steady-state and kinetic properties of Na+ and K+ currents of developing zebrafish skeletal muscle fibers, with the most dramatic changes occurring around the end of the first day following egg fertilization.

NMDA receptor-dependent long-term potentiation in the telencephalon of the zebrafish

In Mg2+ -free aCSF, bursting discharges were induced in the posterior telencephalon of zebrafish following an electrical stimulation of the anterior telencephalon. The bursting discharges were partially reduced by CNQX (10 microM), an AMPA receptor antagonist, and the remaining activity was completely blocked by an additional treatment of APV (50 microM), an NMDA receptor antagonist. Long-term potentiation that lasted more than 1 h was also induced after 20 min of perfusion with KCl (10 mM). The degree of KCl-induced long-term potentiation (K-LTP) was reduced when a concomitant electrical stimulation was not delivered during a KCl perfusion. K-LTP was blocked by APV (50 microM) but not by nifedipine (1 microM), an L-type Ca2+ channel blocker. Furthermore, K-LTP was not induced in the presence of a broad spectrum inhibitor for protein kinases, H-7 (10 microM). These results suggest that NMDA receptors and protein kinases play important roles in the synaptic plasticity of the zebrafish brain.

Steps during the development of the zebrafish locomotor network

This review summarizes recent data from our lab concerning the development of motor activities in the developing zebrafish. The zebrafish is a leading model for studies of vertebrate development because one can obtain a large number of transparent, externally and rapidly developing embryos with motor behaviors that are easy to assess (e.g. for mutagenic screens). The emergence of embryonic motility was studied behaviorally and at the cellular level. The embryonic behaviors appear sequentially and include an early, transient period of spontaneous, alternating tail coilings, followed by responses to touch, and swimming. Patch clamp recording in vivo revealed that an electrically coupled network of a subset of spinal neurons generates spontaneous tail coiling, whereas a chemical (glutamatergic and glycinergic) synaptic drive underlies touch responses and swimming and requires input from the hindbrain. Swimming becomes sustained in larvae once serotonergic neuromodulatory effects are integrated. We end with a brief overview of the genetic tools available for the study of the molecular determinants implicated in locomotor network development in the zebrafish. Combining genetic, behavioral and cellular experimental approaches will advance our understanding of the general principles of locomotor network assembly and function.

Activation of Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors on Peripheral Axons of Primary Motoneurons Mediates Transmitter Release at the Zebrafish NMJ

The development and function of the vertebrate neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is continually being redefined. Previous studies have indicated that glutamate may play a role in the development or function of the NMJ by associating with presynaptic receptors. We have used larval zebrafish ( Danio rerio) to investigate the presence of presynaptic ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) at the NMJ in vivo. In whole-mount zebrafish larvae, antibody staining directed to NR2A subunits colocalized with specific staining of motoneuron axon tracts. Whole cell voltage-clamp recordings of miniature endplate currents (mEPCs) from axial white muscle were performed during application of iGluR agonists and antagonists. Local perfusion of the NMJ with iGluR agonists resulted in significant increases in the frequency of spontaneous acetylcholine (ACh) release. These increases were blocked by the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist d-(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (50 μM) and by the non-NMDA receptor antagonist 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxalene-2,3-dione (50 μM). Further pharmacological investigation revealed no effect of the kainate receptor-specific antagonist (2S,4R)-4-methylglutamate (10 μM) on kainate-induced rises in the frequency of spontaneous ACh release. However, these were blocked with the AMPA receptor-specific antagonist 1-(4-aminophenyl)-4-methyl-7,8-methylenedioxy-5H-2,3-benzodiazepine (50 μM). Application of glutamate (1 mM) in the presence of the glutamate uptake inhibitor d-threo-β-benzyloxyaspartate(200 μM) resulted in a significant increase in the frequency of mEPCs. These results suggest the presence of AMPA and NMDA receptors in association with motoneuron axons of larval zebrafish.

Membrane properties related to the firing behavior of zebrafish motoneurons

The physiological and pharmacological properties of the motoneuron membrane and action potential were investigated in larval zebrafish using whole cell patch current-clamp recording techniques. Action potentials were eliminated in tetrodotoxin, repolarized by tetraethylammonium (TEA) and 3,4-diaminopyridine (3,4-AP)-sensitive potassium conductances, and had a cobalt-sensitive, high-threshold calcium component. Depolarizing current injection evoked a brief (approximately 10-30 ms) burst of action potentials that was terminated by strong, outwardly rectifying voltage-activated potassium and calcium-dependent conductances. In the presence of intracellular cesium ions, a prolonged plateau potential often followed brief depolarizations. During larval development (hatching to free-swimming), the resting membrane conductance increased in a population of motoneurons, which tended to reduce the apparent outward rectification of the membrane. The conductances contributing to action potential burst termination are hypothesized to play a role in patterning the synaptically driven motoneuron output in these rapidly swimming fish.

Excitatory amino acid receptors of the electrosensory system: the NR1/NR2B N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor

The amino acid sequence of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunit NR2B from the brown ghost knife fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus has been determined and compared with the sequence of the murine NR2B. This comparison revealed high levels of sequence conservation throughout the ligand binding and membrane spanning segments. The functional properties of the NR1 and NR2B receptor complex were examined by coexpression in HEK cells. The recombinant AptNR1/NR2B receptors produced robust currents after stimulation with glutamate or NMDA in the presence of glycine. Measurements of the concentration dependencies for these agonists indicated that the agonist binding sites on the apteronotid receptor are highly conserved, with nearly identical agonist affinities to those of the murine NR1/NR2B receptor. The kinetic responses of the fish receptor were also highly conserved, with deactivation rates for the AptNR2B receptor matching those of the murine NR2B containing receptor. Evidently, most of the unique functional properties that reside in the NR2B receptor subunit have been well conserved in teleost NMDA receptors. On the other hand, the apteronitid receptor displayed a lowered sensitivity to voltage-dependent Mg(2+) block and a reduced affinity for the NR2B-specific noncompetitive antagonist ifenprodil. We conclude that the functional properties that result from the incorporation of the NR2B receptor in the NMDA receptor complex have been maintained since the evolutionary divergence of teleost and mammalian organisms.

Pharmacological characterization of ionotropic glutamate receptors in the zebrafish olfactory bulb

The distribution of N-methyl-D-aspartate- (NMDA) and kainic acid- (KA) sensitive ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluR) in the zebrafish olfactory bulb was assessed using an activity-dependent labeling method. Olfactory bulbs were incubated with an ion channel permeant probe, agmatine (AGB), and iGluR agonists in vitro, and the labeled neurons containing AGB were visualized immunocytochemically. Preparations exposed to 250 microM KA in the presence of a NMDA receptor antagonist (D-2-amino-5-phosphono-valeric acid) and an alpha-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptor antagonist (sym 2206), revealed KA receptor-mediated labeling of approximately 60-70% of mitral cells, juxtaglomerular cells, tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells and granule cells. A higher proportion of ventral olfactory bulb neurons were KA-sensitive. Application of 333 microM NMDA in the presence of an AMPA/KA receptor antagonist (6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione) resulted in NMDA receptor-mediated labeling of almost all neurons. The concentrations eliciting 50% of the maximal response (effective concentration: EC(50)s) for NMDA-stimulated labeling of different cell types were not significantly different and ranged from 148 microM to 162 microM. These results suggest that while NMDA receptors with similar binding affinities are widely distributed in the neurons of the zebrafish olfactory bulb, KA receptors are heterogeneously expressed among these cells and may serve unique roles in different regions of the olfactory bulb.

Odor-stimulated glutamatergic neurotransmission in the zebrafish olfactory bulb

The role of glutamate as a neurotransmitter in the zebrafish olfactory bulb (OB) was established by examining neuronal activation following 1). glutamate receptor agonist stimulation of isolated olfactory bulbs and 2). odorant stimulation of intact fish. Four groups of neurons (mitral cells, projection neurons; granule cells, juxtaglomerular cells, and tyrosine hydroxylase-containing cells; interneurons) were identified on the basis of cell size, cell location, ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) agonist/odorant sensitivity, and glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity. Immunoreactive glutamate levels were highest in olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) and mitral cells, the putative glutamatergic neurons. The sensitivity of bulbar neurons to iGluR agonists and odorants was established using a cationic channel permeant probe, agmatine (AGB). Agmatine that permeated agonist- or odor-activated iGluRs was fixed in place with glutaraldehyde and detected immunohistochemically. N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) and alpha-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA)/kainic acid (KA) iGluR agonists and odorants (glutamine, taurocholic acid) stimulated activity-dependent labeling of bulbar neurons, which was blocked with a mixture of the iGluR antagonists, D-2-amino-5-phosphono-valeric acid (APV) and 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX). The AMPA/KA antagonist CNQX completely blocked glutamine-stimulated AGB labeling of granule cells and tyrosine hydroxylase-containing cells, suggesting that, in these cell types, AMPA/KA receptor activation is essential for NMDA receptor activation. However, blocking AMPA/KA receptor activity failed to eliminate AGB labeling of mitral cells or juxtaglomerular cells. Collectively, these findings indicate that glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the zebrafish OB and that iGluR subtypes function heterogeneously in the bulbar neurons.

Development of the locomotor network in zebrafish

The zebrafish is a leading model for studies of vertebrate development and genetics. Its embryonic motor behaviors are easy to assess (e.g. for mutagenic screens), the embryos develop rapidly (hatching as larvae at 2 days) and are transparent, permitting calcium imaging and patch clamp recording in vivo. We review primarily the recent advances in understanding the cellular basis for the development of motor activities in the developing zebrafish. The motor activities are generated largely in the spinal cord and hindbrain. In the embryo these segmented structures possess a relatively small number of repeating sets of identifiable neurons. Many types of neurons as well as the two types of muscle cells have been classified based on their morphologies. Some of the molecular signals for cellular differentiation have been identified recently and mutations affecting cell development have been isolated. Embryonic motor behaviors appear in sequence and consist of an early period of transient spontaneous coiling contractions, followed by the emergence of twitching responses to touch, and later by the ability to swim. Coiling contractions are generated by an electrically coupled network of a subset of spinal neurons whereas a chemical (glutamatergic and glycinergic) synaptic drive underlies touch responses and swimming. Swimming becomes sustained in larvae once the neuromodulatory serotonergic system develops. These results indicate many similarities between developing zebrafish and other vertebrates in the properties of the synaptic drive underlying locomotion. Therefore, the zebrafish is a useful preparation for gaining new insights into the development of the neural control of vertebrate locomotion. As the types of neurons, transmitters, receptors and channels used in the locomotor network are being defined, this opens the possibility of combining cellular neurophysiology with forward and reverse molecular genetics to understand the principles of locomotor network assembly and function.

Physiological effects of sustained blockade of excitatory synaptic transmission on spontaneously active developing neuronal networks--an inquiry into the reciprocal linkage between intrinsic biorhythms and neuroplasticity in early ontogeny

Spontaneous bioelectric activity (SBA) taking the form of extracellularly recorded spike trains (SBA) has been quantitatively analyzed in organotypic neonatal rat visual cortex explants at different ages in vitro, and the effects investigated of both short- and long-term pharmacological suppression of glutamatergic synaptic transmission. In the presence of APV, a selective NMDA receptor blocker, 1-2- (but not 3-)week-old cultures recovered their previous SBA levels in a matter of hours, although in imitation of the acute effect of the GABAergic inhibitor picrotoxin (PTX), bursts of action potentials were abnormally short and intense. Cultures treated either overnight or chronically for 1-3 weeks with APV, the AMPA/kainate receptor blocker DNQX, or a combination of the two were found to display very different abnormalities in their firing patterns. NMDA receptor blockade for 3 weeks produced the most severe deviations from control SBA, consisting of greatly prolonged and intensified burst firing with a strong tendency to be broken up into trains of shorter spike clusters. This pattern was most closely approximated by acute GABAergic disinhibition in cultures of the same age, but this latter treatment also differed in several respects from the chronic-APV effect. In 2-week-old explants, in contrast, it was the APV+DNQX treated group which showed the most exaggerated spike bursts. Functional maturation of neocortical networks, therefore, may specifically require NMDA receptor activation (not merely a high level of neuronal firing) which initially is driven by endogenous rather than afferent evoked bioelectric activity. Putative cellular mechanisms are discussed in the context of a thorough review of the extensive but scattered literature relating activity-dependent brain development to spontaneous neuronal firing patterns.

Synchronization of an embryonic network of identified spinal interneurons solely by electrical coupling

There is a need to understand the mechanisms of neural synchronization during development because correlated rhythmic activity is thought to be critical for the establishment of proper connectivity. The relative importance of chemical and electrical synapses for synchronization of electrical activity during development is unclear. We examined the activity patterns of identified spinal neurons at the onset of motor activity in zebrafish embryos. Rhythmic activity appeared early and persisted upon blocking chemical neurotransmission but was abolished by inhibitors of gap junctions. Paired recordings revealed that active spinal neurons were electrically coupled and formed a simple network of motoneurons and a subset of interneurons. Thus, the earliest spinal central pattern generator consists of synchronously active, electrically coupled neurons.

Synaptic drive to motoneurons during fictive swimming in the developing zebrafish

The development of swimming behavior and the correlated activity patterns recorded in motoneurons during fictive swimming in paralyzed zebrafish larvae were examined and compared. Larvae were studied from when they hatch (after 2 days) and are first capable of locomotion to when they are active swimmers capable of capturing prey (after 4 days). High-speed (500 Hz) video imaging was used to make a basic behavioral characterization of swimming. At hatching and up to day 3, the larvae swam infrequently and in an undirected fashion. They displayed sustained bursts of contractions ('burst swimming') at an average frequency of 60-70 Hz that lasted from several seconds to a minute in duration. By day 4 the swimming had matured to a more frequent and less erratic "beat-and-glide" mode, with slower (approximately 35 Hz) beats of contractions for approximately 200 ms alternating with glides that were twice as long, lasting from just a few cycles to several minutes overall. In whole cell current-clamp recordings, motoneurons displayed similar excitatory synaptic activity and firing patterns, corresponding to either fictive burst swimming (day 2-3) or beat-and-glide swimming (day 4). The resting potentials were similar at all stages (about -70 mV) and the motoneurons were depolarized (to about -40 mV) with generally non-overshooting action potentials during fictive swimming. The frequency of sustained inputs during fictive burst swimming and of repetitive inputs during fictive beat-and glide swimming corresponded to the behavioral contraction patterns. Fictive swimming activity patterns were eliminated by application of glutamate antagonists (kynurenic acid or 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxalene-2,3-dione and DL-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid) and were modified but maintained in the presence of the glycinergic antagonist strychnine. The corresponding synaptic currents underlying the synaptic drive to motoneurons during fictive swimming could be isolated under voltage clamp and consisted of cationic [glutamatergic postsynaptic currents (PSCs)] and anionic inputs (glycinergic PSCs). Either sustained or interrupted patterns of PSCs were observed during fictive burst or beat-and-glide swimming, respectively. During beat-and-glide swimming, a tonic inward current and rhythmic glutamatergic PSCs (approximately 35 Hz) were observed. In contrast, bursts of glycinergic PSCs occurred at a higher frequency, resulting in a more tonic pattern with little evidence for synchronized activity. We conclude that a rhythmic glutamatergic synaptic drive underlies swimming and that a tonic, shunting glycinergic input acts to more closely match the membrane time constant to the fast synaptic drive.

Post-Episode Depression of GABAergic Transmission in Spinal Neurons of the Chick Embryo

Whole cell recordings were obtained from ventral horn neurons in spontaneously active spinal cords isolated from the chick embryo [ embryonic days 10 to 11 ( E10–E11)] to examine the post-episode depression of GABAergic transmission. Spontaneous activity occurred as recurrent, rhythmic episodes approximately 60 s in duration with 10- to 15-min quiescent inter-episode intervals. Current-clamp recording revealed that episodes were followed by a transient hyperpolarization (7 ± 1.2 mV, mean ± SE), which dissipated as a slow (0.5–1 mV/min) depolarization until the next episode. Local application of bicuculline 8 min after an episode hyperpolarized spinal neurons by 6 ± 0.8 mV and increased their input resistance by 13%, suggesting the involvement of GABAergic transmission. Gramicidin perforated-patch recordings showed that the GABAa reversal potential was above rest potential ( E GABAa = −29 ± 3 mV) and allowed estimation of the physiological intracellular [Cl−] = 50 mM. In whole cell configuration (with physiological electrode [Cl−]), two distinct types of endogenous GABAergic currents ( I GABAa) were found during the inter-episode interval. The first comprised TTX-resistant, asynchronous miniature postsynaptic currents (mPSCs), an indicator of quantal GABA release (up to 42% of total mPSCs). The second (tonic I GABAa) was complimentary to the slow membrane depolarization and may arise from persistent activation of extrasynaptic GABAa receptors. We estimate that approximately 10 postsynaptic channels are activated by a single quantum of GABA release during an mPSC and that about 30 extrasynaptic GABAa channels are required for generation of the tonic I GABAa in ventral horn neurons. We investigated the post-episode depression of I GABAa by local application of GABA or isoguvacine (100 μM, for 10–30 s) applied before and after an episode at holding potentials ( V hold) −60 mV. The amplitude of the evoked I GABA was compared after clamping the cell during the episode at one of three different V hold: −60 mV, below E GABAa resulting in Cl− efflux; −30 mV, close to E GABAa with minimal Cl− flux; and 0 mV, above E GABAa resulting in Cl− influx during the episode. The amplitude of the evoked I GABA changed according to the direction of Cl− flux during the episode: at −60 mV a 41% decrease, at −30 mV a 4% reduction, and at 0 mV a 19% increase. These post-episode changes were accompanied by shifts of E GABAa of −10, −1.2, and +7 mV, respectively. We conclude that redistribution of intracellular [Cl−] during spontaneous episodes is likely to be an important postsynaptic mechanism involved in the post-episode depression of GABAergic transmission in chick embryo spinal neurons.

Early functional organization of spinal neurons in developing lower vertebrates

The spinal neurons in the embryos and young larvae of two amphibians (Xenopus and Triturus) and two fish (Oryzias and Brachydanio) are described and compared. They can be placed into a limited number of common neuron classes: Rohon-Beard sensory, dorsolateral and dorsolateral commissural sensory interneurons, inhibitory ascending interneurons, two classes of inhibitory commissural interneuron, excitatory descending interneurons, motoneurons and possible sensory Kolmer-Agdhur neurons. In Triturus and other urodeles, there are also giant dorsolateral commissural sensory interneurons. The functions of the spinal neurons in simple flexion responses and swimming are considered in relation to evidence mainly from the Xenopus tadpole.

From egg to action

The development of the neural control circuitry underlying different patterns of behavior is rapidly expanding area of interest in neuroscience. New important insights have been gained over the last few years at different molecular, cellular, network, and behavioral levels. Based primarily on the issues presented in the review articles in this issue, I have added some reflections as to what I find most challenging and important.

Motoneuron activity patterns related to the earliest behavior of the zebrafish embryo

As a first step in the study of the developing motor circuitry of the embryonic zebrafish spinal cord, we obtained patch-clamp recordings in vivo from identified motoneurons in curarized embryos from the onset of the first motor behavior. At an early developmental stage in which embryos showed slow and repetitive spontaneous contractions of the trunk, motoneurons showed periodic depolarizations that triggered rhythmic bursts of action potentials with a frequency and duration that were consistent with those of the spontaneous contractions. The periodic depolarizations were blocked by tetrodotoxin or Cd(2+). Surprisingly, the contractions and periodic depolarizations were insensitive to general blockade of synaptic transmission (by elevated Mg(2+) and reduced Ca(2+), or by Co(2+)) and to selective blockade of the major neurotransmitter receptors of the mature spinal cord (acetylcholine, GABA(A), NMDA, AMPA/kainate, and glycine). The periodic depolarizations were suppressed by heptanol or by intracellular acidification, treatments that are known to uncouple gap junctions, indicating that electrotonic synapses could underlie the earliest motor behavior. A few hours later, most motoneurons already showed a new pattern of repetitive activity consisting of bursts of glycinergic synaptic events, but these were not necessary for the spontaneous contractions. Transecting the spinal cord at the hindbrain border did not affect the rhythmic activity patterns of the motoneurons. We suggest that spontaneous contractions of the zebrafish embryo are mediated by an early spinal circuit that is independent of the main neurotransmitter systems and descending hindbrain projections that are required for locomotion in the mature vertebrate spinal cord.